Biology

replicate

to repeat, to copy, or to duplicate

Chitin

tough carbohydrate that makes up the cell walls of fungi and the exoskeletons of insects and other arthropods

Genes control (determine) ......

trait of an individual

Discrete or discontinuous traits

traits occur in distinct categories: Trait is there or it is not (examples: cystic fibrosis, Huntington's disease) Mendelian inheritance, single genes, complete dominance)

sex-linked traits

traits that are inherited with sex chromosomes, the gene or allele of trait is carried only on the X chromosome, the Y chromosome does not carry allele. The gene or allele controls the trait.

tRNA

transfer RNA = brings amino acids to the ribosome to "transfer" into a protein.

Half of dna comes from your mother and half from your father

true

Style

tube that connects stigma and ovary

Recessive traits show in the phenotype if there are ....

two copies of the gene

Alleles

two forms of a gene (dominant & recessive)

Fertilization

two gametes unite forming a fertilized egg called a zygote

Active Immunity

type of immunity produced by the body's reaction to a vaccine or by fighting a disease (made by individual) vaccination-injecting a weakened or mild form of a pathogen to produce immunity.

Passive Immunity

type of immunity produced when antibodies made by another animal are injected into the blood. Ex: mom can pass antibodies onto her baby in milk (not made by individual).

The enzyme remain _________________, and can be use again.

unchanged during the reaction

Gymnosperms have .....

vascular tissue

xylem

vascular tissue that carries water upward from the roots to every part of a plant

phloem

vascular tissue that move nutrients down from the leaves

Vein contains

vascular tissue: xylem, pholoem

DNA is a .....

very long chain polymer made up of thousands of repeating units called nucleotides

This cause disease such as Smallpox, measles, mononucleosis, influenza, colds, warts, AIDS, Ebola and may cause some cancers like leukemia

viruses

Insertion

when a base is added to a strand

Deletion

when a base is removed

Duplication

when a base or sequence of bases is repeated

Parts of a Light Microscope

▪Neck, body tube ▪Nose Piece ▪4x low power objective ▪10x med power objective ▪40x high power objective ▪Stage clip ▪Diaphram ▪Light Source ▪Ocular len, eyepiece ▪Arm ▪Stage ▪Coar adjustment knob ▪Find adujustment knob ▪Base

Anaphase

▫️ 3rd step in Mitosis ▫️ Chromatids (sister chromatids) that make up the chromosome separate and begin to move to opposite ends of the cell

Cytokinesis

▫️ At the end of M Phase, we have two genetically identical daughter cells. ▫️Cell membrane pinches inward to create two daughter cells - each with its own nucleus with identical chromosomes ▫️The point at which the membrane pinches is called the cleavage furrow. ▫️Plant do it different- the cell form a cell plate to divide the two new daughter cells

Mitosis

▫️ produces somatic cells (body cells) ▫️ 1 diploid cell makes 2 diploid cells ▫️Interphase happens before mitosis (copy DNA) ▫️Stages of Mitosis 1. Prophase chromosomes visible, spindle fibers attach 2. Metaphase chromosomes lined up in center 3. Anaphase chromatids separate at the centromere 4. Telophase nucleus reforms, chromosomes spread out Cytokinesis happens after mitosis

Prophase

▫️1st step in Mitosis ▫️Chromosomes become visible ▫️ Nucleus begins to disappear ▫️Nuclear membrance dissolves ▫️Centrioles appear and begin to move to opposite end of the cell, they produce the spindle fibers ▫️Spindle fibers form between the poles. Spindle fibers will attach to the chromosomes to separate them into the new cells.

Metaphase

▫️2nd step in Mitosis ▫️Chromosomes line up in the center of the cell ▫️Centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell ▫️Spindle fibers attach to the centromere of each chromosome

Telophase

▫️4th step in Mitosis ▫️ Two new nuclei form around the chromatids at each end of the cell.

Plant-like Protists

▫️Algae, seaweed, kelp, euglena, volvox ▫️Classified by pigment color ▫️Divided into groups by pigment color: Phylum Euglenophyta Phylum Dinoflagellata Phylum Heterokontophyta Phylum Chlorophlta

Organic

▫️Always contain carbon ▫️Most contain carbon-hydrogen bonds ▫️Associated with living organisms

Protists are divided into 3 groups

▫️Animal-like ▫️Plant-like ▫️Fungus-like

Things that invade our bodies ...

▫️Antigen ▫️Pathogen

Some viruses ...

▫️Are enclosed in an protective envelope ▫️May have spikes to help attach to the host cell

5 Main Hormones in plants that cause them to react to stimuli

▫️Auxins ▫️Gibberellins ▫️Ethylene ▫️Cytokinins ▫️Abscisic acid

Homeostasis

▫️Balanced internal condition of cells.

Characteristics of Stem Cells

▫️Blank cell (unspecialized) ▫️ Capable of dividing and renewing themselves for long periods of time. ▫️Have potential to give rise to specialized cell types (differentiation)

4 Classes Of Biomolecules

▫️Carbohydrates ▫️Lipids ▫️Proteins ▫️Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids Function

▫️Carry genetic information (heredity) ▫️Carry instructions for producing proteins

Enzymes can be turn off or inactive by.........

▫️Change in temperature and ph Enzymes fuction best at an optimum (best, ideal, most favorable) temperature or ph range. Any change outside the optimum range will cause the enzyme to not function.

Characteristics of Retroviruses

▫️Contain RNA, not DNA ▫️When a retrovirus infects a cell, it injects its RNA and reverse transcriptase enzyme into the cytoplasm of that cell

Uses of DNA Technology

▫️DNA Fingerprint ▫️Cloning ▫️Transgenic Organisms (Genetically Modified Organisms)

Pistils

▫️Female structure of the flower ▫️Grow into fruits which contains the seeds ▫️stigma, style, ovary

Bases

▫️Fewer H+ ions than water ▫️Ph above 7 ▫️Strongest Ph 14 ▫️Weakest Ph 8 ▫️Taste bitter

Acids

▫️Has more H+ ions than water ▫️Ph below 7 ▫️Strongest Ph 0 ▫️Weakest Ph 6 ▫️Taste sour ▫️Acidic foods are common cause of heart burn

Monocots

▫️Have one cotyledon (seed leaf) ▫️Have parallel veins in leaves ▫️Have petals and flower parts in multiples of three

Dicots

▫️Have two cotyledons (seed leaf) ▫️Have branching veins in leaves ▫️Have petals and flowers parts in multiples of four or five

Viruses come in a variety of shapes

▫️Helical shapes (like the Ebola virus) ▫️Polyhedral shapes (like the influenza virus ) ▫️Complex shapes (like bacteriophages )

Climate Change and Global Warming

▫️Increased amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels and cutting down trees have increased global temperatures. Carbon Dioxide is a greenhouse gas, which means that it traps heat in our atmosphere. ▫️Deforestation & burning fuels- Increases CO2 levels; Climate Change (increase CO2 = greenhouse effect > global warming) Effects ▫️Unusually warm yearly temperatures ▫️Decreased rainfall / Severe droughts ▫️Rise in sea level because of melting glaciers ▫️Migration of optimal crop zones ▫️Changes in global weather patterns

Results of Monohybrid Crosses

▫️Inheritable factors or genes are responsible for all heritable characteristics ▫️Phenotype is based on Genotype ▫️Each trait is based on two genes, one from the mother and the other from the father ▫️True-breeding individuals are homozygous ( both alleles) are the same

Lipids function

▫️Insulate our bodies ▫️Protect our bodies ▫️Give us long term energy storge ▫️Make up cell membranes

4 Types of Microscopes

▫️Light Microscope ▫️Stereoscope Electron Microscope ▫️Scanning Electron Microscope ▫️Transmission Electron Microscope

Stamens

▫️Male structure ▫️Produce pollen ▫️anther, filament, pollen

Bacterial Structure

▫️Microscopic, prokaryotes, No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, Contain ribosomes, Single, circular chromosome in nucleoid region. ▫️Protection Cell Wall made of Peptidoglycan, May have a sticky coating called the Capsule for attachment to host or other bacteria ▫️ Have small rings of DNA called Plasmids, Unicellular, Small in size (0.5 to 2μm) PLASMIDS

Fungus like Protists

▫️Molds ▫️Classified by body form ▫️Most small ▫️Live in damp places ▫️Decomposers ▫️Divided into 3 groups: Plasmodial slime molds Cellular slime molds Water molds

Characteristics of viruses

▫️Non living structures ▫️Noncellular ▫️Contain a protein coat called the capsid ▫️Have a nucleic acid core containing DNA or RNA ▫️ Capable of reproducing only when inside a HOST cell

Bryophytes

▫️Nonvascular plants ▫️Do not have vein to move water ▫️They rely on osmosis ▫️Grow low ▫️Water for reproduction

Methods of Respiration

▫️Obligate Aerobes - require O2 (tuberculosis bacteria) ▫️Obligate Anaerobes - die if O2 is present (tetanus) ▫️ Facultative Anaerobes - don't need O2, but aren't killed by it (E. coli)

Membrane Components

▫️Phospholipids ▫️Cholesterol ▫️Proteins (periphera and integral) ▫️Carbohydrates (glucose)

Plasma Membrane Funtions

▫️Protective barrier ▫️Regulate transport in and out of the cell ▫️Allows cell recognition ▫️Provide anchoring sites for filaments of cytoskeleton ▫️Provide a binding site for enzymes ▫️Interlocking surfaces bind cells together (junctions) ▫️Contains the cytoplasm (fluid in cell)

Animal-like Protists

▫️Protozoa ▫️Classified by method of movement ▫️Unicellular ▫️4 groups: sarcodinians, zooflagellates, ciliophorans, sporozoans

Three Main Differences Between DNA and RNA

▫️RNA is a single nucleotide strand ▫️RNA contains the sugar ribose ▫️RNA contains the base uracil which pairs with adenine

Examples of sex-linked traits

▫️Red-green color blindness ▫️Hemophilia ▫️Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

Active transport

▫️Requires energy or ATP ▫️Move materials from low to high concentration ▫️Against concentration gradient

Simple Diffusion

▫️Requires no energy ▫️Molecules move from area of high to low concentration ▫️Materials move down their concentration gradient through the phospholipid bilayer

Batceria Modes of Nutrition

▫️Saprobes ▫️Parasites ▫️Photoautotroph ▫️Chemoautotroph

Proteins Function

▫️Severing as enzymes ▫️Immunity ▫️Growth and repair of muscles and tissue

Courtship Examples

▫️Sounds - bird songs, crickets chirping, frogs , croaking, etc. ▫️Visual Displays - colors ▫️Visual Displays - dances ▫️Chemical Signals - pheromones A chemical an animal produces which changes the behavior or another animal of the same species

Nucleotides have 3 parts

▫️Sugar ▫️Phosphate ▫️Nitrogen Base

Animals have developed behaviors as a result of competition:

▫️Territoriality ▫️Aggression ▫️Jealousy - "selfish gene"

Mitosis

▫️The division of the cell nucleus ▫️Has 4 phases: -Prophase -Metaphase - Anaphase - Telophase

Facilitated Diffusion

▫️The passage of materials is aided by a concentration gradient and by a transport protein. ▫️No energy require ▫️Uses Transport proteins to move from high to low concentration

Kinds of Stem Cells

▫️Totipontent- each cel can develop into a new individual ▫️Pluripotent-cells can form any (over 200) cell types ▫️Multipotent- cells differentiated, but can form a number of other tissues (limited) embryonic stem cells embryonic germ cells adult stem cells

Inorganic

▫️Usually do not contain carbon ▫️Not associated with living organisms

Most flowers have four parts

▫️sepals ▫️petals ▫️stamens ▫️pistils (carpels)

Vestigial Structures / Vestigial organs

● Organs so reduced in size that they no longer serve the function of homologous organs in related species .The presence of the organ does not affect its ability to survive and reproduce, so natural selection does not eliminate it ● Examples: wings on flightless birds, human coccyx and appendix The appendix, for instance, is believed to be a remnant of a larger, plant-digesting structure found in our ancestors.

Cell division must occur because..

◾Cells cannot continue to grow indefinitely. There are two main reasons why they cannot: 1. A larger cell places more demands on its DNA. 2. A cell's volume increases faster than its surface area - therefore it cannot keep up with demands for nutrients and removal of wastes. ◾So, before the cell becomes too large, it divides.

Types of Gene Mutations

◾Point mutation ▫️Substitutions - one base is changes to another ▫️ Inversion- two or more bases change order (ex. TAG = GAT) ◾Frameshift mutation - a mutation that results in a shift of the whole : ▫️When one base is deleted (deletion) or added (insertion) into a DNA sequence

Prokaryotes

⚫ Bacteria ▫️First cells ▫️Very simple in structure ▫️Single cell ▫️Small cells ▫️No nucleus and membrane ▫️Their genetic material (DNA) is a ring shape ▫️Most move by using flagella or cillia

Cell Theory

⚫All living things made of cells ⚫Cells are basic units of structure and function in living things ⚫New cell are formed from pre-existing cells

Photosynthesis only .....

takes places in green plants because these are the organisms with chloroplasts

Ph (0-14)

tells us how many H+ ions are in a solution

Metaphase I

tetrads line up in the middle of the cell

As the cell begins to divide

the chromatin condenses into chromosomes

Viruses couldn't be seen until ...

the electron microscope was invented in the 20th century

Cristae

the fold in the inner membrance in the mitochondria where cell respiration occurs

Predator

the organism that does the killing/eating

Prey

the organism that is killed/eaten

Phenotype

the physical feature resulting from a genotype

predator-prey relationship

the predator population will follow the prey population as it increase and decrease

Cell Differentiation

the process by which a cell or tissue becomes specialized for a specific structure or function. Only genes necessary for that cells special function are active. Only specfic parts of DNA are activated, the part of DNA that activated determine the function and specialized stucture of a cell.

When the substrate is bound to the enzymes by the active site.......

the reaction takes place and the products are released

flower

the reproductive structure of an angiosperm

Inversion

the reversal of a sequence of bases on a chromosome

The main cause of all environmental problems is

the size of the human population and the overuse of resources by humans.

Stomata

the small openings on the undersides of most leaves through which oxygen and carbon dioxide can move/ for gas exchange. Opening and closing is controlled by the guard cells: temperature and moisture can control opening of stomata.

Viruses are smaller than

the smallest cell, Measured in nanometers

sporophyte

the stage in the life cycle of a plant in which the plant produces spores, diploid stage

Taxonomy

the study of classification of living things

Epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Theodor Schwann

theorized that all animals are made of cells if all plant are indeed made of cells

Rudolph Virchow

theorized that all organisms ( plant, animal, fungi, bacteria) are made of cells that come from other cell

Seeds need to be moved away from the parent plant to reduce competiton

they are dispersed by wind, water, animals, birds, scattering/explosion

Chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes .46

The base adenine always pairs with

thymine

Heredity

The passing of traits from parent to offspring

Nitrogen Fixation

The process of changing free nitrogen gas into a usable form. First, nitrogen is deposited from the atmosphere into soils and surface waters, mainly through precipitation. Once in the soils and surface waters, nitrogen undergoes a set of changes: its two nitrogen atoms separate and combine with hydrogen to form ammonia (NH4+). Nitrogen fixing bacteria convert nitrogen in the soil to ammonia. Nitrogen fixing bacteria live in the soil, and on the roots of leguminous plants. These bacterias form nodules on the roots of legumes.

The cell cycle

The regular cycle of growth and division that cells undergo

Niche

The relational position of a species. In a sense, it is the specie's "job" in the ecosystem Includes: Habitat Feeding habits Reproduction

Demography .

The scientific study of human populations

From a karyotype, we can determine:

The sex of the individual, Whether or not there are any chromosomal abnormalities such as too many or too few chromosomes.

Matrix

The space inside the cristae

gametophyte

The stage in the life cycle of a plant in which the plant produces gametes, or sex cells, haploid stage

Genetics

The study of heredity

Condensation

The sun heats the atmosphere. Warm, moist air rises and cools. Eventually, the water vapor condenses into tiny droplets that form clouds

Autosomal dominant human diseases

There are few, but some rare traits have this inheritance pattern ex. achondroplasia (a sketelal disorder causing dwarfism)

Exceptions to Mendel's Principles

There are many types of inheritance patterns that do not follow the principle of dominance. Codominance, Incomplete Dominance

Leaves

Make food for the plant through photosynthesis- contain chloroplasts. Provide site of gas exchange- have holes (stomates). Stores food.

Nitrogen

Makes up 78% of Earth's atmosphere. Is both the most abundant element in the atmosphere and, as a building block of proteins and nucleic acids such as DNA.

Phospholipids

Makeup the cell membrane. Contains 2 fatty acid chains that are nonpolar. Head is polar and contains a -PO4 group and glycerol

Solubility

Materials that are soluble in lipids can pass through the cell membrane easily

Protein Examples

Meat, fish, nuts, seeds, eggs, bean

Meiosis occurs in two divisions

Meiosis I and Meiosis II

Reduction Division

Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes in these cells by half. This reduction is necessary so that when fertilization occurs, the offspring has the correct number of chromosomes for the species. For example: Human cells have 46 chromosomes, but sperm and egg each have 23. When GAMETES combine, the ZYGOTE (offspring) gets half from mom (23) and half from dad (23) ZYGOTES (fertilized eggs) are diploid (46) . When sperm and egg meet, their chromosomes much match for the zygote to develop properly. Egg and sperm combine to make a Zygote.

Diversity in Meiosis

Meiosis results in gamete cells unlike the parent cell. Meiosis produces haploid daughter cells unlike the parent cell and unlike each other. Each of the four gamete haploid cells have a different mix of chromosomes.

Proteins are critical to

Membrane Function: structural support, recognition, communication transport

Aerobic cellular respiration takes place mostly the .......

Mitochondrion

Incomplete Dominance

There are two alleles for a trait, but neither is completely dominant. A heterozygote is a blend of the two homozygous phenotypes. Two different capital letters to represent the allele. Examples: Four O'Clock plants can be Red, White or Pink. Situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another allele. (RR- red) (WW-white) (RW-pink)

Calculating Total Magnification

There are two lenses on most compound light microscopes. Each lens adds to the total magnification. To calculate total magnification you multiply the two lenses together. ocular lens x objective lens. Example: If the ocular lens is 10x and the objective lens is 40x - the total magnification is 400x.

Types of Genetic Crosses

Monohybrid cross, Dihybrid

Polymers

Monomers bond together

Instincts

More complex behaviors that involve most of the body. Once it is started, it must be carried out to completion. Examples: Shivering when cold, Fight or Flight, Response Grey Goose egg rolling

Polysaccharides

More than two sugars bonded together.

Batcterial

Most grow best at pH of 6.5 to 7.0. Many act as decomposers recycling nutrients. Some cause disease.

Protists Homostasis

Most protists live in a moist environment. They must maintain their water balance or they will not survive. They have a contractive vacuole that pumps out excess water from cells.

Courtship

Most social behaviors revolve around finding a mate with the "best" genes to create the most "fit" children. The male must impress the female because she has more vested in producing the offspring.

Phototropism

Movement towards light

Imprinting

Must take place within a certain period of development or cannot be learned. Examples: Duck Following Bird Songs, Human Language

Survival of the fittest

Natural selection

Multicellular Organisms Cells

Nearly all of the cell, have exactly the same choromosomes and DNA

Nitrogen Assimilation

Nitrogen compounds in various forms, such as nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, and ammonium are taken up from soils by plants which are then used in the formation of plant and animal proteins. Animals eat the plants and the nitrogen becomes part of their body.

Denitrification

Nitrogen makes its way back into the atmosphere. In which nitrate (NO3-) is converted back to gaseous nitrogen (N2). Occurs primarily in wet soils where the water makes it difficult for microorganisms to get oxygen. Under these conditions, certain organisms - known as denitrifiying bacteria - will process nitrate to gain oxygen, leaving free nitrogen gas as a byproduct

Cell in Isotonic Solution

No Net Movement, equal amount entering and leaving the cell. The cell is at equilibrium

Prokaryotic

No nucleus

Competitive Exclusion Principle

No two species can occupy the same niche in the same habitat at the same time

abiotic factors

Nonliving factors in an environment, EX: air currents, temperature, moisture, light, soil. What abiotic factors in an environment determine what biotic factors can live there.

Viruses are made of

Nucleic acids, proteins.

Prophase II

Nucleus disappears, spindle apparatus forms

Age Structure

Number of males and females of each age in a population

Biomagnification

One result of water pollution. This is a process by which toxins that were put into a water source are increased in concentration as they move up a food chain from producer to consumers. Buildup of pollutants at higher levels of the food chain

Semipermeable Membrane

Only certain substances can pass through. Small molecules and larger hydrophobic molecules move through easily. o2, co2, h2o. Ions, hydrophilic molecules larger than water, and large molecules such as proteins do not move through the membrane on their own.

Co-dominance

There is more than one allele for a trait that is considered dominant. A heterozygote expresses both traits equally. Both traits appear together, we use two different capital letters to represent the alleles. Example: Chickens can be black (BB), white (WW) or "spotted" (BW). Genetic inheritance pattern in which two dominant alleles are expressed in phenotype.

Producers/autotrophs

These are organisms that produce their own food. Through photosynthesis, where they take energy from the sun and convert it to chemical energy in the form of sugars, produce oxygen

Protists Importance

They provide an essential food base in aquatic food chains. They carry out 30% - 40% of earth photosynthesis. Helps keep the number of bacteria in check.

How enzymes work

They speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy for the reaction. Since they require less energy to occur, the reactions occur much more quickly.

Stereoscope

This microscope allows for viewing specimens with two eyes. Used for dissection of small organisms. Used for working with live organisms.

X-linked dominant pedigrees

Trait is common in pedigree. Affected fathers pass to ALL of their daughters. Males and females are equally likely to be affected.

Autosomal dominant pedigrees

Trait is common in the pedigree. Trait is found in every generation. Affected individuals transmit the trait to ~1/2 of their children (regardless of sex)

Autosomal Recessive Traits

Trait is rare in pedigree Trait often skips generations (hidden in heterozygous carriers). Trait affects males and females equally.

X-linked recessive pedigrees

Trait is rare in pedigree. Trait skips generations. Affected fathers DO NOT pass to their sons. Males are more often affected than females

Operant Conditioning

Trial and Error Learning. Examples: Learning to shoot a basketball or ride a bike, Learning to talk Infant & toddler toys

All genes occur in pairs, so 2 alleles affect a characteristic

True

Every cell has a nucleus

True

Every nucleus has chromosomes

True

The number of chromosomes depends on the species

True

Tropisms growth response toward/away from stimulus ex) Photo (light), Gravi (gravity), Thigmo (touch)

True

When a male and a female have a child, there is always a 50% chance the child will be female and a 50% chance the child will be male.

True

Telophase I

Two independent cells begin to form, cytokinesis happens

Disaccharides

Two sugars bonded together

Universal Recipient is

Type AB

Universal Donor is

Type O

Two classes of molecules in science

Organic, Inorganic

Organization of Life

Organism Population Community Ecosystem Biome Biosphere

Heterotrophic

Organisms that obtain their nutrients or food from consuming other organisms.

Consumers/Heterotrophs

Organisms that rely on other organisms for their energy and food supply

2 membranes of mitochondrion

Outer Membrane Inner Membrane

Epidermis

Outermost layer of the skin/cell on the leaf

Ozone Depletion

Ozone is a form of oxygen (O3) found in Earth's upper and lower atmosphere. Ozone layer protects living organisms by absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation (UVB) from the sun. The ozone layer is being destroyed by chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The thinning of the ozone layer has caused an increase in skin cancer patients, cataracts and bronchial infections.

Three Forms of Transport Across the Membrane

Passive Transport: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion Active Transport

Germs or Microbes are.....

Pathogens , that cause disease and may produce poisons or toxins

Misc....

* Distilled Water = 100% Water * pH scale: 06.9 acid, 7 neutral, 7.114 base * pH of stomach = 12; blood = 7.4; sm. intestine = 9 * Inorganic compounds = water, salt, carbon dioxide * Organic = carbohydrates/protein/lipids/nucleic acids * Mitochondria & Chloroplasts have own DNA * Type of animal cell that divides the fastest is SKIN Cells (replace every 28 days) * Hemoglobin proteins found on red blood cells; carry oxygen

Large molecules move materials into the cell by one of the three forms of endocytosis:

Pinocytosis-most common form, takes in dissolved molecules as a vesicle, cells forms an invagination, materials dissolve in water to be brought into cell. Called cell drinking Receptor- Mediated Endocytosis Phagocytosis- celling eating

Thigmotropism

Plant response to touch

Pollen

Plant sperm

seedless vascular plants

Plants that have vascular tissue but reproduce by spores (ferns, club mosses, and horsetails) vein move water and nutrients

Run-off

Precipitation runs along the surface of the ground until it enters a river or a stream that carries the run-off back to an ocean or lake

Three Main Groups of Age Structure

Prereproductive (14 & under) Reproductive (15-44) Postreproductive (45 & older)

Exocytosis

Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material. Molecules are moved out of the cell by vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane. This is how many hormones are secreted and how nerve cells communicate with one another.

Cellular Respiration

Process by which nearly all the cells in all eukaryotic organisms break down sugars for ATP production (energy).

Homeostasis

Process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment. Relatively constant internal physical and chemical conditions that organisms maintain

Anaerobic

Process that does not require oxygen

Aerobic

Process that requires oxygen

Anther

Produces pollen

Types of cells

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Nitrogen Cycle Steps

-Nitrogen Fixation -Assimilation -Ammonification -Nitrification -Dentrification

Meiosis I

Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I

Meiosis II

Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II

Uses 7 taxa (levels) of classification

/Kingdom/ King /Phylum/ Phillip /Class/ came /Order/ over /Family/ for /Genus/ good /Species/ soup.

Solution for Habitat Loss

Protection of wild land, wise land use

Enzymes

Proteins that act as biological catalysts. Allows reactions to occur at much faster rate to sustain life.

Active Transport Examples

Pumping Na+ (sodium ions) out and K+ (potassium ions) in against strong concentrations gradients. Called Na+-K+ Pump. Sodium-Potassium Pump 3 Na+ pumped in for every 2 K+ pumped out, creates a membrane potential.

alcoholic fermentation

Pyruvic acid is turned to ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. Glucose< CO2 + Ethyl Alcohol +2 ATP

lactic acid fermentation

Pyruvic acid is turned to lactic acid and carbon dioxide. Glucose < CO2 +Lactic Acid +2 ATP

Infiltration/Seepage

Rain seeps into the soil, some of it deeply enough to become ground water. Water in the soil enters plants through the roots. This process, the movement of water into and through the soil and rocks.

Photosynthesis Equation

Reactants: Water + Carbon Dioxide Products: Glucose + Oxygen

Insight

Reasoning Learning from previous experience. Usually follows trial and error

There are two categories of innate behaviors

Reflexes, Instincts

Stem Cells

Replace disease or damaged cells. Allows us to study development and genetics. Can be used to test different substances.

Anaerobic respiration (fermentation)

Respiration in the absence of oxygen. This produces lactic acid. Happens in situations like when we are exercising, under water, hold our breath.

Auxins

Responsible for all tropisms such as phototropism and geotropism, also for stem elongation and root initiation

Cytokinins

Responsible for cell division in plants

Gibberellins

Responsible for stem elongation and for seed germination.

Asexual Reproduction

Results from cell division (mitosis). One "parent" cell divides to form two identical "daughter" cells.

Sexual Reproduction

Results from fusion of 2 cells to form offspring. Type of reproduction in which cells from two parents unite to form the first cell of a new organism. Offspring are genetically different from parents.

RNA

Ribonucleic Acid

How many daughter cells are produced in mitosis?

2

Mitosis results in

2 identical offspring cells that are exactly like the parent cell. That each have 46 chromosomes.

Plant Life Cycle

2 stages of life, they change between the two in a process called alternation of generations.

autosomes and sex chromosomes

2 types of chromosomes

Habitat Fragmentation

Sectioning or breaking up a natural landscape into smaller pieces. This reduces habitat sizes and isolates small sections of habitat. Disrupts the ecosystem and the ability of animals to move through natural areas (for food or shelter).

Aerobic Respiration ATP

36 molecule of ATP from one molecule of glucose

Telophase II

4 haploid daughter cells are formed they are call Gametes, chromosomes uncoil to form chromatin, cytokinesis occurs

At the end of meiosis you have

4 haploid gametes (sex cells), ( 1 diploid cell makes 4 haploid cells through 2 divisions)

Humans have how many chromosomes?

46

AA/AO

A Type (A) individual may have the genotype _____ or the genotype _____.

AB

A Type (AB) individual may have the genotype ______.

BB/BO

A Type (B) individual may have the genotype _____ or the genotype _____.

OO

A Type (O) individual may have the genotype ________.

Carcinogen

A cancer-causing substance physical or chemical agent that causes mutation in a DNA

Stem Cells

A cell that has the ability to continuously divide and differentiate (develop) into various other kinds of cells/tissues.

Habitat Degradation

A decrease in the quality of habitats due to poor land-use

Pedigree Analysis

A diagram representing the familial relationships among relatives. In humans, it is an important tool for studying inherited diseases It uses family trees and information about affected individuals to: figure out the genetic basis of a disease or trait from its inheritance pattern predict the risk of disease in future offspring in a family (genetic counseling)

Ovary

A flower structure that encloses and protects ovules and seeds as they develop. Contains eggs and become fruit.

Biome

A group of ecosystems with similar climates and organisms

Cellulose

A major component of plant cell walls. Found in raw plants/vegetables ( its what gives the crispness). Used to make paper.

Fruit

A mature ovary that contains seeds. Can be fleshy and dry

Translation process

A molecule of tRNA with a matching anti-codon brings the correct amino acid to the ribosome and adds it to the growing protein chain. The amino acids are bonded together with a peptide bond. The growing protein is also called a polypeptide. When the ribosome reaches the STOP codon, it releases the protein chain.

carrier

A person who has one recessive allele for a trait, but does not have the trait.

Hemophilia

A rare inherited bleeding disorder in which your blood doesn't clot normally. If you have this disease you will bleed for a longer time than others after an injury. Sometimes people with this disease need injections of a clotting factor or factors to stop bleeding.

Cystic Fibrosis

A recessive disorder - you must inherit 2 copies of the gene to have it. Cause thick, sticky mucus to builds up in the lungs and digestive tract. This mucus results in life-threatening lung infections and serious digestion problems.

Glucose

A simple sugar that is an important source of energy.

Starch

A storage polysaccharide found in plants. Potatoes, pasta, bread (wheat).

Punnett Square

A tool used to help solve genetics problems and predict inheritance patterns in offspring. Predict the possible offspring of a genetic cross. A diagram used to show the probability or chances of a certain trait being passed from one generation to another. The possible gametes of the parents are place above and to the left of the square. The letters on the inside of the square represent the possible combinations for the offspring of those parents.

Cuticle

A waxy layer that covers the outer epidermal wall, which prevents water loss

In humans, there are 4 different blood types

A, B, AB and O ▫️A and B are codominant ▫️O is recessive ▫️A and B can either be homozygous or heterozygous

Carbon Cycle Processes

A. Biological processes, such as photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and decomposition, take up and release carbon and oxygen. B. Geochemical processes, such as erosion and volcanic activity, release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and oceans. C. Mixed biogeochemical processes, such as the burial and decomposition of dead organisms and their conversion under pressure into coal and petroleum (fossil fuels), store carbon underground. D. Human activities, such as mining, cutting and burning forests, and burning fossil fuels, release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

ATP & ADP cycle

ATP(high energy) loses phosphate, their bond is broken which lead to energy released, creating ADP (low energy). Then , the ADP gains phosphate (energy gained), turning back into ATP.

buoyancy

Ability to float

Roots

Absorbs water and minerals from the soil. Anchors plant in ground. Can store food in modified roots such as carrots or potatoes.

The substrate fits into the enzyme at the enzyme's ________________

Active site ▫️The substrate fits into the active site because they have a specific shape

Patterns of Evolution

Adaptive Radiation Convergent Evolution Divergent Evolution Coevolution

Cellular Respiration can be either

Aerobic Anaerobic

Human Impact on Environment

Air Pollution Acid Rain Smog Climate Change and Global Warming Ozone Depletion Biomagnification Habitat loss Deforestation Population growth = resource depletion We must develop more sustainable practices to reduce negative impacts Pollution by Fertilizers (leads to algae overgrowth in lakes) Urbanization (removes habitat); Habitat Destruction is greatest threat to Biodiversity Deforestation & burning fuels increases CO2 levels; Climate Change (increase CO2 = greenhouse effect > global warming)

Similarities in Embryology

All embryos develop similarly. All vertebrates have tails and gill slits as embryos. Embryos of all vertebrates develop in same order and in similar patterns (homologous structures).

Metabolism

All of the chemical reactions that occur within an organism.

Molecular Biology

All organisms use DNA or RNA to pass on genetic information. Scientists compare amino acid sequences in common proteins - like hemoglobin. The fewer the differences in the proteins, the more closely related the species are.

Law of Independent Assortment

Alleles for different traits are distributed to sex cells (& offspring) independently of one another.

Scanning Electron Microscope

Allow scientists to view things too small to be seen with a light microscope. They use beams of electrons (negatively charged electrical particles) to magnify objects up to two million times.

Transmission Electron Microscope

Also uses electrons, but instead of scanning the surface of the specimen, electrons are passed through very thin slices of specimens.

Common Examples of Protists

Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena

Vaccines

An attenuated virus is a weakened, less vigorous virus "Attenuate" refers to procedures that weaken an agent of disease (heating). A vaccine against a viral disease can be made from an attenuated, less virulent strain of the virus. Attenuated virus is capable of stimulating an immune response and creating immunity, but not causing illness .

Proliferation

An increase in number, multiplication

Bacterial Respiration

Anaerobes carry on fermentation Aerobes carry on cellular respiration

Glycogen

Animal starch, energy storage in animals, long term storage of energy for animals. Broken into glucose monomers for energy source.

Invertebrates

Animals without backbones

Learned Behaviors

Any behavior that must be learned

autosomes

Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome, The remaining chromosomes

Bacterial Shapes

Are Used to Classify: Bacillus, Spirillum, Coccus

Biological Macromolecules ( biomolecules)

Are defind as large molecules that are made of smaller, more simple molecules. They contain carbon, their organic.

Channel Proteins

Are embedded in the cell membrane & have a pore for materials to cross. Molecules will randomly move through the pores in channel proteins

Centrioles

Are eukaryotic organelles that aid in cell division - they produce the spindle fibers, they anchors the spindle.

Protein building blocks

Are made of monomers called amino acids

Lipids building blocks

Are made of monomers called fatty acids

Carbohydrates building block

Are made of monomers called monosaccharides

Nucleic Acids building blocks

Are made of monomers called nucleotides

Levels Of Organization Of Living Things

Atoms - Molecule Organelle 🔻 Cell 🔻 Tissue 🔻 Organ 🔻 Organ System 🔻 Organism

Trophic levels

Autotrophs 1st level- primary consumers (herbivores) 2nd level- secondary consumers (omnivores or carnivores) 3rd level- tertiary consumers 4th level- quaternary consumers (top predators)

PLASMOLYSIS

Shrinking of a cell when suspended in a hypertonic solution.

Types of Transport Across Cell Membranes

Simple diffusion Diffusion Osmosis

Anaphase II

Sister chromatids split up

The largest organ of the human body

Skin

Monomers

Smaller molecules making up the biomolecule

Pili Short protein appendages

Smaller than flagella ,Adhere bacteria to surfaces ,Used in conjugation for Exchange of genetic information, Aid Flotation by increasing buoyancy.

Behavioral Cycles

Some animals have behaviors that cycle daily, weekly, monthly or yearly.

Useful Bacteria

Some can degrade oil/ Used to clean up oil spills Used to make yogurt, cheese, and buttermilk.

Photoperiodism

Some plants respond to the amount of daylight

Gene mutation

Sometimes during replication, an error is made that causes subsequent changes in the mRNA and proteins that are made using that DNA.

Geographic Distribution

Species living in different places with similar environments have similar anatomies and behaviors, even though they are unrelated. They are exposed to similar pressures of natural selection so they evolve similar characteristics.

Advantages of mitosis

Speed, Desirable Characteristics, Replacement

Coccus

Spherical (round) bacteria

What moves the chromatids during mitosis?

Spindle fibers

Spirillum

Spiral shape bacteria

Pedigree Symbols Key

Square = Males Cicle = Females Shading = Has trait No Shading = Normal (doesn't have trait)

Grana

Stacks of thylakoids

Types of Polysaccharides

Starch, glycogen, cellulose

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

Step 3 of cellular respiration, 32 ATP

Pyramid of Numbers

Based on numbers of individual organisms at each trophic level. Most are shaped as a pyramid, but some are not. Ex. A forest - trees have much biomass and much energy but are only one organism.

RULE OF 10s

Because organisms use some of the energy they make/consume for their own metabolic processes, we use the rule of 10s when describing energy transfer. Only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next. The remaining 90% is used by the organism or given off as heat. Therefore, each trophic level must eat more than the one before it in order to have the same amount of energy.

Energy Efficiency

Because the energy transfer efficiency among trophic levels is low (only 10%) the ecosystem is able to sustain fewer organisms at the higher trophic levels. There will be fewer organisms in each level so that there is enough energy to sustain them.

Classification of Life: Why do we need to classify?

Because there are so many different organisms that are being found/studied. Classification is necessary to organize and limit confusion among organisms.

Habituation

Becoming familiar with a stimulus until it no longer triggers a response. Examples: Moving Routines Comfort

When does interphase occur?

Before meiosis

Isolating Mechanisms

Behavioral Isolation Geographic Isolation Temporal Isolation

Bacteria reproduce asexually by

Binary fission, Single chromosome replicates & then cell divides, Rapid, All new cells identical (clones). Cellular organism copies it's genetic information then splits into two identical daughter cells.

Protein Test

Biuret Test, if protein is present in the solution, the solution turns from royal blue to a violet color.

Lipids Test

Brown Paper Test, the solution is placed on a piece of brown paper, if lipids are present it will leave an "oily" spot on the brown paper.

alcoholic fermentation is used

By all organisms such as yeast to produce bread. Also used in producing beer, wine, and other alcohol

Fossil Record

By comparing fossils from older rock layers with fossils from younger rock layers, scientists can see how life on Earth has changed over time. Hundreds of transitional fossils have been found which show intermediate stages of evolution of modern species from species now extinct this is an "incomplete record" with many gaps

Some flowers don't have brightly colored petals to attract pollinators , they don't have stamens, and pistils. How do they polllinate?

By the wind

Transcription Example

CATTGC GTACAG GAGTCA G-U-A-A-C-G C-A-U-G-U-C C-U-C-A-G-U

The lower epidermis contains ....

Stomata

Chloroplast Parts

Stroma Grana Thylakoids

appendages

Structures such as legs and antennae that extend from the body wall.

Stems

Supporting structures that connect roots and leaves, carrying water and nutrients between them. Transport water from roots to the rest of the plant. Transport nutrients from the leaves to the roots. Can store food in modified stems such as onions.

Filament

Supports the anther

Mitochondria

Takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and creates energy rich molecules for the cell. They are the powerhouse of the cell.

Kingdoms of Bacteria Eubacteria

Called the true bacteria. Most bacteria are in this group. Include photosynthetic Cyanobacteria.

Carrier Proteins

Can change shape to move material from one side of the membrane to the other

motile

Capable of movement

Carbon dioxide

Carbon and oxygen form carbon dioxide gas (CO2), an important component of the atmosphere. Is taken in by plants during photosynthesis and is given off by plants and animals during cellular respiration. Carbon dioxide is also a greenhouse gas and traps heat in the atmosphere. Without it and other greenhouse gases, Earth would be a frozen world.

Lipids elements

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen

Nucleic Acids Elements

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus

Proteins elements

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen

Carbohydrates elements

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, 1:2:1 ratio

Acid Rain

Caused by burning fuels with impurities. Occurs when pollutants in the atmosphere mix with the water to make an acidic solution that falls as rain. Acidification of aquatic ecosystems destroys the life in them. Acidic soil makes many plants and crops more difficult to grow.

Smallest unit of life

Cell

In sexually reproducting organisms, the fertilized eggs give rise to a large number of cells through______________________ (increase the number of identical cells).

Cell Division

Diploid

Cells in your body have a complete set (all 46)

Activation energy

Certain amount of energy needed to get a reaction started

Evoultion

Change in population over time

Denaturation

Change of shape, cause by change in temperature or ph. If enzyme is denatured, the substrate cannot fit in the active site.

Types of Transport Proteins

Channel and Carrier

The Origin of Species

Charles Darwin (1859) Book

Biological catalysts

Chemical agents that influence the rate of a reaction without changing or affecting the reaction

During what phase does cytokinesis begin

Telophase

Carbohydrates Tests- Glucose

Test for presence of glucose in a solution using the Benedict's Test, the solution will turn from light blue to rusty orange/red if glucose is present.

Double helix

The "twisted ladder" shape of the DNA molecule. It is the shape of the molecule that allows DNA to tell an organism's cells what to do and when.

Haploid

The 2 new cells that are formed from meiosis 1. They contain half of the chromosomes of the original cells that started meiosis. Gametes Sex Cells (sperm and eggs) only have half (23)

Metabolism

Chemical reactions are essential for survival. These reactions naturally take place at a rate that is too slow to sustain us.

Alternate Genotypes

The ABO blood type alleles can also be shown using this notation. Type A = IAIA or Iai Type B = IBIB or Ibi Type AB = IAIB Type O = ii

Uncoiled stringy DNA is called

Chromatin

During Interphase DNA is in the form

Chromatin, threadlike coils in the nucleus

Mendel stated that physical traits are inherited as "particles" Mendel did not know that the "particles" were actually ......

Chromosomes & DNA

Homologous pairs

Chromosomes come in matching sets, within a homologous pair, one chromosome came from the mom and the other chromosome came from the dad. - a pair of homologous chromosomes is also referred to as a tetrad because it is made up of 4 chromatids (tet = 4).

Phophase I

Chromosomes condense and become visible. Chromosomes trade genes, CROSSING -OVER. Nucleus disintegrates. Homologous chromosomes pair up

Nitrogen Cycle

The cycling of nitrogen between organisms, soil, water, and the atmosphere. A complex biogeochemical cycle in which nitrogen is converted from its inert atmospheric molecular form (N2) into a form that is useful in biological processes.

Where the energy found in the ATP

The energy is held in the bond between the 2nd and 3rd phosphate in the molecule

Chlorophyll

The green pigment that captures light for photosynthesis

White Blood Cells

The immune system is made up of several types of white blood cells: ▫️T Cells - cells that kill or destroy infected cells ▫️B Cells - make the antibodies to fight infections Antibodies - Antibodies-proteins that recognize and bind to antigens. Antibodies are shaped like the letter Y and have two identical antigen-binding sites. The specific shape of the binding site makes it possible for the antibody to recognize a specific antigen with a complementary shape.

Sepals

The leaves that protect the bud until it opens. A leaflike structure that encloses the bud of a flower.

Review of DNA

DNA - RNA - protein - trait ▫️Protein Synthesis Happens at the ribosome 1. Transcription: DNA to mRNA in nucleus 2. mRNA leaves the nucleus, travels to ribosome 3. Translation: tRNA anticodon carrying amino acid is attached to each mRNA codon [look for start (AUG) & stop codon (UAA, UAG, UGA)] 4. amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds

Two Nucleic Acids

DNA and, RNA ( make protein)

Side of a ladder

DNA nucleotides fit together with phosphates and sugar creating a backbone

The Theory of Evolution

Darwin's idea of change through natural selection. As the environment changes, species either adapt to new conditions or go extinct.

DNA stand for....

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Density-dependent limiting factors

Dependent upon how many organisms are in a population and how close together they are. (effects depend on population size) ▫️Examples 💡Predation 💡 Competition 💡 Sickness

Sex Chormosomes

Determine the sex of a human. XX- Female, XY-Male

Carolus Linneaus

Developed the current system of taxonomy.

Osmosis

Diffusion of water across a membrane Move from High water potential (low solute) to Low water potential (high solute)

At the start of meiosis I you had one

Diploid

Monomers of monosaccharides bond together to form more complex sugars called

Disaccharides and Polysaccharides

Continuous traits

Distribution of phenotypes in the population varies along a continuum. Individuals differ by small degrees. (examples include height, blood pressure, reaction time, learning ability)

Angiosperm Reproduction

Divided into 2 broad categories: monocots, dicots

Effect Of Habitat Loss

Effect: Loss of biodiversity: increase predation decreased dispersal loss of 'core' habitat, increase in 'edge' A.

Examples of gametes

Egg and sperm

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Transpiration

Evaporation of water from the leaves of a plant. Roughly half of land-based evaporation occurs on the surface area of plants. Evapotranspiration.

fatigue

Extreme tiredness, exhaustion

Insertion, deletion and duplication mutations cause

FRAMESHIFT MUTATIONS- These mutations affect the reading point of the DNA from the mutation forward.

Lipids are known as

Fats, oils, and waxes (soilds)

Trophic Relationships

Feeding Relationships. Each organism in a food chain/web is classified into levels call trophic levels. An organism can fall into more than one trophic level based on what it eats.

Angiosperms

Flowering plants, vascular tissue tissue, have seeds that develop in fruits produced by structures in flowers

Speciation

Formation of new species

Evidence for Evolution

Fossils, geographic distribution, homologous structures, vestigial structures, similarities in embryology.

Kingdoms of Bacteria Archaebacteria

Found in harsh environments Undersea volcanic vents, acidic hot springs, salty water

Glycolysis

Frist stage, 2 ATP

Carbohydrates

Funtction is to provide a fast source of energy for living things.

Interphase

G1, S and G2 phases. Means that it is the "in between" period of growth for the cell before it divides. The DNA in the nucleus is replicated (copied) during S Phase of the cell cycle. This is necessary so that each cell that is formed has the same number of chromosomes as

Examples of monosaccharides

Glucose, fructose, galactose

Austrian monk who developed the laws of inheritance

Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884)

Father of Genetics

Gregor Mendel

Populations

Group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area

Food Webs

Group of interconnected food chains. More complex than single food chain because organisms can have more than one source of food and can be eaten by more than one predator. Energy flow.

Population

Group of organisms of the same species

Organ Systems

Group of organs that work together to perform an important and similar function

Tissues

Groups of cells that perform a similar function

Organs

Groups of tissues that work together to perform a specific function or related functions

Cell must divide, the purpose of making more cells

Growth Repair of damaged tissues Reproduction

Homologous Body Structures

Helps biologists group animals according to how recently they shared a common ancestor. Dolphins look more like fish but their homologies show they are mammals. They have lungs rather than gills and obtain oxygen from air, not water. (evolved from land mammals, not fish)

X-linked recessive traits example

Hemophilia in European royalty

Consumers typically fall into 5 categories depending on how they get their food

Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores Scavengers Decomposers

Diffusion of H2O

High h2o potential - low solute concentration Low h2o potential - high solute concentration

Ecological Pyramids

Illustrations used to show the relationship between trophic levels.

Abscisic acid

Important for seed and bud dormancy

There are several types of learned behaviors

Imprinting, Habituation, Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, Insight

The human population has had a sharp growth-rate increase in last 200 years caused by:

Improved Agriculture, Improved Medicine, Improved Sanitation, Improved Nutrition Overall, better Technology

Law of Dominance

In a cross of parents that are pure for contrasting traits, only one form of the trait will appear in the next generation. All the offspring will be heterozygous and express only the dominant trait. RR x rr yields all Rr (round seeds)

Outside of host cells, viruses are

Inactive, lack ribosomes and enzymes needed for metabolism, so they use the raw materials and enzymes of the host cell to be able to reproduce

Occurs before mitosis begins

Interphase

Biome

Is a group of ecosystems that have the same climate

What are Viruses?

Is a non-cellular particle made up of genetic material and protein that can invade living cells.

Ecological Succession

Is a process by which an existing ecosystem is gradually replaced by another more stable ecosystem.

Mutualism

Is a relationship between two organisms where both of them benefit from the relationship. This can involve providing food, protection, a place to live or even pollination.

Parasitism

Is a relationship where one individual benefits and the other is harmed.

Commensalism

Is a relationship where one organism benefits and other is neither harmed nor benefited.

Climax Community

Is a relatively stable and mature ecosystem. It is made up of a diverse collection of plants and animals whose niches support a healthy ecosystem.

Innate Behaviors

Is a simple behavior that is inherited by an animal. An animal can perform the behavior correctly the first time it is attempted.

Community

Is all of the populations in an area (all living things)

Carbon

Is an element, it is part of oceans, air, rocks, soil and all living things, every organic molecule contains the element

Down Syndrome

Is caused by inheriting 3 copies of chromosome 21. Causes short, round body shape. Causes some degree of mental retardation. Leads to a weaker than normal immune system.

Symbiosis

Is defined as a close living relationship between members of different species, or "living together".

Plasma (cell) Membrane

Is flexible and allows a unicellular organism to move

Individual/organism

Is one living thing

Primary Succession

Is succession that occurs on new land. New land is created by events such as volcanic eruptions or retreat of glaciers that scrape away Earth. There is no life and no soil present. The first species that come to the new land are called pioneer species. These are usually lichens or mosses. They slowly break down the surface of the rock where they grow and create soil. Once soil is established, grasses, shrubs, and trees move in from smallest to largest.

Immune system

Is the Body's Defenses , is used by humans to fight bacterial and viral infections and to ward off foreign invaders and allergens. Non-specific defenses - skin, sweat, tears and mucus are the first line of defense against invaders. Specific defenses - immune response

Ecosystem

Is the community and all of the abiotic factors in an area ( living and non-living things)

Habitat

Is the ecological area in which members of a species live

Transcription

Is the process in which mRNA is made from the DNA in the nucleus of the cell. (The process is similar to DNA Replication, but Only a segment of DNA is used. The enzyme that adds bases is RNA Polymerase instead of DNA Polymerase. Resulting mRNA leaves the nucleus to deliver its information to the ribosome.)

Competition

Is when two organisms use the same space and resources at the same time. Can occur between organisms of the same species or different species.

Food Chains

It is a series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating or being eaten. Energy created by producers can be passed to organisms in an ecosystem. Transfer of energy.

Hydrologic cycle

It shapes our weather and climate, supports plant growth, and makes life itself possible.

Who discovered the struture of the DNA Molecule

James Watson and Francis Crick in the early 1950's. They could not have done this without the work of Rosalind Franklin.

Karyotypes

Karyotypes is a picture of pairs chromosomes arranged by number, size, and type.

Scientific Classification

Kingdom Animalla Phylum Chordata Class Mammalla Order Primates Family Homjnidae Genus Homo Species H.Sapiens Subspecies H.S. Saplens

Communication

Language is the most complicated form of communication. Language combines sounds, symbols and gestures according to sets of rules for syntax. Other animals use systems to communicate, but humans are the only ones that effectively use language.

Classical Conditioning

Learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together.

Emigration

Leaving a population

Density-independent limiting factors

Limiting factors will effect all populations the same, regardless of their size or how close together they are. (effects regardless of size) ▫️Examples 💡Ice Age 💡Global Warming 💡Flood 💡Fire

The cell membrane is made of 2 layers of phospholipids called the

Lipid bilayers

Nitrification

While ammonia can be used by some plants, most of the nitrogen taken up by plants is converted by bacteria from ammonia - which is highly toxic to many organisms - into nitrite (NO2-), and then into nitrate (NO3-). And these bacteria are known as nitrifying bacteria.

True

You can predict genotypes from a pedigree

Cellulose

a complex carbohydrate that is the main component in the cell walls of plants

Stroma

a fluid that surrounds the thylakoids in a chloroplast

Peptidoglycan

a molecule found in the walls of prokaryotes that consists of a carbohydrate and protein chains in a strong molecular network.

Frameshift mutation

a mutation that results in a shift of the whole

DNA nucleotides are made of ......

a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogenous base

fructose

a simple sugar found in honey and in many ripe fruits

Population Crash

a sudden population decline caused by predation, waste accumulation, or resource depletion. Resources are never unlimited.

Meiosis II takes place because

each of our new cells has too much DNA

Carnivores

eat only meat

Herbivores

eat only plants

Omnivores

eat plants and meat

Defenses to mutation

editing proteins, nucleotide repair

Seed

embryo of a living plant that is encased in a protective covering and surrounded by a food supply

lactase

enzyme that breaks down lactose

Homesostasis is also called

equilibrium

Parasites

feed on a host cell

Saprobes (decomposers)

feed on dead organic matter

Ethylene

fruit to ripen, ethylene is a gas

Decomposers

fungi and bacteria that absorb nutrients from decaying matter

Genotype

gene combination for a trait, genetic makeup of an organism ( RR, Rr, rr)

Homozygous genotype

gene combination involving 2 dominant or 2 recessive genes (e.g. RR or rr); also called pure

Heterozygous genotype

gene combination of one dominant & one recessive allele (e.g. Rr); also called hybrid

Recessive

gene that shows up less often in a cross; represented by a lowercase letter

Pathogen

generally a microorganism that is capable of infecting the body.

Transgenic Organisms (Genetically Modified Organisms)

genes from 1 organism are transferred into DNA of another organism to provide a useful trait; ex) creating plants that are resistant to herbicides or that are drought-tolerant

Phenotype = ____ + ____

genotype + environment

lactose

glucose + galactose

Example of Facilitated Diffusion

glucose or amino acids moving from blood into a cell

Viruses are considered NON-LIVING because they...

have some properties of life but not others

Polar heads are

hydrophilic "water loving"

Non polar tails are

hydrophobic "water fearing"

Make membrane "selective"

in what crosses

Huntington's Disease

is a dominant disorder in humans. It causes a slow breakdown of the brain that results in gradual loss of control of movements and speech. Onset of symptoms is between the ages of 30-50.

Diffusion

is a passive process which means no energy is used to make the molecules move, they have a natural kinetic energy. Solute move down concentration gradient (High to Low)

Reflexes

is a reaction of one specific body part in response to a stimulus. Examples: Pulling hand away from hot pan, Jumping when door slams, Closing/squinting eyes when light is bright, Flinching if something is coming at you

Tay-Sachs Disease

is a recessive disease that results in a defective enzyme being produced. Harmful quantities of lipids accumulate in and around the brain. Always leads to infant/toddler death. There is no treatment for this disease.

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

is a recessive disease that results in the absence of an enzyme that converts phenylalanine into tyrosine. Accumulation of phenylalanine is toxic to the central nervous system (brain & spinal cord). Treated with a careful diet that eliminates milk products and artificial sweetners.

Sickle Cell Anemia

is a recessive disorder that causes the protein hemoglobin to have a different shape. Causes red blood cells to become sickle shaped. Sickle shape does not fit easily through tiny capillaries. When cells get stuck it causes pain episodes which are treated with blood transfusions, thinners and heat therapy. Heterozygotes have some sickle cells and some normal cells. Are also immune to malaria.

Hemophilia

is a sex-linked recessive disorder that results in the inability to make clotting factors. Bleed for a longer time than others after an injury bleed internally, especially in your knees, ankles, and elbows. This bleeding can damage organs or tissues and may be life threatening.

Adaptation

is an inherited characteristic that increases an organism's chance of survival.

Stimulus

is any phenomenon that directly influences the activity or growth of a living organism.

The Plant Kingdom

is divided into 4 groups based on whether or not they have water-conducting tissue seeds , flowers

Structure of a Chromosome

is made up of two halves - called chromatids. Because the chromatids contain the same genes, they are called sister chromatids. The two chromatids are held together by a centromere.

Smog

is the combination of pollutants with the water droplets that form fog. It creates a "smoky fog".

Water

is the most abundant compound in most living things

Meiosis

is the process by which a sexually reproducing organism creates gametes, produce 4 daughter cells that are each haploid.

DNA Replication

is the process of DNA making an identical copy of itself. The double stranded DNA molecule unwinds the double helix and unzips the nitrogen base pairs. An enzyme, called DNA Polymerase, adds new nucleotides to each side of the original DNA. When finished - two identical strands of DNA have been formed. Each strand winds back up to form the double helix structure and the cell is ready to divide.

Translation

is the process where a protein is made at the ribosome from the information contained in the mRNA. This process happens at a ribosome. The ribosome reads the mRNA message 3 nucleotide at a time - this is called a codon.

Biology

is the study of life--the study of living things.

ATP

is used by all organisms for cellular energy

Dominant allele will show in your phenotype even if....

it only has one copy

Carbohydrates Test- Starch

lodine Test, if starch is present, the lodine will turn from a golden yellow to a dark purple/black color.

Types of RNA (3)

mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

DNA Fingerprint =

made using Gel Electrophoresis separates DNA segments by size (small travel further) used to determine paternity & who committed crimes.

Cloning

making genetically identical organisms reduces variation

Flowering Plants use

many ways to transfer pollen from the stamen to the female stigma. A flower is pollinated when a pollen grain lands on its stigma. The pollen travels down the style to the ovary and fertilzers the eggs. Each ovary grows into a fruit which contains the seeds.

Gametes are produced by the process of

meiosis

Palisade mesophyll

mesophyll is a layer of elongated cells with many chloroplasts. Layer of tall, column-shaped mesophyll cells just under the upper epidermis of a leaf

mRNA

messenger RNA = carries the message from the nucleus to the ribosome

galactose

milk sugar

m phase

mitosis and cytokinesis

Petals

modified leaves that attract insects and birds

Multi-cellular

more than one cell

Polygenic traits

more than two alleles and multiple genes control the expression of a trait. Example: skin color in human are controlled by more than four differnt genes

Migration

movement from one area to another and back. Usually for feeding and/or breeding

Immigration

moving into a population

Any change in a DNA sequence is called a

mutation

Types of Natural Selection

a. Stabilizing: favors average b. Directional: favors 1 extreme (Antibiotic Resistance) c. Disruptive: favors both extremes, leads to new species

Atmosphere is

abiotic

Lactic acid

accumulates in tissues, such as mucles. Often results in fatigue and/or soreness of muscles.

The four nitrogenous bases

adenine (A) thymine (T) cytosine (C) guanine (G)

What creates the two halves of the double helix

adenine/thymine (strand) guanine/ cytosine (strand) ▫️The complementary bases are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds)

ATP

adenosine triphosphate

2 types of fermentation

alcoholic and lactic acid

biotic factor

all living organisms in a biosphere

Different forms of a gene are called

alleles

To obtain a karyotype

an amniocentisis is performed during the 2nd trimester of pregnancy. A sample of amniotic fluid is removed from the uterus and used to create the karyotype.

Spore formation

an asexual reproductive process, Form endospore whenever when habitat conditions become harsh (little food). Able to survive for long periods of time as endosperm. Difficult to destroy (heat resistant).

Sex chromosomes determine

an individual's sex

Antigen

an organic molecule, generally a protein, that is capable of triggering an immune response in the body.

Scavengers

animals that eat dead animals (buzzard, hyena)

Vertebrates

animals with backbones

Trait

any characteristic that can be passed from parent to offspring

Flagella Bacteria that are motile have .....

appendages called flagella. Attached by Basal Body. A bacteria can have one or many flagella.

Limiting Factors

are biotic or abiotic things in the ecosystem that can restrict existence, reproduction, or distribution of organisms. They limit the growth and/or survival of a population.

petals

attract organism to spread pollen

The first 22 pairs of chromosomes are called

autosomes

Photosynthesis

autotrophs use energy from sunlight to produce carbohydrates, such as glucose

Phylogenetic trees / cladograms show evolutionary relationships

based on homologies

Fluid

because individual phospholipids and proteins can move side-to-side within the layer, like it's a liquid.

Mosaic

because of the pattern produced by the scattered protein molecules when the membrane is viewed from above.

As new species evolve, the populations

become reproductively isolated from each other. Meaning that they cannot interbreed and produce fertile offspring

The soil is

biotic

mosses, liverworts, hornworts

bryophytes

4 groups of plants

bryophytes, seedless vascular plants, gymnosperms, angiosperms

Viruses do not exhibit all characteristics of living things. Viruses do contain either DNA or RNA as their genetic material, however they .....

can't maintain a constant internal state (homeostasis), Cannot reproduce without host, Do not metabolize, and are not cells.

Viral capsids (coats) are made of individual protein subunits, Individual subunits are called

capsomeres

cells in hypertonic solution

cells shrivel; more water leaves than enters

DNA controls.....

cellular activity by influencing the production of proteins

Point Mutation

changes in only 1 or a few nucleotides of DNA

Mutations in DNA cause

changes in the sequence of amino acids which ultimately creates changes in proteins and their function

Translocation

chromosome segments, and the genes they contain, change positions. Can occur within a chromosome (intrachromosomal) or between chromosomes (interchromosomal)

GENES are located on ......

chromosomes

Metaphase II

chromosomes line up single file down the middle of the cell

Homologous

chromosomes that are the same size and have the same genes

Matthias Schleidn

concluded that all plant are made of cells.

Flowers

contain organs for specialized sexual reproduction, produces seeds and flowers

Thylakoids

contains the chlorophyll

Plants have a .....

control systems

Monohybrid cross

cross involving a single trait

Dihybrid Cross

cross involving two traits

The base guanine is always paired with

cytosine

Circadian Rhythms

daily sleep and wake cycles affected by sunlight, Seasonal affective disorder

Air Pollution

Usually caused by the burning of fossil fuels, wood & trash. Industries with smokestacks, cars and other motor driven machinery. Can have long term medical effects like bronchial infections and asthma. Main cause of environmental conditions of smog and acid rain.

Evaporation

Water changes from a liquid to a gas, water enters the atmosphere as water vapor as gas when water evaporates from the ocean or other bodies of water by the sun

Aquaporins

Water channels, protein pores used during osmosis

H2O

Water molecule are polar , this means that electrons are shared unevenly between oxygen and hydrogen. Polar molecules attract each other. Water molecules are react to form ions.

The Water Cycle

Water moves between the oceans , atmosphere, and land Evaporation - condensation - precipitation

Cells in Hypotonic

Water moves in, get bigger

Groundwater

Water that fills the cracks and spaces in underground soil and rock layers. The deeper groundwater is found, the cleaner it will be.

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid

sugar

deoxyribose

Homologous

develops from the same part of the embryo but have a different forms and functions (modified between groups)

Behavioral Isolation

differences in courtship or reproductive strategies that prevent breeding

Cytokinesis

division of the cytoplasm to make two new cells

Antibiotics

We typically treat bacterial infections using this type of medications.

Translation Example

What is the amino acid for.... GGG - Gly UAG - Stop AAG - Lys

Multiple Allelles

When a gene has more than two possible alleles. Gene is controlled by more that two alleles. Example: Human Bood Types,

Uncontrolled cell growth

When cells lose control over the cell cycle, mitosis occurs continuously and a tumor forms. This is CANCER

Crossing Over

When chromosomes are close together in a homologous pair, parts of chromatids can become tangled. These segments of the chromosomes are exchanged to create more variability in chromosomes. Creates more variety in offspring (genetic diversity).

Ammonification/Mineralization

When plants and animals die, the nitrogen in the organic matter reenters the soil where it is broken down by other microorganisms, known as decomposers. This decomposition produces ammonia which is then available for other biological processes.

Enzyme-substrate complex

When the substrates are bound to the enzyme

What occurs during interphase?

normal cell activities, and cell replicate

Secondary Succession

occurs on land where there was already an ecosystem. Disturbances such as fire, natural disasters, and clearing occur but leave soil intact. Succession can occur more quickly because the pioneer species are not necessary. Herbaceous plants are first to return to the ecosystem, then shrubs and trees quickly return.

Adaptive Radiation

occurs when a single species evolves into several different forms that live in different ways. Darwin's finches-more than a dozen species evolved from a single species

polygenic inheritance

occurs when multiple genes determine the phenotype of a trait

Divergent Evolution

occurs when related organisms become less similar because of differing selection pressures (environment).

Coevolution

occurs when two species evolve together, in response to changes in each other flowers and pollinators will usually evolve together

Convergent Evolution

occurs when unrelated organisms come to resemble one another due to similar selective pressures (environment)

Unicellular

one cell

Predator-Prey Relationship

one organism benefits and the other is killed

Autotrophic

organism makes own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis

Chemoautotroph

oxidize inorganic matter such as iron or sulfur to make food

Example of Simple Diffusion

oxygen or water diffusing into a cell and carbon dioxide diffusing out

Gravitropism

roots move down and shoots grow up in the dark in response to gravity

The first antibiotic was ...

penicillin, which was discovered during World War I. Penicillin, however, is no longer effective against many infections because it was overused and many bacteria are resistant to the drug.

Homeostasis is maintained by

plasma membrane controlling what enters and leaves the cell

dispersed

scattered, spread, broken up

gymnosperms and angiosperms

seed plants

23rd pair of chromosomes are called

sex chromosomes

Age Structure Diagrams of poulation

show the proportion of individuals within that population in different age groups. Can be used by demographers to predict how a population will grow in the future

polynucleotide chain

polymer; has an alternating sugar/phosphate backbone which has a unique nitrogenous base sequence

Geographic Isolation

populations separated by physical barriers

Descent with Modification

principle that each living species has descended, with changes, from other species over time

Endocytosis

process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane

Energy Pyramids

shows the available energy at each trophic level in a food web. Each organism uses some of its energy to carry out metabolism. Therefore, the higher up a food chain an organism is, the more they must eat to be able to sustain life processes.

Hibernation

shutting down body systems in response to cold to conserve energy with lack of food.

Natural Selection

species change over time because of changes in the environment. The organism that can change to the environment are more likely to survive and their pass their genes to the next generation, the one that do not survive, go extinct, or leave fewer offsprings.

Stigma

sticky tip that collects pollen

Chemosynthesis

process of using the energy in chemical compounds to make food

Photosynthesis

process of using the energy in sunlight to make food (glucose)

Why divide? Meiosis....

produces cells with only half the required chromosome number for a species. When two gametes unite, the resulting cell has the correct chromosome number for that species.

Dominant

stronger of two genes expressed in the hybrid; represented by a capital letter.

Tetrad

structure containing 4 chromatids that forms during meiosis (homologous chromosomes pair)

Causes of mutation

radiation (chemical, UV, nuclear), errors during replication

Precipitation

rain, snow, sleet, or hail that falls to the ground.

Substrate

reactant of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction

Endotoxins

released after bacteria die (E. coli)

Exotoxins

released by Gram + bacteria (C. tetani)

Temporal Isolation

reproduce at different times

RNA

ribonucleic acid

rRNA

ribosomal RNA = makes up the structure of the ribosome.

CYTOLYSIS

swelling and bursting of an ANIMAL cell when placed in a HYPOTONIC solution

Biomass Pyramid

The amount of living tissue within a given trophic level is called biomass. Pyramid represents amount of potential food available for each trophic level. Expressed in grams of organic matter per unit area

Steps of a ladder

The bases pair together in the middle of the structure

Carbon Cycle

- the process by which carbon is cycled between the atmosphere, land, water and organisms Plants get carbon dioxide from the air to use in photosynthesis. Animal feed on plants and get the carbon. Carbon moves from animal to animal. Animal and plants breate out carbon dioxide through repiration. Animals and plants die and carbon goes to the ground. Some goes through decomposition which lead back into the air or some forms into fossil fuels over millions of years and then goes through combustion, which is burning of fossil fuels, through this carbon get release into the air as carbon dioxide. Carbon can also move from the atmosphere to the oceans. The oceans, and other bodies of water, soak up some carbon from the atmosphere. Over millions of years weathering of rocks on land can add carbon to surface water which eventually runs off to the ocean. Over long time scales, carbon is removed from seawater when the shells and bones of marine animals and plankton collect on the sea floor. These shells and bones are made of limestone, which contains carbon. When they are deposited on the sea floor, carbon is stored from the rest of the carbon cycle for some amount of time. The amount of limestone deposited in the ocean depends somewhat on the amount of warm, tropical, shallow oceans on the planet because this is where prolific limestone-producing organisms such as corals live. The carbon can be released back to the atmosphere if the limestone melts or is metamorphosed in a subduction zone.

The name of most enzymes end with what three letters

-ase

5 Steps of Lytic Cycle

1. Attachment to the cell 2. Penetration (injection) of viral DNA or RNA 3. Replication (Biosynthesis) of new viral proteins and nucleic acids 4. Assembly (Maturation) of the new viruses 5. Release of the new viruses into the environment (cell lyses)

Sources of Genetic Variation

1. Recombination of alleles during sexual reproduction 2. Mutations (random change in DNA) 3. Random Assortment of chromosomes during meiosis 4. Crossingover (Prophase I of Meiosis) 5. Nondisjunction (most commonly trisomy 21 = Down syndrome) 6. Fertilization: 23 mom + 23 dad = 46 you

Making Recombinant DNA

1. extract desired gene (usually from human) using restriction enzyme cut DNA at specific sequences 2. splice (join) desired gene into DNA of a plasmid (circular DNA of bacteria) 3. insert plasmid with desired gene back into the bacteria 4. allow bacteria to reproduce (binary fission) & create identical copies that contain the recombinant DNA

Gymnosperms

Conifers or cone-bearing plants, seed develop inside cones, pollen is release to fertilize eggs and create seeds.

Bacteria reproduce sexually by

Conjugation, Form a tube between 2 bacteria to exchange genetic material, Held together by pili, New cells NOT identical.

Chloroplast

Contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis in plant cells

Biosphere

Contains the portions of the planet in which all life exists. Part of the Earth

Autosomal recessive diseases

Cystic fibrosis Sickle cell anemia Phenylketonuria (PKU) Tay-Sachs disease

Hydrogen

Has a partial negative charge. Hydrogen bonds water molecules together tightly.

Law of Segregation

During the formation of gametes (eggs or sperm), the two alleles responsible for a trait separate from each other. Alleles for a trait are then "recombined" at fertilization, producing the genotype for the traits of the offspring.

Sister chromatids

Each half of a replicated chromosome, which are identical

Polygenic inheritance

Genes act additively

Aerobic Respiration Equation

Glucose + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water (+energy released) Reactants: Glucose + Oxygen Products: Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP

Eukaryotic

Has a nucleus

Oxygen

Has a partial negative charge

Anaphase I

Homologous chromosomes split up and move towards the opposite ends of the cell

Genetic Diseases

Human diseases caused by DNA mutations

Exponential Growth Of Population

Ideal condition are present within a population, it will grow and the growth will be exponential. The larger a population gets the faster it grows. The curve is said to be a j-shaped curve or an exponential growth curve. Resources are never Unlimited

Trends in Pedigrees

In pedigrees, there are several basic patterns of inheritance. -autosomal, recessive - autosomal, dominant - X-linked, recessive - X-linked, dominant (very rare)

spongy mesophyllx

Loose tissue beneath the palisade layer of a leaf; has many air spaces between its cells

Ecology

Scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment

Kreb Cycle

Second stage of cellular respiration; aerobic; two ATPs

Watersheds

River basins drained by a river and flowing into the same large body of water. An expanse of land where the surface runoff and groundwater drains into a common point, usually a stream, lake, or river.

Bacillus

Rod shaped bacteria

Most viruses infect only

SPECIFIC host cells, Viral Attack Viruses are very specific as to which species they attack HOST specific Humans rarely share viral diseases with other animals Eukaryotic viruses usually have protective envelopes made from the host cell membrane

Energy

The ability to do work or cause change, it powers life process, it provides organisms with the ability to maintain balance, grow, reproduce, and carry out their life functions

What is Behavior ?

The actions or reactions of a person or animal in response to external or internal stimuli.

Habitat Loss

The loss of natural areas and habitats due to human development. As the human population increases, our use of land decreases the space and resources available for other species.

Light Microscope

The microscopes found in most schools. Use a series of lenses and light to magnify objects. The lenses bend or refract the light, which makes the object under them appear closer and larger.

Autosomes

carry genes for all the physical traits, chromosomes not associated with sex

23 pairs (46 total)

number of chromosome pairs needed for human cells

endosperm

nutritive tissue surrounding the embryo within seeds of flowering plants

Analogous

parts with similar functions which develop from different parts of the embryo (similar function, different structure) (embryo is the early stage of development)

Photoautotroph

use sunlight to make food

Animals and Plant Cell Parts

⚫Animals 🔵Plants ⚫🔵Plasma Membrance- Double-layered membrance that surrounds the cell, also called the cell membrance, Jobs is to hold cell together and controls what enters and exit the cell. ⚫🔵Cytoplasm- a jelly-like substances, composed mainly of water, that fills the empty space inside the cell between plasma membrane and nucleus. ⚫🔵Nucleus-A round body in the center of the cell that contains genetic information (DNA) with the directions for creating all cell parts and carrying out all cell functions. DNA is a form of chromosomes. It is the control system, and it Contains the nucleolus. ⚫Nucleolus- located in the nucleus, it is where ribosomes are made. ⚫🔵Mitochondria- power house of the cell, converts nutrients into energy ,which create energy for the cell. (Carry out cellular respiration.) Contain a special kind of DNA. ⚫🔵Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)- there is Smooth ER (no ribosomes), and Rough ER (contains ribosomes). Move molecules around the cell. Provide a home for the ribosomes, ER is the highway of the cell, it is passageways in which chemical compounds are manufactured, process ,and transported. ⚫🔵Ribosomes- small structure, where protein is made. ⚫Lysosomes- small sac that contain digestive chemicals. They are digestive enzymes that are used to break down cells or cell parts that are old or damage. Get rid of invading bacteria or viruses. Get rid of waste. ⚫🔵Golgi Body- golgi complex or apparatus. Stack of membranes that packages chemicals. Package molecules and label them to be transported. Creates vesicle. ⚫Centrioles- a pair of log shaped structures, or bundle of microtules that organize the movement of chromosomes during cell division. 🔵Vacuole- sac, or storage, that store food ,water, and waste for later use or elimination by the cell. Very large in plant cells. 🔵Cell Wall- gives cell structure, and support the cell, outer layer of a plant 🔵Chloroplasts- an organelle that converts the radiant energy of the sun into energy through the process of photosynthesis, it the site of photosynthesis, Contain pigments called chorophyll that gives the plant their green color.

Eukaryotes

⚫Animals, Plants, Fungi, Protists ▫️Very complex ▫️Can be either single celled or multi-cellular organisms. ▫️Large cells ▫️Have a nucleus which contains genetic information (DNA) ▫️They have many membrane bound oranelles to carry out cell functions

Domains

⚫The largest and most inclusive taxonomic category (above Kingdom!) Their are three 💡Eukarya Includes Kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Plantae & Animalia 💡Archaea Kingdom Archaebacteria 💡Bacteria Kingdom Eubacteria

Binomial Nomenclature

💡Classification system in which each species is assigned a two-part scientific name. ▫️(Genus, and species)

Naming Organisms

💡Common names of organisms can be confusing because the same organism can have more than one name, depending on the region or country where it is found. 💡Organisms' scientific names are created using binomial nomenclature, which use the genus and species name. 💡They have: ▫️A two part name ▫️Usually Latin roots ▫️1st word capitalized ▫️2nd word lower case ▫️Written in italics or underlined

3 types of symbiotic relationships:

💡Mutualism 💡Parasitism 💡Commensalism

The Seven Characteristics of Life

💡Responsiveness to the environment 💡Growth and change 💡Ability to reproduce 💡Have metabolism and breath 💡Maintain homeasis 💡Being made of cells 💡Passing traits on to offspring

Six Kingdoms

🔵Archaebacteria 🔵Eubacteria 🔵Protista 🔵Fungi 🔵Plantae 🔵Animalia

Protista Kingdom

🔵Kingdom composed of eukaryotes that are not classified as plants, animals, or fungi. 💡Cells: eukaryotic, mostly unicellular but can be both unicellular and multicellular 💡How obtain their energy: Can be both Heterotrophic (consumer) or Autotrophic (producer) 💡Reproduce: Both Asexual, and Sexual, but mostly asexual

Fungi Kingdom

🔵Kingdom composed of heterotrophs; many obtain energy and nutrients from dead organic matter. A diverse group of organisms that are neither plant nor animal. They absorb nutrition from other organisms while playing the important role of ecological decomposers. They have rigid cell walls and do not move independently. 🔈Cells: eukaryotic, both unicellular and multicellular, mostly multicellular. 🔈How obtain their energy: Heterotrophic (consumer), External heterotrophs - dissolves food outside the body. Fungi cannot make their own food. Most obtain their food from parts of plants that are decaying in the soil. 🔈Reproduce: Both Asexual, Sexual

Animalia Kingdom

🔵Kingdom of multicellular eukaryotic heterotrophs whose cells do not have cell walls. Animal make up the largest Kingdom. There are lots of different kinds of animals, such as mammals, birds, insects, reptiles and amphibians. All animals move on there own. Animals can be divide in to many groups. Members of the animal kingdom are found in the most diverse environments in the world. 🔈Cells - eukaryotic AND multicellular 🔈How obtain their energy? Heterotrophic (consumer), they can not make there own food so they have to find and eat food to survive. Internal heterotrophs - dissolves food inside the body 🔈Reproduce- Can be both Asexual or Sexual, but mostly Sexual

Plantae Kingdom

🔵Kingdom of multicellular photosynthetic autotrophs that have cell walls containing cellulose. 🔈Cells: eukaryotic AND multicellular 🔈How obtain their energy: Autotrophic (producer), They can make there own food using a process called photosynthesis. They use air, water and sunlight to make the food they need to survive. 🔈Reproduce: Both Asexual, Sexual.

Eubacteria Kingdom

🔵Kingdom of unicellular prokaryotes whose cell walls are made up of peptidoglycan. Most bacteria make up this kingdom. There are both good and bad types of bacteria. This kind of bacteria are everywhere. Bacteria make more of themselves by splitting in half. They live in the same environment as humans. 💡Cells: prokaryotic AND unicellular 💡How obtain their energy: Can be both Heterotrophic (consumer) or Autotrophic (producer) 💡Reproduce: Asexual

Archaebacteria Kingdom

🔵Kingdom of unicellular prokaryotes whose cell walls do not contain peptidoglycan. Bacteria that can survive in places no other organism could live. They are found in extreme environments. 💡Cells - prokaryotic AND unicellular 💡How obtain their energy? Can be both Heterotrophic (consumer) or Autotrophic (producer) 💡Reproduce-Asexual