Brain And Behavior Final
2 reasons why fat, rather than glycogen, is the primary mode of energy storage:
-A gram of fat can store almost twice as much energy as a gram of glycogen -Glycogen, unlike fat, attracts and holds substantial quantities of water
Positive-Incentive Perspective
-Developed to overcome shortcomings of set-point -Emphasize anticipated pleasure of eating -Animals response to eating It is the presence of good food, or the anticipation of it, that normally makes us hungry, not an energy deficit.
Give some reasons as to why some people become obese whereas others do not
-Differences in consumption -Differences in energy expenditure -Differences in Gut Microbiome Composition -Genetic and Epigenetic Factors
In the Retina-Geniculate-Striate System, the Pathway
-Nasal Hemi-Retinas Decussate at Optic Chiasm (Contralateral) -Temporal Hemi-Retinas stay Ipsilateral
What are the 3 different types of signals that regulate hormone release?
-Neural -Hormonal -Nonhormonal
What are the 3 defining characteristics of Alzheimer's Disease?
-Neurofibrillary tangles -Amyloid plaques -Neuron Loss
Organization of the Visual Cortex
-Neurons organized in VERTICAL COLUMS -Each neuron responds to Stimuli from SAME Part of the Retina -HALF CLUSTER Receive input from Left Eye/OTHER HALF Right Eye -Preferred Stimuli in Neurons More Complex Closer to Visual Corte
What are the different types of Hunger Peptides?
-Neuropeptide Y -Galanin -Orexin-A -Ghrelin
How are Cones & Rods Distributed in the Retina?
-No rods at all in the Fovea, ONLY CONES -At the boundaries of the foveal indentation, the proportion of Cones Declines markedly, & there is an Increase in the number of Rods
Color Constancy & Retinex
-Perceive same color despite changes in illumination -Allows objects to be distinguished in a memorable way -Land's experiments showed color perception depends partly on light reflectance. Proposed Retinex Algorithm
Castration
-Physical changes (e.g., Reduction of body hair, softening of skin, etc.) -Testosterone Replacement (Sex Drive)
What are the Endocrine Glands?
-Pineal -Hypothalamus -Pituitary -Thyroid -Parathyroid -Thymus -Adrenal -Pancreas -Ovary -Testis
Insulin and the Regulation of Body Fat
-Positively correlated with body fat -Receptors found in brain, accurate nucleus -Low doses reduce eating and body weight
The Evolution of Obesity on why there is a current epidemic obesity
-Prefer high-calorie foods -Eat minimum capacity -Store energy as fat -Use calories efficiently
Because of the Positive-Incentive Perspective, what were the responses to animals eating?
-Preferred flavors -Past experiences -The time since last meal -Others eating
What are 2 factors that influence when we eat?
-Premeal Hunger -Pavlovian Conditioning of Hunger
What is the pattern of release when it comes to the regulation of Hormone Levels?
-Pulsatile -Minute-to-minute fluctuations -Steady (no major systematic changes)
Cell Migration in the developing Neural Tube is considered to be of what 2 kinds?
-Radial -Tangential
Myth of Hypothalamic Hunger and Satiety Centers
-Rats overeat because they become obese (increase in Kioi genesis and decrease in lipolysis) -Arcuate nucleus target for Satiety center
Receptive-Field Hierarchy
-Receptive fields of many Retinal Ganglion Cells -Combine to form the Receptive Field of a SINGLE LGN Cell -Many LGN cells combine to form the Receptive Field of a SINGLE V1 Cell
What are the 5 different types of neurons/calls that make up the RETINA
-Receptors -Horizontal cells -Bipolar Cells -Amacrine Cells -Retinal Ganglion Cells
What is a summary of the steps of synaptic transmission?
1. Action potential moves into the presynaptic terminal 2. Action potential causes the opening of voltage gated CA2+ channels 3. Ca+ channels move to the presynaptic terminal and allows the synaptic vessicles to release their contents 4. Neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic receptor, receptors open its ion channel 5. Ion flux. Postsynaptic potential (xPSP) 6. STOP vua reuptake or breakdown of enzymes
What are the 4 lesion methods?`
1. Aspiration Lesions 2. Radio-frequency lesions 3. Knife cuts 4. Cryogenic Blockade
What are 2 examples of Agonists?
1. Benzodiazepines - GABA agonist 2. Nicotine - Acetylcholine agonist
What are 3 disadvantages to MRI?
1. Cost 2. Cannot scan someone with a pacemaker or who is too large to fit inside 3. Unpleasant - Noisy and you must stay still for a long period of time. Not good for claustrophobic people, or children.
What 5 methods are used to record human physiological activity from the body surface?
1. Electroencephalography 2. Muscle tension 3. Eye movement 4. Skin conductance 5. Cardiovascular activity
What 3 techniques are used to visualize the structure?
1. X-ray 2. CT 3. MRI
What are the 6 methods of investigating the brain?
1. X-rays 2. MRI scans 3. PET scans 4. Magnetoencephalography 5. Electroencephalography 6. Invasive Methods
What are the 3 things other than Cell Multiplication must Occur?
1.) Cells must Differentiate 2.) Cells must make their way to appropriate sites and align themselves with the cells around them to form particular structures 3.) Cells must establish appropriate functional relations with other cells In Summary: 5 phases of Neurodevelopment
What are the 4 stages of Color Vision at different levels of the Visual System
1.) Retina; Photoreceptors (Cones) 2.) Retina; RGCs 3.) RGCs ---> LGN (Parvocellular) 4.) LGN ----> V1
What are the 2 triggers that can cause Apoptosis Cell Death?
1.) Some developing neurons appear to be genetically programmed for an early death. Once they have fulfilled their purpose, groups of Neurons die together in the abscess of external forces. 2.) Fail to obtain the life-preserving chemicals that are supplied by their targets
What are the 3 important properties of an Ischemic-induced brain damage?
1.) Takes a while to develop. Soon after, a temporary episode. Usually is little to no evidence of brain damage. Substantial neuron lost can be detected a day or two later 2.) Does not occur equally in all parts of the brain 3.) Physiological mechanism varies
What are the 3 general ideas of Neural Development?
1.) The amazing nature of Neurodevelopment 2.) The important role of experience in Neurodevelopment 3.) The dire consequences of Neurodevelopmental errors
What are the 2 reasons that Epileptic Auras are important?
1.) The nature of it provides clues concerning the location of the epileptic focus 2.) Can warm the patient of an impending convulsion
What are the 2 specific criteria's that Stem Cells meet?
1.) They have an almost unlimited capacity for self-renewal if maintained in an appropriate cell culture 2.) They have the ability to develop into many different kinds of cells--they are either totipotent, pluripotent, or multipotent
What is the equilibrium potential of Na+?
120mV
Protein in muscle make up this percentage in the distribution of stored energy
14.5%
Generalized Seizures
Seizures that involve the entire brain
What are the two types of explicit long term memories?
Semantic and Episodic
In the hierarchical organization of sensory systems, what are the two general phases that sometimes divide the general processes of perceiving?
Sensation and Perception
What is the sensory function of the vagus cranial nerve?
Sensations from abdominal and thoracic organs
What type of role do the cerebellum and striatum play in memory?
Sensorimotor learning and tasks. Also suggested that they play a role in memory with no obvious motor component.
Top Down Signals
Sensory neurons that carry information in the opposite direction, from higher to lower levels.
Example of Deprivation of Neurodevelopment
Sensory restriction in rats have been extended to human babies born with cataracts in both eyes, which render them nearly blind. Cataracts were removed, between 1 and 9 months after birth, their vision was comparable to that of a newborn. Some aspects of vision improved quickly, but visual deficits were still present 2 years later.
What is the sensory function of the oculomotor cranial nerve?
Sensory signals from certain eye muscles
What is the sensory function of the trochlear cranial nerve?
Sensory signals from certain eye muscles
What are the two main cortical streams of auditory analysis?
Signals are ultimately conducted to two large areas of association cortex: the prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex. Its hypothiezed that the anterior auditory pathway is more involved in identifying sounds (what) and the posterior auditory pathway is more involved in locating sounds (where).
Fourier analysis breaks down complex sounds into component ____________ waves.
Sine
Pure Tones
Sine wave vibrations which only exist in laboratories and sound recording studios.
The development of the human brain is unique in one respect: The human brain develops far more ____________ than other brains of other species
Slowly
Saccades
Small jerky movements, or flicks
Nootropics
Smart Drugs. That purportedly improve memory. Ginkgo biloba, ginseng, multivitamens, glucose, cholinergic agonists, Piracetam, antioxidants, phospholipids, stimulants, etc. Most research on them has been done on non humans or humans with memory difficulties like the elderly. The relevant research tends to be of low quality and for each nootropic, there are typically few positive findings with findings often difficult to replicate. None have proved to have memory-enhancing effects.
Olfaction
Smell
What is the function of the olfactory cranial nerve?
Smell
What ion channels open what the threshold is reached?
Sodium
Where do EPSPs / IPSPs end?
Soma (before the dendrite)
What are sensations from the body referred to as?
Somatosensations
The dorsal-columns medial-lemniscus system and the anterolateral system are pathways of the ________________ system.
Somatosensory
The ventral posterior nuclei, intralaminar nuclei and the parafascicular nuclei are all thalamic nuclei of the ________________ system.
Somatosensory
What system mediates somatosensations?
Somatosensory System
What happens if you stimulate the postcentral gyrus?
Somatosensory sensations in various parts of the body.
What is Differentiate?
Some cells become muscle cells, some become multipolar neurons, some become glial cells
What is an Embryo?
Start to get some development. You have 3 different layers where the cells are going. Kind of looks like an "alien" or little Shrek, but developing into an organism. THE RETINA IS USUALLY THE FIRST THINGS THAT DEVELOPS. 2 to 8 weeks
Where is the reticular activating system (RAS) located?
Starts in the medulla, continues through the midbrain, and up into the cortex.
The Male Gonadal Hormones are
Steady
How do the various cutaneous receptors of the somatosensory system tend to function in the same way?
Stimuli applied to the skin deform or change the chemistry of the receptor and this in turn changes the permeability of the receptor cell membrane to various ions.
Short Term Memory
Storage of information for brief periods time while a person attends to it.
Skeletal Muscle (Extrafusal Muscle)
Striated muscle that is attached to the skeleton and is usually under voluntary control.
Subcortical structure that has been linked to habit formation: _________________.
Striatum
Psychopharmacology
Study of how drugs affect nervous system and behavior
Pharmacodynamics
Study of the physiological and biochemical interaction of drug molecules with cell receptors in target tissue
Where are Adult Human stem cells located for Adult Neurogenesis?
Sub Granular Zone of the Dentate Gyrus of the Hippocampus & Subventricular Zone of the Forebrain
Where is the primary auditory cortex located?
Temporal Lobe
What unit is FMRI measured in?
Tesla
What is the purpose of the Morris water maze, and what is it?
Tests spatial abilities Rat must find the hidden platform in a opaque pool.
What do experiments on monkeys tell us about the roles of the various descending sensorimotor tracts?
That the two ventromedial tracts are involved in the control of posture and whole-body movements like walking and climbing and can exert control over limb movements with those activities, while both dorsolateral tracts control the movements of the limbs. But, only the corticospinal division of the dorsolateral system is capable of mediating independent movements of digits.
Sensitivity
The ability to detect the presence of dimly lit objects
Acuity
The ability to see the detail of objects
Cocktail Party Phenomenon
The ability to unconsciously monitor the contents of one conversation while consciously focused on another. Suggests that the brain can block from conscious awareness all stimuli except those of a particular kind while still unconsciously monitoring the blocked out stimuli just in case something comes up that requires one's attention.
Androstenedione
The adrenal androgen that is responsible for the growth of pubic hair and axillary hair in human females
Long Term Depression (LTD)
A long-lasting decrease in synaptic efficacy (the flip side of LTP) that occurs in response to prolonged low-frequency stimulation of presynaptic neurons.
What is the major cause of nerve deafness?
A loss of hair cell receptors.
Morris Water Maze Test
A pool of milky water that has a global platform invisible just beneath the surface and is used to study the ability of rats to learn spatial locations. Intact rats learn quick, rats with hippocampal lesions learn with great difficulty.
Anosmia is caused by damage to the ________________ system.
Olfactory
Where are Adult Animal stem cells located for Adult Neurogenesis?
Olfactory Bulb & SVZ of Lateral Ventricle
In terms of size changing, compare PSPs to APs.
PSPs = decremental APs = nondecremental
In terms of speed, compare PSPs and APs.
PSPs = fast APs = slower
In terms of energy use, compare PSPs and APs.
PSPs = passive APs = active and passive
The periaqueducatal gray and the raphé nuclei are involved in blocking the perception of ________________.
Pain
Complementary Colors
Pairs of colors (e.g. green light & red light) that produce white or gray when combined in equal measure
Antagonistic Muscles
Pairs of muscles that act in opposition.
Synergistic Muscles
Pairs of muscles whose contraction produces a movement in the same direction.
What is a token test?
Can detect language related deficits
Neurogenesis (Gliogenesis)
Cell proliferation produces cells that become neurons or glial cells The growth of new neurons.
Although the _____________ constitutes only 10% of the mass of the brain, it contains more than half of the brains neurons.
Cerebellum
Mesencephalic structure that has been implicated in the retention of eye-blink conditioning and other learned sensorimotor skills: _________________.
Cerebellum
Which sensorimotor structures are important but not a major part of the pathway which signals descent through the sensorimotor hierarchy?
Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia; they interact with different levels of the hierarchy and in doing so coordinate and modulate its activities.
Although both are considered to be motor structures, damage to the _____________ or the _____________ also produce cognitive changes.
Cerebellum; Basal Ganglia
What are the 4 parts of the Telencephalon?
Cerebral cortex Limbic system Basal ganglia Central Commissures
Stretch Reflex
A reflexive counteracting reaction to an unanticipated external stretching force on a muscle. The function is to keep external forces from altering the intended position of the body. When an external force causes an anticipated extrafusal muscle stretch, the muscle-spindle feedback circuit produces an immediate compensatory contraction of the muscle that counteracts the force. Monosynaptic.
Drugs
Chemical compounds administered to produce a desired change in the body
What is the function of the Thalamocortal System?
Core of human consciousness
Retinotopic
Organized, like the primary visual cortex, according to a map of the retina.
The incus is an ______________.
Ossicle
Alzheimer's disease is associated with degeneration of the basal forebrain and resulting in depletion of ___________________.
Acetylcholine
What is Atropine?
Ach anagonist. It binds and blocks muscarinic receptors in the brain, resulting in memory loss.
What is Curare?
Ach antagonist. Binds and blocks nicotinic receptors, resulting in paralysis
What has research in transgenic mice revealed about Alzheimer's disease?
Activating engram cells leads to the retrieval of memories that are otherwise inaccessible which suggests that memory deficits of the disease are retrieval deficits rather than encoding deficits.
Apoptosis Cell Death
Active cell death. DNA and other internal structures are cleaves apart and packages in membranes before the cell breaks apart. If worse, can lead to cancer
Effector Mechanism
Acts to eliminate the deviations Ex. Heater
What is L-DOPA?
Parkinson's Disease can be alleviated by injections of this. The chemical from which the body synthesizes Dopamine
Object-Based Contralateral Neglect
Part of contralateral neglect, patients failing to respond to the left side of objects (Ex: the left side of a statue) even when the objects are presented horizontally or upside-down.
What is a fissure?
Part of the brain where there is no tissue. Like a large canyon.
Exteroceptive System
Part of the somatosensory system which senses external stimuli that are applied to the skin. This system comprises 3 distinct divisions: -Mechanical stimuli (Touch) -Thermal stimuli (Temperature) -Nociceptive stimuli (Pain)
Necrosis Cell Death
Passive cell death. The cells break apart and spill their contents into extra cellular fluid
Amygdala and Sexual Activity
Plays a role in the identification of potential mating partners
Explain how the pupil and the lens can affect the image that falls on the retina
The amount of light reaching the RETINA is regulated by the IRISES. Light -----> enters through the PUPIL. The pupil size adjusts to changes in illumination making a compromise between SENSITIVITY & ACUITY. Behind each pupil is a lense & cillary muscles = Increase ability of the lense to refract
Growth Hormone
The anterior pituitary hormone that acts directly on bone and muscle tissue to produce the pubertal growth spurt
When is an angiography used?
Post stroke, or for tumour detection.
Where do EPSPs / IPSPs start?
Postsynaptic terminal
Cephalic Phase
Preparatory phase; Often begins with the sight, smell, or just the thought of food, and it ends when the dood starts to be absorbed into the bloodstream
The _____________ cortex is the main point of departure of motor signals from the cerebral cortex to lower levels of the sensorimotor hierarchy.
Primary Motor
Visual Information travels from the Striate Cortex (Occipital Lobe) through the
Primary Visual Cortex
Tropic Hormones
Primary function is to influence the release of hormones from other glands; Means "able to stimulate or change something"
What is another name for the precentral gyrus?
Primary motor cortex
What is another name for the postcentral gyrus?
Primary somatosensory cortex
Example of Synaptogenesis
Primary visual and auditory cortexes, there is a major burst of synaptogenesis in the fourth postnatal month, and maximum Synapse density (150 % of adult levels) is achieved in the seventh or eight postnatal month
What are the three types of sensory cortex?
Primary, Secondary and Association Cortex.
Positive-Incentive Value
The anticipated pleasure associated with a particular action, such as taking a drug.
What can damage to the posterior parietal cortex produce?
Deficits in the perception and memory of spatial relationships, reaching and grasping accuracy, eye movement control, attention, and more. The two most striking are apraxia and contralateral neglect.
Set-point Mechanism
Defines the set point Ex. Thermostat
What causes Parkinson's Disease?
Degeneration of Dopamine Neurons in Substantia Nigra
Where do EPSPs / IPSPs occur?
Dendrites
New neurons that are added to the hippocampus is an adult mammal are created near the ________ gyrus
Dentate
What are the two major somatosensory pathways?
Dorsal-Column Medial-Lemniscus System and Anterolateral System
The _____________ prefrontal cortex seems to play an important role in imitating complex voluntary responses.
Dorsolateral
What are the two descending dorsolateral motor pathways of the spinal cord?
Dorsolateral Corticospinal Tract and the Dorsolateral Corticorubrospinal Tract.
Pituitary Glands
Entry of chemicals that influence pituitary hormones
Area Postrema
Entry of toxic substances that induce vomiting
Liking
Evaluation of pleasure; Involves opioid and benzodiazepine-GABA systems
Medial Diencephalic Amnesia
Associated with damage to the medial diencephalon. Amnesia, or Korsakoff's Amnesia.
Describe the process of Axon Growth
At each growing tip of an Axon or Dendrite is an Amoebalike structure called a GROWTH CONE, which extends and retracts fingerlike cytoplasmic extensions called FILOPODIA, as if searching for the correct route Capable of precise growth and suggested how it occurs. Growth comes seem to be influenced by a series of chemical and physical signals along the route Other signals that guide growing axons come from adjacent growing axons PIONEER GROWTH CONES FASCICULATION Axonal Development in Complex Nervous Systems involves growth from one topographic array of neurons to another
Where to APs occur?
Axon
What is axonaxonic transmission?
Axon to Axon
What is Axosomatic transmission?
Axons on cell bodies
Necessary when the adult human brain was assumed to be immutable:
Because the brain couldn't change, energy resources had to be highly regulated
Why did the discovery of mirror neurons in the ventral premotor area cause such a stir?
Because they provide a possible mechanism for social cognition (knowledge of perceptions, ideas and intentions of others) which means that mapping the actions of others unto one's own action repertoire facilitates social understanding, cooperation and imitation. Support for this comes from the idea that these neurons respond to the understanding of a purpose of an action, not to superficial characteristics of the action itself. However, research on humans is slim and there is no direct evidence that these neurons are responsible for the similar findings found in monkeys. Its possible that different neurons in the same cortical areas contribute to the functional activity even though the same areas of cortex as those identified in monkeys are similar.
What is a gyrus?
Brain tissue. like a mountain.
Gliomas
Brain tumors that develop from Glial Cells are infiltrating, rapidly growing, and unfortunately common
Metabolism
Breakdown of drug
Ketones
Breakdown products of free fatty acids that are used by muscles as a source of energy during the fasting phase
How is Na+ driven to move?
By both the electrostatic forces and its concentration gradient
What is the activity of skeletal muscles monitored by?
By two kinds of receptors: Golgi Tendon Organs and Muscle Spindles. They respond to different aspects of muscle contraction.
Nutritive Density
Calories per unit volume of a food
Neurotransmitters
Can be specific to certain receptors, but a drug may be more specific than the endogenous neurotransmitter
HM was virtually incapable of forming new long term ___________________ memories.
Explicit
Semantic Memories
Explicit memories for general facts or knowledge. Such as language ability and factual knowledge.
Episodic Memories
Explicit memories for the particular events and experiences in one's life. Also called autobiographical memory. Been likened to travelling back in time mentally and experiencing one's past. Trouble with remembering experiences from daily life.
What are oligodendrocytes?
Extentions rich in myelin that create myselin sheaths in CNS.
Exogenous Attention
External event attention such as an animal knocking over a lamp - attention is drawn outward. Thought to be bottom up.
A small area of frontal cortex called the frontal _____________ plays a role in the control of eye movement.
Eye field.
What is the motor function of the oculomotor cranial nerve?
Eye movement and pupillary constriction
What happens if you damage the primary somatosensory cortex?
Effects are often mile because the system features numerous parallel pathways similar to the effects of damage to the primary auditory cortex.
What is the motor function of the facial cranial nerve?
Facial expression, secretion of tears, salvation.
Subcutaneous Fat
Fat stored under the skin
Lipids
Fats
What is the seventh step of Digestion?
Fats are emulsified (broken into droplets) by bile, which is manufactured in the liver and stored in the gall bladder until it is released into the duodenum. Emulsified fat cannot pass through the duodenum wall and is carried by small ducts in the duodenum wall into the lymphatic system
A single sperm cell may
Fertilize am Ovum to form a Zygote
Filopodia
Fingerlike cytoplasmic extensions on Growth Cone, searching for the correct route
Urethral Folds
Fuse in the male or enlarge to become the Labia Minora in the female
The FASTING PHASE is characterized by high blood levels of
GLYCOGEN and low levels of insulin Without high levels of insulin, glucose has difficulty entering most of the body cells; thus, glucose stops being the primary fuel This saves the body's glucose for the brain, because insulin is not required for glucose to enter most brain cells. The low levels of insulin also promotes the conversion of glycogen and protein to glucose.
What are Radial Glial Cells?
Glial cells that exist in the Neural Tube during the period of Neural Migration and that form a network along which Radial Migration Occurs. Some Radial Glial Cells are Stem Cells.
Origination
Gliomas originate from Glial Cells (often infiltrating). Meningiomas grow in the Meninges (Encapsulated and benign)
Describe the spatial and temporal resolution of FMRI
Good spatial resolution, poor temporal resolution.
Depth of Focus
Greater range of depths is simultaneously kept in focus
What is the Key part to Topographic Gradient Hypothesis?
Growing axons are guided by their destinations by 2 intersecting signal gradients (Ex. Anterior-Posterior Gradient & Medial-Lateral Gradient)
What is an example of a colony intruder paradigm?
Have a rat, and put a strange rat in its cage.
What is an absolute refractory period? Why is it a thing?
Impossible to initiate another action potential. This keeps the neurons from dying.
Ocular Dominance Column
In layer of IV of the primary visual cortex are largely developed at birth. Blindfolding one eye for several days during the first few months of life reorganizes the system. The width of the columns of input from the deprived eye is decreased, and the width of the columns of input from the non deprived eye is increased
Positive Reinforcement
Increase Behavior & Add to environment
Negative Reinforcement
Increase Behavior + Remove from environment
What is an agonist?
Increase activity like a neurotransmitter
Myelination
Increases the speed of Axonal conduction, and the myelination of various areas of the human brain during development roughly parallels their functional development. Sensory area occurs in the first few months after birth, and myelination of the motor areas follows soon after that, whereas myelination of the prefrontal cortex continues into adulthood
Meningitis
Inflammation of the Meninges, usually caused by bacterial infection
Unimodal
Involving one system.
Cerebral Ischemia
Is a disruption of the blood supply to an area of the brain. 3 main causes
Aneurysm
Is a pathological balloon-like dilation that forms in the wall of an artery at a point where the elasticity of the artery wall is defective Can occur in any part of the body. Can be Congenital
Digestion
Is the gastrointestinal process of breaking down food & absorbing its constituents into the body; The process by which food is broken down & observed through the lining of the gastrointestinal tract
The function of Insulin during the Cephalic Phase
Is to lower the levels of bloodborne fuels, primarily glucose, in anticipation of the impending influx
The function of Insulin during the Absorptive Phase
Is to minimize the increasing levels of bloodborne fuels by utilizing and storing them
Support for the view that hippocampal damage can by itself cause amnesia comes from the study of R.B., who suffered ___________________ damage to the pyramidal cells of his CA1 hippocampal subfield.
Ischemic
How would EEG relate to epilepsy?
It can pinpoint the exact location of the brain that has the seizure.
How is Cl- driven to move?
It does not move - it is at equilibrium.
What is the brain?
It is a PLASTIC changeable living organ that continuously changes in response to its GENETIC PROGRAMS & ENVIRONMENT
Pharmacodynamics: How drugs act
It is a basic principle of pharmacology that the pharmacological, physiological, or behavioral effects induced by a drug follow from their interaction with receptors -Pharmacokinetics -Pharmacodynamics
Drug Reward
Refers to the positive experience associated with the drug
What body parts is the smaller proportion of SI dedicated to receiving inputs from?
Large areas of the body like the back which are not normally used to make somatosensory discriminations.
Betz Cells
Large pyramidal neurons of the primary motor cortex whose axons form part of the dorsolateral corticospinal tract. Extremely large neurons.
What difference does it make if an axon is insulated with myelin?
Less gates to it takes less time for the signal to travel.
One function of the superior olives is sound ______________.
Localization
What is the chemical protection of the brain?
The blood-brain-barrier
Countercoup Injuries
The blow causes the brain to strike the inside of the skull on the other side of the head
What do more severe blows to the head tend to produce?
Longer comes, with longer periods of confusion and then longer periods of amnesia.
The foot area of the motor homunculus is in the _____________ fissure.
Longitudinal
What is Magnetencephalography (MEG)?
Measurement of magnetic field due to brain activity
What is the function of an FMRI
Measures blood flow increase and decrease
What is the one division of the midbrain?
Mesencephalon
What is the function of the superior colliculus?
Relays visual information
Acetylcholine
Released by motor neurons at neuromuscular junctions. Activates the motor end-plate on each muscle fibre and causes the fiber to contract.
What is the function of the Periaqueductal Grey (PAG)?
Releases endorphins.
What is the second step of Digestion?
Saliva lubricates food and begins its digestion
What is the Digestion Flow?
Salivary Glands ----> Esophagus -----> Stomach -----> Liver -------> Pyloric Sphincter -------> Gall bladder --------> Pancreas ---------> Duoderium-----> Large Intestine or Colon --------> Small Intestine ---------> Anus
How many steps are there to Digestion?
8
Fat in Adipose make up this percentage in the distribution of stored energy
85%
How many neurons in the body are there?
86 Billion
What is a x-ray computed tomography?
A CT or CAT scan. It takes 2-D images and combines them to make a 3D image.
Meal
A bout of eating
Auditory Nerve
A branch of cranial nerve VIII (auditory-vestibular nerve) that carries auditory from the hair cells in the basilar membrane.
What is an Antagonist?
decrease activity, blocks receptor.
What is electron microscopy?
provides information about the details of neuronal structure. Lots of detail.
What is the motor function of the vagus cranial nerve?
control over abdominal and thoracic organs and muscles of the throat.
what does distal mean?
far
What is the sympathetic nerves known to do?
fight or flight
What is a frontal/coronal cut of the brain?
like a cut of a slice of bread
Are the second stage neurons of the parasympathetic nervous system near or far from the target organ?
near
What is the function of the Cingulate Gyrus?
positive or negative emotional responses, attention, subjectivity to pain
Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus
The nucleus in the medial preoptic area of rats that is larger in Males than in Females
What is grey matter?
The outer area of the spinal cord, mainly myelinated axons
Adrenal Cortex
The outer layer of each adrenal gland, which releases glucocorticoids in response to stressors, as well as small amounts of steroid hormones
In the Scotopic System
The output of several hundred rods converges on a single retinal ganglion cell
Sex Chromosomes
The pair of chromosomes that determine an individuals genetic sex X Chromosomes Y Chromosomes
Cephalic & Absorptive Phases
The pancreas releases a great deal of insulin into the bloodstream and very little glucagon
Posterior Pituitary
The part of the pituitary gland that contains the terminals of hypothalamic neurons
Anterior Pituitary
The part of the pituitary gland that releases tropic hormones
Embolism
The plug called an embolus is carried by the blood from a larger vessel, where it was formed, to a smaller one, where it becomes lodged. It has taken a trip
Settling Point
The point at which various factors that influence the level of some regulated function (such as body weight) achieve an equilibrium
What two parts of the brain are located within the metencephalon?
The pons and the cerebellum.
Estrus
The portion of the estrous cycle characterized by proceptivity, sexual receptivity, and fertility
What is equilibrium potential?
The potential at which there is no net movement of an ion - the potential it will move to achieve when allowed to move freely.
What is the main difference between the sensory and sensorimotor system?
The primary direction of information flow. In sensory systems the information mainly flows up through the hierarchy and in the sensorimotor system the information mainly flows down.
What is the fourth step of Digestion?
The primary function of the stomach is to serve as a storage reservoir. The hydrochloric acid in the stomach breaks food down into small particles, and pepsin begins the process of breaking down protein molecules to amino acids
What is Magnetic Resonance Imaging based off of?
The principles of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR).
What is exocytosis?
The process of NT release
Sensation
The process of detecting the presence of stimuli.
Stereogenosis
The process of identifying objects by touch.
Orchidectomy
The removal of testes; No erection/reduced sexual motivation
Bilateral Medial Temporal Lobectomy
The removal of the medial portions of both temporal lobes, including the hippocampus, the amygdala and the adjacent cortex.
Ovariectomy
The removal of the ovaries
What are the vibrations of the cochlear fluid ultimately dissipated by?
The round window, an elastic membrane in the cochlea wall.
Fasciculation
The tendency of developing axons to grow along the paths established by preceding axons
Gonads
The testis and the ovaries
Duodenum
The upper portion of the intestine through which most of the glucose and amino acids are absorbed into the bloodstream
Arteriosclerosis
The walls of blood vessels thicken and the channels narrow. Usually as the result of fat deposits. This narrowing can eventually lead to complete blockage of the blood vessels
Olfactory Bulbs
Their output goes primarily to the amygdala and piriform cortex.
Scotopic System
Think BLACK & WHITE Rod-mediated vision, which predominates in dim light -Dark/Dim Vision -Rods -Low-Acuity -high Convergence -High Intensity with many receptors -Periphery
Summarize the process of digestion
To supply itself with energy and other nutrients, the tube puts food into one of its two holes--the one with teeth--and passes the food along its internal canal so that the food can be broken down and partially absorbed from the canal into the body. The leftovers of what we ingest are jettisoned from the other end.
1980's Koopman's experiment
Transplanted an extra stomach and large intestine into rats and then joined the major arteries and veins of the implants to the recipients' circulatory systems. Found that food injected into the transplanted stomach and kept there by a noose around the Pyloric Sphincter decreases eating in proportion to both its caloric content and volume
Clonus
Tremors
Thomas Young & Helmholtz
Trichromatic theory (Component Theory) -3 different kinds of Color Receptors (Cones), with a different spectral sensitivity; Color of a particular stimulus is presumed to be encoded by the ratio of activity in the 3 kinds of receptors -Any color of the Visible Spectrum can be matched by mixing together 3 different Wavelengths of light in different proportions -Can be accomplished with any 3 wavelengths, provided that the color of any one of them cannot be matched by mixing of the other 2 -3 is NORMALLY MINIMUM number of different wavelengths necessary to match every color suggested that there were 3 TYPES OF RECEPTORS
What are Indolamines synthesized from?
Tryptophan
Benign Tumor
Tumors that are surgically removable with little risk of further growth in the body
Medullary Pyramids
Two bulges on the ventral surface of the medulla.
Cingulate Motor Areas
Two small areas of secondary motor cortex located in the cortex of the cingulate gyrus of each hemisphere.
What are learning and memory?
Two ways of thinking about the same thing, they're neuroplastic processes dealing with the brain's ability to change its functioning in response to experience.
What are catecholamines synthesized from?
Tyrosine
Describe the steps in Pavlovian conditioning
UCS ---> USR UCS + CS ---> USR CS ---> USR
Impotent
Unable to achieve and erection
Male (XY)
Under the influence of Sry Protein, the medulla of the primordial gonad develops into a testis
External Reproductive Organs of Male (XY)
Under the influence of testicular testosterone, the Wolffian System develops, and Müllerian-inhibiting substance causes the Müllerian System to degenerate
What is electrical stimulation for?
Used to activate a structure that has been inactivated by lesioning.
What is a colony intruder paradigm?
Used to test aggression and defensive behaviour.
Rabies
Usually transmitted through the bite of a particular animal. Fits of rage caused by the virus's effects on the brain increase the probability that these types of animals attack by biting Ex. Dogs, cats, raccoons, bats, & mice it will spread the disorder. Effects on the brain are almost always lethal. The virus does not usually attack the brain for at least a month after it has been contracted, allowing time for preventative vaccinations
How do axons descend from the primary motor cortex to the dorsolateral spinal cord tracts?
Via the medullary pyramids on the ventral surface of the medulla and the red nucleus of the midbrain.
Mumps & Herpes
Viruses that can attack the nervous system but have no special affinity for it. Can sometimes spread to the brain, typically attack other tissues of the body.
What is the function of the optic cranial nerve?
Vision
Prosopagnosia
Visual agnosia for faces that can be acquired either during development or as a result of brain injury -Inability to recognize faces -Specific área of brain dedicated to facial recognition -Possibly neurons of inferotemporal Cortex -May not be specific to faces: Reports of farmer, May be difficult distinguishing between visually similar members of stimuli -Damage to Fusiform Face Area: Confirmed Prosopagnosia Sufferers could recognize faces Unconsciously -May not be Unitary Disorder
Cerebral Abscesses
When bacteria infect the brain. They often lead to this. Pockets of puss in the brain
Describe the processes of Synapse Rearrangement
When cells die, Neurons that have incorrect corrections are likely to die. The space they leave vacant on Postsynaptic Membranes is Dulles by the sprouting Axon terminals of surviving neurons. Cell death results in a massive rearrangement is synaptic connections
What did Sperry discover in his eye rotation experiment?
When he dangled a lure begins the frogs, they struck forward, indicating their visual world like their eyes had been rotated 180 degrees. Frogs whose eyes had been rotated but whose Optic Nerve was not cut, responses exactly the same way.
How does learning change the nature and locus of sensorimotor control?
When initially learning a skill like typing or dancing, each response is performed under conscious control. After much practice, the individual responses become organized into continuous integrated sequences of action that flow smoothly and are adjusted by sensory feedback unconsciously.
What is relative refractory period?
When it is harder to initiate another action potential, but not impossible. More EPSPs are needed.
What happens in the Inhibitory Response of Rods to Light
When light bleaches Rhodopsin molecules, the rods' sodium channels close; As a result, the rods become hyperpolarized and release less glutamate
How do Contusion Injuries occur?
When the brain slams against the inside of the skull
What is the all-or-none response?
When the threshold is reached, the neuron "fires" and the action potential either occurs completely, or not at all.
Concussion
When there is disturbance of consciousness following a blow to the head and there is no evidence of contrition or other structural damage. Temporary disruption of normal cerebral function with no long-term damage. Now evidence say can last many hears & that the effects can accumulate from repeated ones
Ciliary Muscles
When we direct our gaze at something near, the tension on the ligaments holding each lens in place is adjusted; Assuming it's natural cylindral shape
What is the median eminence?
Where the blood brain barrier is not complete.
What is roof plate?
Which runs along the midline of the dorsal surface of the tube
What is Cryogenic blockade?
a reversible lesion - used to see if a behavior will come back.
What are schwann cells?
similar to the function of the oligodendrocytes but in PNS, can guide axonal regeneration.
General Paresis
the syndrome of mental illness and dementia that results from a syphilitic infection
Ossicles
the three small bones of the middle ear: the malleus (hammer), the incus (anvil), and the stapes (stirrup). Vibrations from the tympanic membrane are transferred here and then the vibrations of the stapes trigger vibrations of the oval window.
What is dura mater?
the tough outer membrane
What is Arachnoid mater?
web like, the CSF flows through
Describe the effects of Monocular Deprivation of the Development if Ocular Dominance Columns
Depriving one eye of input for a few days early in life has a lasting adverse effect on vision in the deprived eye, but this does not happen if the other eye is also blindfolded. When only one eye is blindfolded, the ability of that eye to activate the visual cortex is reduced, whereas the biking of the other eye is increased. Both of these occur because early Monocular Deprivation changes the pattern of Synaptic input into layer IV of the primary visual cortex
Why is Fluoro - L - Dopa used over dopamine in PET scans?
Dopamine does not cross the blood brain barrier.
What is the Settling Point Model?
Each lesson has their point of body weight and they will stay near their Settling Point as long as some long term action doesn't take place like repeated binge-eating episodes or becoming very active without changing their calorie intake. As long as you do and eat the relatively same things of your already established habit you will stay where you are in respects to body weight
Describe the Glucostatic Theory:
Eating is regulated by some type of set-point system speculated about the nature of the regulation Eating is regulated by a system designed to maintain a blood glucose set point-the idea being that we become hungry when our blood glucose levels drop significantly below their set point and that we become satiated when eating returns our blood glucose levels to their set point
In the autonomic nervous system, are the nerves efferent or afferent?
Efferent
What nervous are in the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves?
Efferent
Predementia Alzheimer's Patients
Efforts to understand the neural basis for Alzheimer's has focused on this group of people. Memory deficits of these parties are more general than those associated with medial temporal lobe damage, media diencephalic damage or those with Korsakoff's syndrome. Along with major anterograde and retrograde deficits in tests of explicit memory, they often display deficits in short term and some types of implicit memory. Their implicit memory for verbal and perceptual material is often deficient, whereas implicit memory for sensorimotor learning isn't.
Post-traumatic amnesia can be induced with ___________________ shock, which is used in the treatment of depression.
Electroconvulsive
How does an MRI work?
Emit frequencies that make the hydrogen atoms spin in a particular frequency and direction.
Structure
Encapsulated grow within own membrane. Infiltrating grow diffusely through surrounding tissue
What is an example of a Neuropeptides?
Endorphins
The change in the brain that sore memories are called ___________________.
Engrams
Area of medial temporal cortex that participates in spatial memory through its hippocampal projections: _________________.
Entorhinal Cortex
Grid Cells
Entorhinal neurons that each have an extensive array of evenly spaced place fields, producing a pattern reminiscent of graph paper.
What is the medial temporal cortex composed of?
Entorhinal, perirhinal and parahippocampal cortices.
Pineal Gland
Entry of chemicals that affect day-night cycles
Describe the Lipostatic Theory
Every person has a set point for body fat, and deviations from this set point produce compensatory adjustments in the level of eating that return levels of body fat to their set point
Learned taste preferences and aversions
Ex. Rats learn to prefer flavors they experience in mother's milk and those that they smell on breath of other rats In humans, many food preferences are culturally specific
What is the motor function for the Abducen cranial nerve?
Eye movement
What is the motor function of the trochlear cranial nerve?
Eye movement
High levels of fasting-phase glucagon promote the release of
FREE FATTY ACIDS from adipose tissue and their use as the body's primary fuel
What is the sensory function of the trigeminal cranial nerve?
Facial sensations
Agnosia
Failure of recognition (gnosis means to know) that is not attributable to sensory deficit or to verbal or intellectual impairment
Are the second stage neurons in the sympathetic nerves near or far from the target organ?
Far
Visceral Fat
Fat stored around the internal organs of the body cavity
Border Cells
Fire when the subject tis near the borders of its immediate environment.
The highest frequency of which the various component frequencies of a sound are multiplies is their ____________ frequency.
Fundamental
What is another name for a Metabotropic receptor?
G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR)
What does Aspartate bind to?
GABA
What is the most prevalent inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS?
GABA
What is an example of Receptive Fields of Visual Neurons
Ganglion cells CONVERGE to form the receptive field of the next level of cells
What causes Down Syndrome?
Genetic accident is another major cause of Neuropsychological disorders of genetic origin. Genetic accident associated with it, occurs in the mother during ovulation. When an extra chromosome 21 is created in the egg. When the egg fertilizes, there are 3 chromosome 21s rather than 2 in the Zygote.
What causes Alzheimer's Disease?
Genetics
Exocrine Glands
Glands that release chemicals into ducts that carry them to targets, mostly on the surface of the body
The conversion of protein to glucose is called:
Gluconeogenesis
What is GABA synthesized from?
Glutamate
What is the most prevalent excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS?
Glutamate
NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) Receptors
Glutamate receptors that play key roles in the development of stroke-induced brain damage and long-term potentiation at glutaminergic synapses
Why is FAT the body's preferred way of storing energy?
Glycogen, which is largely stored in the liver & muscles, might be expected to be the body's preferred mode of energy storage because it is so readily converted to glucose -- the body's main directly utilizable source of energy
What are the three main neuroanatomical techniques?
Golgi stain, Nissl stain, and electron microscopy
Sexual Differentiation
Gonadal differentiation begins at 6 weeks gestation -At 6 weeks after conception, the primordial gonads of XX and XY individuals are identical
Glans
Grows on the head of the penis (male) or the clitoris in the (female)
Ageusia is caused by damage to the ________________ system.
Gustatory
Parts of the ventral posterior nuclei are thalamic relay nuclei of both the somatosensory system and the ________________ system.
Gustatory
Unlike the neuronal projections of all other sensory systems, those of the ________________ system are primarily ipsilateral.
Gustatory
Describe Sperry's eye rotation experiments and the important theoretical point that were made
He cut the Optic nerves of frogs, rotated their eyeballs 180 degrees, and waited for the axons of the Retinal Ganglion Cells, which compose the Optic Nerve to Regenerate (grow again). Frogs unlike mammals, have retinal ganglion cells that regenerate. Once the regeneration was complete, he uses a convenient behavioral test to asses the frogs visual capacities.
FMRI looks at the magnetic resonance of what?
Hemoglobin
Where do APs start?
Hillocic
Adult rats living in enriched environments produced 60 % more _____________ neurons
Hippocampal
Medial temporal lobe structure first implicated in spatial memory: _________________.
Hippocampus
What are the major structures of the medial temporal lobes?
Hippocampus, amygdala, and medial temporal cortex.
Protein Hormones
Hormones that are long chains of amino acids
Peptide Hormones
Hormones that are short chains of amino acids
Steroid Hormones
Hormones that are synthesized from cholesterol Ex. Testosterone, Cortisol
Amino Acid Derivative Hormones
Hormones that are synthesized in a few simple steps from amino acids Modification of amino acids. Ex. Tryptophan, Tyrosine
The Binding Problem
How the brain combines individual sensory attributes to produce integrated perceptions. A possible solution is that there is a single area of cortex at the top of the sensory hierarchy receiving signals from all other areas of the various sensory systems and puts them together to form perceptions. The claustrum is the brain area thought to be the potential location for the binding of sensory information and its made up of a fine sheet of neurons located underneath the Neo-cortex towards the middle of the brain.
Set Point
Hunger & eating are normally triggered when the body's energy resources fall below a prescribed optimal level; The value of a physiological parameter that is maintained constantly by physiological or behavioral mechanisms
Supraoptic Nuclei
Hypothalamic nuclei in which the hormones of the posterior pituitary are synthesized
Paraventricular Nuclei
Hypothalamic nuclei that play a role in eating and synthesize hormones released by the posterior pituitary
Conditioned Compensatory Responses
Hypothetical conditional physiological responses that are opposite to the effects of a drug that are thought to be elicited by stimuli that are regularly associated with experiencing the drug effects
Is postsynaptic hyperpolarization an EPSP or IPSP?
IPSP
Describe the process of Migration?
In a given region of the tube, subtypes of neurons arise on a precise and predictable schedule and then migrate together to their prescribed destinations. In the developing Neural Tube has focused on the cortex. Orderly waves of migrating cells, professing from deeper to more superficial layers. INSIDE-OUT PATTERN
Y Chromosomes
In males, one sex chromosome is an X chromosome and the other is this one
How is K+ driven to move?
In my electrostatic forces, and out by its concentration gradient.
Large area of neocortex that participates in visual perception and memory for visual stimuli: _________________.
Inferotemporal Cortex
What is an autoreceptor?
Inhibits future neurotransmitter release - negative feedback.
Preparatory Phase
Initiated by the sight, smell , or expectation of food
What is Subcutaneously or SC?
Injected under the skin.
Replacement Injections
Injections of a hormone whose natural release has been curtailed by the removal of the gland that normally releases it
Contusions
Injuries that involve damage to the cerebral circulatory system. Such damage produce internal hemorrhaging, which result in hematoma. Can occur in the Subdural Space, & severely distort the surrounding neural tissue. Frequently occur on the side of the brain opposite the side struck by a blow. I.e., Countercoup Injuries
Oral Injestion
Intake of drugs through the mouth
What is the function of the substantia nigra?
Integrates voluntary movements
What is spatial summation?
Integration of events happening at different places.
What is temporal summation?
Integration of events happening at different times
Endogenous Attention
Internal cognitive attention process such as focusing on a tabletop because you are looking for something like keys. Thought to be top down.
What is intramuscularly or IM?
Into the muscle
What is IG or Intragastrally?
Into the stomach
Transcription Factors
Intracellular proteins that bind to DNA and influence the operation of particular genes.
What is the fastest route to the brain for drugs to be administered?
Intranasally
What was Piaget's experiment about Prefrontal Cortex and Infants?
Involved 7 month old children. Small toy was shown, and then placed behind one of two screens, left or right. And the child had watched all of this happening. After a brief delay, the child was allowed to reach for the toy. Found that almost all of the children reached for the screen which they had seen the toy being placed behind. After placing the toy behind the same screen & then moving it behind the other screen as the child watched, the child still reached behind the first screen that had the toy.
Drug Tolerance
Is a shift in the dose-response curve to the right
Neural Tube
Is formed in the Vertebrate embryo when the edges of the neural groove fuse and that develops into the central nervous system
What happens if you damage the cerebellum?
It has devastating effects on motor function. Patients can lose the ability to control precise direction, force, velocity and amplitude of movements, and the ability to adapt patterns of motor output to changing conditions. Trouble with maintaining steady postures and attempts to do so can lead to tremors. There are also disturbances in balance, gait, speech and controlling eye movement. Also there is trouble learning new motor sequences. One can also display diverse sensory, cognitive and emotional deficits.
What happens if you damage the primary motor cortex?
It has less effect than assumed even though the area is the major point of departure of motor fibres from the cerebral cortex. Large lesions to the area may disrupt a person's ability to move a body part independently of others, and may produce astereognosia, or may reduce the speed, accuracy and force of a movement. The lesions don't fully eliminate voluntary movement, because presumably they are parallel pathways that descend directly from secondary and association motor areas to subcortical motor circuits without passing through the primary motor cortex.
Malignant Tumors
It is difficult to remove or destroy them completely, and any cancerous tissue that remains after surgery continues to grow
Fasting Phase
It is the period during which all of the unstored energy from the previous meal has been used and the body is withdrawing energy from its reserves to meet its immediate energy requirements; It ends with the beginning of the next Cephalic Phase; Energy being withdrawn from stores to meet the body's immediate needs
What happens when you damage a sensory systems receptors?
It produces a complete loss of ability to perceive in that sensory modality. Ex: total blindness or deafness.
What sorts of growth account for the Postnatal Growth of the human brain, how does it substantially increase in volume?
It quadruples between birth and adulthood, with much of the growth occurring in the first year and continuing into the third year. Regressive changes as well as growth. Maximum Synaptic density and gray matter volume
What happens when you destroy an area of association or secondary cortex?
It typically produces complex and specific sensory deficits, while leaving fundamental sensory abilities intact.
How do neuroscientists identify an engram cell via optogenetics?
Its a two stage process. 1) Tagging stage is when the neurons that are active during the learning task are induced to express opsin while an animal engages in a particular learning task. 2) The manipulate stage is when the previous active neurons arena either inhibited or excited by using light to influence the activity of the opsin-tagged neurons.
What can be said about the olfactory system over other sensory systems?
Its the only sensory system whose major sensory pathway reaches the cerebral cortex without first passing through the thalamus.
What do food-catching birds have over other species?
Larger hippocampuses than related nonfood catching species?
What is the function of the hippocampus?
Learning and memory
When focusing on distant objects
Lens is flattened
Describe the discovery and subsequent study of Leptin
Leptin is a hormone from the Hypothalamus which tells you to eat less and release/burn more energy Discovered: Spontaneous genetic mutation in mice made them obese. Found a mutated in gene which is expressed in fat cells and encodes the Leptin hormone. Study of Leptin: Obese humans have high levels of Leptin in obese people did not lead to less eating or less body fat because they didn't have the mutation of the gene Those who do, it is effective
Do IPSPs make it more or less likely for a neuron to fire?
Less
What is the order in which Light travels through within the Retina?
Light ----> To Optic Nerve & Blind Spot ----> Retinal Ganglion Cells -----> Amacrine Cells -----> Bipolar Cells-----> Horizontal Cells------> Rod Receptors/Cone Receptors ------> Back of the Eyeball
What is another way to think of the sensorimotor system?
Like a large company: with the lines of communication flowing from the executive level (Cortex) to the office personnel (spinal motor circuits) and the to the workers (muscles).
What is a salcus?
Like a small canyon
Homunculus
Little Man
What is the movement of Na+ like when the neuron is at rest?
Little movement
Explain the role of Spontaneous Neural Firing on Neurodevelopment
Long before the nervous system is fully developed, neurons begin to fire spontaneously & begin to interact with the environment. Results in pattern of neural activity fine-tune subsequent stages of Neurodevelopment as the animal grows. Fine-tuning constitutes the critical, final phase of typical development.
What is a Fetus?
Longest period. The organism starts to develop organs until fully developing further. Beginnings of a brain, liver, etc. 9 weeks to birth
What does global cerebral schema in rats and monkeys lead to?
Loss of CA1 hippocampal pyramidal cells and severe deficits in performance on the delayed non matching to sample test.
What is temporally graded retrograde amnesia a feature of?
Many forms of human amnesia such as Alzheimer's, Korsakoff's, etc.
THC
Marijuana
What does an EEG do?
Measures the average electrical activity in the brain.
Large area of cortex that plays a role in object recognition: _________________ temporal cortex.
Medial
The current view is that damage to the ___________________ diencephalon is responsible for most of the memory deficits of people with korsakoff's disease.
Medial
What is the function of the PAG?
Mediates the pain reducing effects of opiates.
The ___________________ nuclei are the structures in the medial diencephalon that have been most frequently implicated in memory.
Mediodorsal
Medial diencephalic nucleus that has been linked to Korsakoff's amnesia: _________________.
Mediodorsal Nucleus
Superior Olives
Medullary nuclei that play a role in sound localization. The axons of each auditory nerve synapse in the ipsilateral cochlear nuclei, from which many projections lead to the olives on both sides of the brain stem at the same level. The axons of the olivary neurons project via the lateral lemniscus to the inferior colliculi.
HM had his ___________________ temporal lobes removed.
Meidal
Hebb's Theory
Memories are stored in the short term by neural activity, reverberating (circulating) in closed circuits. The reverberating patterns of neural activity are susceptible to disruption, such as a blow to the head, but eventually they induce structural changes in the involved synapses, which provide stable long term storage. Implies that consolidation is relatively brief, few seconds or minutes, and about as long as specific patterns of reverebatorpy neural activity could conceivably maintain a memory. Many studies found evidence for longer gradients.
Implicit Memories
Memories that are expressed by improved performance without conscious recall or recognition.
What do gradients of retrograde amnesia after concussion seem to provide evidence for?
Memory Consolidation; Because concussions preferentially disrupt recent memories, the storage of older memories become strengthened (consolidated).
What does the WAIS fail to detect?
Memory deficits
Remote Memory
Memory for experiences in the distant past.
Long Term Memory
Memory for experiences that endures after the experiences are not longer the focus of attention.
Reference Memory
Memory for the general principles and skills that are required to perform a task.
Digit Span Test
Memory test in which a series of numbers is read to subjects in the experiment who are then asked to recall the numbers in order.
Example of Heavy Metals?
Mercury or lead can accumulate in the brain and permanently damage it, producing toxic psychosis
What is the one division of the midbrain?
Mescencephalon
Behavior
Metastatic originate in one organ and spread to another
What are the two divisions of the hindbrain?
Metencephalon and Myelencephalon
Ob/Ob Mice
Mice that are homozygous for the mutant ob gene; their body fat produces no leptin, and they become very obese
Radial Migration
Movement of cells in the developing Neural Tube from the ventricular zone in a straight line outward toward the tube's outer wall
Tangential Migration
Movement of cells in the developing Neural Tube in a direction parallel to the tube's walls
Distribution
Movement of drug from blood to rest of body
Absorption
Movement of drug from site of administration to the blood
What is the motor function of the spinal accessory cranial nerve?
Movement of neck, shoulders, and head.
What is the sodium potassium pump?
Moves 2 K+ in, and 3 Na+ out.
Gut Microbiome
Much of the work of breaking down the food we ingest is done by the constituents of this; The bacteria and other organisms that live inside our gastrointestinal tract
What is summation?
Multiple firings of EPSPs in one spot
Place Cells
Neurons which respond only when a subject is in specific locations. (Ex: in the place fields of the neurons). Ex: when a rat is put in an unfamiliar environment, none of its hippocampal neurons have a place field in the at environment, then as the rat familiarizes itself, they neurons acquire a place filed in it. Each fires only when the rat is in a particular part of the test environment. Have been identified in a variety of species.
Jennifer Aniston Neurons
Neurons, such as those found in the medial temporal lobe, that respond to ideas or concepts rather than to particulars. Also known as concept cells. Highly selective, responds to only a small number of test objects or individuals - often only one could be found. Their responses are highly invariant. Their most remarkable feature is that the respond to ideas or concepts rather than particulars. If they do respond to more than one concept, then there is usually an obvious relationship between them. They play a role in the storage of memories, but its unclear exactly how.
Optogenetics
Neuroscientists insert an opsin gene into particular neurons, after which they use light to either hyperpolarize or depolarize the neurons.
What are two soluable gasses?
Nitric acid and carbon monoxide
Describe some treatments for Epilepsy
No cure. Can be reduced by Anti-Epileptic medication, stimulation of the Vagus Nerve, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, Ketogenic Diet. Brain surgery as last resort.
What does bilateral surgical removal of the amygdala produce most often?
No deficits in performance on the delayed nonmatching-to-sample test and other tests of object recognition.
What is the movement of A- like when the neuron is at rest?
No movement, it is trapped inside.
Is invasive research methods used in humans?
No, only animals.
NEAT
Nonexercise activity thermogenesis, which is generated by activities such as fidgeting and the maintenance of posture and muscle tone
Satiated
Not Hungry
The competitive nature of Neurodevelopment has been demonstrated by the effects of early Monocular Deprivation in the size of ________________
Ocular Dominance Columns
Inside-Out Pattern
Of Cortical Development in which each wave of cortical cells migrates through the already formed lower layers of cortex before reaching its destination.
Receptive Field
Of a visual neuron is the Area of the Visual Field within which it is possible for a visual stimulus (for the appropriate stimulus) to influence the firing of that (Visual) neuron -Part of the Visual field that either EXCITES or INHIBITS a cell in the visual system of the brain -For a receptor, it is the Point in SPACE FROM WHICH LIGHT STRIKES IT -For other visual cells, it derives from the visual field of cells that either EXCITE or INHIBIT
Complex Partial Seizures
Often restricted to the temporal lobes, and those who experience them are often said to have Temporal Lobe Epilepsy. The patient engages in compulsive, repetitive, simple behaviors commonly referred to Automatisms Ex. Doing and undoing a button Long sequences of motor behavior
One pathway of the ________________ system projects from the amygdala and piriform cortex to the orbitofrontal cortex.
Olfactory
Describe the process of Synapse Formation
Once axons have reached their intended sites, they must establish an appropriate pattern of synapse. A single neurons can grow an Axon on its own, but it takes coordinates activity in at least 2 neurons to create a Synapse between them. Chemical signals play a role in the location and formation of Synapses that have been identified Chemical signals that much be exchanged between Presynaptic and Postsynaptic Neurons for a Synapse to be created
Describe the process of Aggregation
Once developing neurons have migrated, they must align themselves with other developing neurons that have migrated to the same area to form the structures of the nervous system
Calorie-restriction Experiments
One group of subjects is allowed to eat as much as they choose, while other groups of subjects have their caloric intake of the same diets substantially reduced (by between 25 and 65 percent in various studies)
What are the two major divisions of the ventromedial motor pathway?
One is direct and one is indirect. The direct pathway is the ventromedial corticospinal tract and the indirect pathway is the ventromedial portico-brainstem-spinal tract.
Features of Drug Abuse and Addiction
One unresolved question is why some individuals develop A pattern of compulsive drug use, whereas others do not
Hering
Opponent Process Theory -2 different classes of cells in Visual System for Encoding Color, & another class for Encoding Brightness -Each of the 3 classes of cells Encoded 2 Complementary Color Perceptions -HYPERPOLORIZATION -DEPOLORIZATION -Blue and it's complement, Yellow; Same opponent fashion -Class of brightness-coding cells hypothesized similarly signal both Black & White -COMPLEMENTARY COLORS
Single Dominant Gene
Or known as Huntington Protein. Proteins whose synthesis is controlled by the Huntingtin gene & is this abnormal in individuals with Huntington's Disease Increase protein aggregation—leading to the accumulation of abnormal clumps of protein within cells
What is the safest route of drug administration? Why?
Oral, because there is a chance you can throw it up before it effects you, unlike any other method.
Hierarchical Organization
Organization into a series of levels that can be ranked with respect to one another; for example, in sensory systems, the primary cortex, secondary cortex, and association cortex perform progressively more detailed analyses. Sensory structures are organized in a hierarchy on the basis of the speciality and complexity of their function. Moving through the sensory system from receptors, to thalamic nuclei, to primary, secondary and association cortex, there are neurons that respond optimally to stimuli of greater and greater specificity and complexity. Each level of sensory hierarchy receives most of its input from lower level and adds another layer of analysis before passing it up on the hierarchy. The higher the level of damage, the more specific and complex the deficit.
Functional Segregation
Organization into different areas, each of which performs a different function; for example, in sensory systems, different areas of secondary and association cortex analyze different aspects of the same sensory stimulus. Each of the three levels of cerebral cortex - primary, secondary and association - in each sensory system contains functionally distinct areas that specialize in different kinds of analysis.
Chemotopic
Organized, like the olfactory bulb, according to a map of various odors.
Tonotopic
Organized, like the primary auditory cortex, according to the frequency of sound.
Somatotopic
Organized, like the primary somatosensory cortex (SI), according to a map of the surface of the body. The map is commonly referred to as the somatosensory homunculus.
Somatotopic
Organized, like the primary somatosensory cortex, according to a map of the surface of the body.
Contralateral neglect is often associated with large lesions of the right _____________ lobe.
Parietal
Many studies of auditory-visual interactions have focused on association cortex in the posterior ______________ cortex.
Parietal
Syphilis
Passed from infected to non infected individuals through contact with genital sores. Then go into a dormant stage for several years before they become virulent and attack many parts of the body, including the brain. Type of bacterial infection
____________________ is the tendency to continue making a formerly correct response when it is currently incorrect
Perseveration
Visual, auditory and somatosensory input converges on the _____________ association cortex.
Posterior Parietal
What are the two major areas of sensorimotor association cortex?
Posterior Parietal Association Cortex and Dorsolateral Prefrontal Association Cortex Each is composed of different areas with different functions.
The last part of the human brain to reach maturity is the ____________
Prefrontal
Large cortical area involved in memory for temporal order and in working memory: _________________.
Prefrontal Cortex
Congenital
Present at birth or can result from exposure to vascular poisons or infection
Beta-amyloid
Present in normal brains in only small amounts
Where do APs end?
Presynaptic terminal.
What are two examples of operant conditioning?
Reinforcement and punishment.
Elimination
Removal of drug's metabolic waste products from the body
What are tests that assess implicit memory called?
Repetition Priming Tests
What is the function of the Medulla?
Respiration and heart rate, reflexive responses like sneezing, vomiting, and salivating.
What are the two kinds of processes that can influence the learning of sensorimotor programs
Response chunking and shifting control to lower levels of the sensorimotor system.
What is the motor function of the glossopharyngeal cranial nerve?
Salvation, swallowing
Neuropathic Pain
Severe chronic pain in the absence of a recognizable painful stimulus A typical case develops after an injury. The injury heals and there seems to be no reason for further pain but the patient experiences chronic excruciating pain. In many cases it can be triggered by an innocuous stimulus like a gentle touch. Its somehow caused by pathological changes in the nervous system induced by the original injury. Signals from aberrant microglia in neuropathic pain are thought to trigger hyperactivity in neural pain pathways. It can even be perceived in an amputated limb and caused by abnormal activity in the CNS. Cutting nerves from the perceived location of pain brings little or no effect and medications to treat pain are usually ineffective.
Serotonergic Agonists
Shown to reduce food consumption in both human and nonhuman subjects, they have considerable potential in the tree arms that of obesity -Modest
What are the three components of physical protection for the brain?
Skull, meninges, and CSF
What does the hippocampus play a role in?
Spatial processing because of the many hippocampal neurons which are place cells. But it also plays a role in learning about social organization (social space).
What steps in synaptic transmission differentiates between Excitatory and Inhibitory?
Step 3: The neurotransmitter in E is Glutamate, and in I is GABA. Step 4: ion channel in E is AmPA, in I is GABAa Step 5: Ion flux in E is Na+ and in I is Cl- Step 5: EPSP vs IPSP
Psychoactive Drug
Substance that acts to alter mood, thought, or behavior and is used to manage neuropsychological illness
What are the 4 parts of the tegmentum?
Substantia nigra red nucleus reticular formation PAG
What is the definition of a Stroke?
Sudden-onset Cerebrovascular Disorders that cause brain damage Primary goal of treatment following stroke is to save the Penumbra
The secondary motor area that is just dorsal to the premotor cortex and is largely hidden from view on the media surface of each hemisphere is the _____________.
Supplementary Motor Area
Roe & Colleague experiment in Topographic Sensory Maps
Surgically altered the course of developing axons is ferrets' retinal ganglion cell's is that the axons synapsed in the medial geniculate the nucleus of the auditory system instead of in the lateral geniculate nucleus of the visual system. The experience of visual input caused the auditory cortex of the ferrets to become organized Retinotopically. Surgically attaching the inputs of one sensory system to cortex that would normally develop into the primary cortex of another system leads that cortex to develop many, but not all, characteristics typical of the newly attached system
What was Canon & Washburn's experiment of the Gastrointestinal Tract
Swallowed an empty ballon tied to the end of a thin tube. Pumped some air into the balling and connected the the end of the tube to a water-filled gas U-Tube so that the stomach contractions produced a momentary increase in the level of water at the other end of the U-Tube. Reported a pang of hunger each time a large stomach contraction was recorded Concluded that Hunger is the feeling of contractions cause by an empty stomach & Satiety is the feeling of stomach distention
What is the third step of Digestion?
Swallowing moves food and drink down the esophagus to the stomach
What is meningitis?
Swilling of the meninges
What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
The postnatal growth of the human brain results from Myelination, Dendritic Branching, and _____________________
Synaptogenesis
Peptides and Protein Hormones
Synthesized by cellular DNA Ex. Insulin, Follicle-stimulating Hormone, Antidiuretic Hormone
Negative Fees-back Systems
Systems in which feedback from changes in one direction elicit compensatory effects in the opposite direction; Are common in mammals because they act to maintain Homeostasis
What is an Aspiration lesion?
Taking out a part of the cortex with suction.
What is in-vitro slice patch configuration?
Taking slices of animal brain and manipulating it outside of its natural environment.
Gustation
Taste
What is the sensory function of the glossopharyngeal cranial nerve?
Taste from posterior third of tongue
What is the sensory function of the facial cranial nerve?
Tastes from anterior two-thirds of tongue
What is Plethysmography?
Techniques for measuring changes in blood volume in a particular body part.
What are the two divisions of the mescencephalon?
Tectum and Tegmentum
What are the two divisions of the forebrain?
Telencephalon and Diencephalon
What are the 5 major divisions of the brain, from top to bottom?
Telencephalon, Diencephalon, Mesencephalon, Metencephalon, Myelencephalon.
Working Memory
Temporary memory that is necessary for the successful performance of a task on which one is currently working.
Repetition Priming Tests
Tests of implicit memory; in one example, a list of words is presented, then fragments of the original words are presented and the subject is asked to complete them. Ex: Incomplete Pictures Test. Also tests that involve memory for words are common.
What is the current view of memory consolidation?
That it continues for a very long time if not indefinitely. There's evidence that lasting memories become more and more resistant to disruption throughout one's live, and each time a memory is activated, its updated and linked to additional memories. These additional likes increase memory resistance to disruption by cerebral trauma like concussions or ECS.
What is the main advantage of the hierarchical organization of the sensorimotor system?
That the higher levels of the hierarchy are left free to perform more complex functions. The association cortex is the highest in command, and sends information down to muscles in the lowest levels. Its a hierarchical, parallel system that's efficient, and allows signals to flow between levels over multiple paths. Control Its also characterized by functional segregation, with each level of the sensorimotor and company hierarchies composed of different units (neural structures/departments) with each performing a different function. Key facts: parallel, functionally segregated, and hierarchical.
What does testing of victims of concussions usually reveal?
That they have permanent retrograde amnesia for events leading up to the blow and permanent anterograde amnesia for many events occurring during the subsequent period of confusion following waking from unconsciousness or coma.
Tectum
The "roof" or dorsal surface of the mesencephalon. It includes the superior and inferior colliculi. Receives auditory and visual information about spatial location through the brain stem interactions with the ventromedial cortico-brainstem-spinal.
Describe 2 explanations for why we get hungry at our regular meal times. Discuss relevant evidence. Which of the 2 explanations does the evidence best support?
The Lateral Hypothalamus (If stimulates) can cause you to feel hungry. There are also external factors that can cause someone to be hungry such as stress or smell. The neural circuits in our brain are working specifically to train on our dietary habits. So when we smell food the Hypothalamus can process the sense and create the feelings over hunger. Cognitively it is shown that even color can create hunger. Ex. If you see a yellow banana you will want to eat it, but if you see a blue one you wouldn't. Overall, hunger is a primarily motivation
Motor Equivalence
The ability of the sensorimotor system to carry out the same basic movement in different ways that involve different muscles. Represents the inherent plasticity of the sensorimotor system. Suggests that specific central sensorimotor programs are not stored in the neural circuits that directly control body parts (ex: hands), with general programs stored higher in the sensorimotor hierarchy and then adapted to the situation as required.
Selective Attention
The ability to focus on a small of the multitude of stimuli that are being received at any one time. Has two characteristics: it improves the perception of the stimuli that are its focus and interferes with the perception of the stimuli that are not its focus. Works by strengthening the neural responses to attended-to aspects and by weakening the responses to others. A dual mechanism that's been termed push-pull mechanism.
Supplementary Motor Area
The area of secondary motor cortex that is within and adjacent to the longitudinal fissure.
Premotor Cortex
The area of secondary motor cortex that lies between the supplementary motor area and the lateral fissure.
Primary Sensory Cortex
The area of sensory cortex that receives most of its input directly from the thalamic relay nuclei of one sensory system.
Medial Preoptic Area
The area of the hypothalamus that includes the sexually dimorphic nuclei and that plays a key role in the control of male sexual behavior -In Males
Prefrontal Cortex
The areas of frontal cortex that are anterior to the frontal motor areas. Patients with damage to this are are not grossly amnesic and often display no deficits at all on conventional tests of memory. May result from the fact that different parts of the prefrontal cortex play different roles in memory. Two episodic memory abilities are often lost by patients with large prefrontal lesions. They often display both anterograde and retrograde deficits in memory for the temporal order of events, even when they can remember the events themselves. They display deficits in working memory (maintain relevant memories while a task is being completed). As a result of these deficits, patients with damage to the area often have trouble performing tasks that involve a series of responses. A large structure composed of many anatomically district areas that have different connections and different functions, with specific complex patterns of prefrontal activity associated with various memory functions. Some regions perform fundamental cognitive processes during working memory tasks (attention and task management) while others participate in memory processes.
Where does much of the output from both SI and SII go to?
The association cortex of the posterior parietal lobe.
Set-point Assumption
The assumption that hunger is typically triggered by the decline of the body's energy reserves below their set point
Organ of Corti
The auditory receptor organ, comprising the basilar membrane, the hair cells and the tectorial membrane. Each pressure change at the oval window travels along the organ of Corti as a wave. Composed of several membranes. Basilar membrane and the tectorial membrane. A deflection of the organ at any point along its length produces a shearing force on the hair cells at the same point. The force stimulates the hair cells and in turn increases firing in the axons of the auditory nerve.
What is an example of Set Point?
The body's energy resources are often assumed to be maintained at a constant optimal level by compensatory changes in hunger
What does the central nervous system consist of?
The brain and the spinal cord
Inferotemporal Cortex
The cortex of the inferior temporal lobe, in which is located an area of secondary visual cortex which plays an important role in storing memories of visual input.
Primary Motor Cortex
The cortex of the precentral gyrus, which is the major point of departure for motor signals descending from the cerebral cortex into the lower levels of the sensorimotor system. A major point of convergence of cortical sensorimotor signals, and the major but not only point of departure of sensorimotor signals from the cerebral cortex. Most of it is dedicated to controlling parts of the body that are capable of intricate movements, such as the hands and mouth. Each side receives sensory feedback from receptors in the muscles and joints that the site influences but there is an exception, which is stereognosis which is the process of identifying objects by touch. Its been suggested that the area contains an action map in addition to a topographic map. Neurons of this area play a major role in initiating body movements.
Estrous Cycle
The cycle of sexual receptivity displayed by many female mammals -Rodents -4 days long -Correlated with sexual receptivity -Heightened estrogen prior to ovulation -Surge of progesterone as egg matures -Females fertile next 12-18 hours -Ovariectomy abolishes estrous
According to the Positive Incentive Perspective
The degree of hunger you feel at any particular time depends on the interaction of all the factors that influence the positive-incentive value of eating
Dorsolateral Corticorubrospinal Tract
The descending motor tract that synapses in the red nucleus of the midbrain, decussates, and descends in the dorsolateral spinal white matter. Rubro refers to the red nucleus. The axons of this tract synapse on interneurons that in turn synapse on motor neurons projecting to distal muscles of the arms and legs.
What are the two divisions of the Forebrain?
The diencephalon and the Telencephalon
What is membrane potential?
The difference in electrical charge between the inside and the outside of the cell.
Change Blindness
The difficulty perceiving major changes to unattended-to parts of a visual image when the changes are introduced during brief interruptions in the presentation of the image. Occurs because when viewing a scene we have no memory of the parts of an image we didn't attend do and are not aware when parts change. Does not occur without the brief less than 0.1 second interval between images. Without the intervals, no memory is required and the changes are perceived immediately.
Ventromedial Corticospinal Tract
The direct ventromedial motor pathway, with long axons which descend IPSILATERALLY from the primary motor cortex directly into the ventromedial areas of the spinal white matter. Comprises motor cortex neurons that feed into a complex network of brain stem structures with the axons of some neurons descending bilaterally into the ventromedial portion of the spinal cord. Each side carries signals from both hemisphere and each neutron synapses on the interneurons of several different spinal cord segments that control the proximal muscles of the trunk and limbs.
Chemoaffinity Hypothesis fails to account for
The discovery that some growing axons follow the same circuitous route to reach their target in every member of a species rather than growing directly to it.
Dorsal-Column Medial-Lemniscus System
The division of the somatosensory system that ascends in the dorsal portion of the spinal white matter and carries signals related to touch and proprioception. Lesions in this system don't eliminate touch perception or proprioception. The sensory neurons in this system enter the spinal cord via the dorsal root, ascent ipsilaterally in the dorsal columns and synapse in the dorsal column nuclei of the medulla. The axons decussate and then ascend in the medial lemniscus to the contra lateral ventral posterior nucleus of the thalamus. The ventral posterior nuclei also get input form three branches of the trigeminal nerve which carries somatosensory information from contralateral areas of the face. Most ventral posterior nucleus neurons project to the primary somatosensory cortex (SI) and others to the secondary somatosensory cortex (SII) or posterior parietal cortex. Dorsal column neurons that originate in the toes are the longest neurons in the body.
Irises (Iris)
The donut-shaped bands of contractile tissue, which give our eyes their characteristic color
Tympanic Membrane
The eardrum. Sound waves travel from the outer ear down the auditory canal and cause the membrane to vibrate.
Long Term Potentiation (LTP)
The enduring facilitation of synaptic transmission that occurs following activation of synapses by high-intensity, high-frequency stimulation of the presynaptic neurons. Most frequently studied in the rodent hippocampus, with three synapses most commonly studied: Dentate granule cell synapse, CA3 Pyramidal cell synapse, and the CA1 Pyramidal cell synapse. Has two key properties: 1) Can last for a long time, such as for months after multiple high frequency stimulations. 2) Develops only if the firing of the presynaptic neutron is followed by the firing of the postsynaptic neuron, and does not develop when the presynaptic neuron fires and the postsynaptic does not, and does not develop when the presynaptic neuron doesn't fire and postsynaptic does. The critical factor in LTP is the co-occurrence of firing in presynaptic and postsynaptic cells. Assumes that co-occurrence is physiological necessity for learning and memory and often called: Hebb's postulate for learning. Induction, maintenance and expression are the processes by which high frequency stimulations induce LTP, the changes responsible for maintenance of LTP (memory), and the changes that allow it to be expressed during the test (recall).
What is the extremely important characteristic of pitch perception?
The fact that the pitch of a complex sound mayn't be directly related to the frequency of any of the sound's components. The important aspect of pitch perception is referred to as the missing fundamental.
Rubber-Hand Illusion
The feeling that an extraneous object, usually a rubber hand, is actually part of one's own body. Considered in some respects to be the opposite of asomatognosia. Can be generated in a variety of ways but usually induced by a volunteer's hand hidden from view by a screen and then a rubber hand is placed next to the hidden hand but in clear view. Then the experiment repeatedly strokes the hidden hand and rubber hand synchronously. In less than a minute, many volunteers begin to feel like the rubber hand is part of their own body and when this happens the temperature in the hidden hand drops.
Nerve Growth Factor (NGF)
The first neurotrophin to be discovered
Pioneer Growth Cones
The first ones to travel along a particular route in the developing nervous system
What brain structure plays a key role in object recognition memory?
The hippocampus.
Diet-induced Thermogenesis
The homeostasis-defending increases in body temperature that are associated with increases in body fat
Menstrual Cycle
The hormone-regulated cycle in females of follicle growth, egg release, buildup of the uterus lining, and menstruation -Humans -No clear-cut receptivity -Ovariectomy eliminates vaginal lubrication, cycle and fertility -Ovariectomy has effect on sexual motivation
Positive-Incentive Theory
The idea that behaviors (e.g. eating and drinking) are motivated by their anticipated pleasurable effects
Response Chunking Hypothesis
The idea that practice combines the central sensorimotor programs that control individual responses into programs that control sequences of responses (chunks of behavior). An important principle of chunking is that chunks themselves can be combined into higher order chunks.
Withdrawal Syndrome
The illness brought on by the elimination from the body of a drug on which the person is physically dependent.
Recurrent Collateral Inhibition
The inhibition of a neuron that is produced by its own activity via a collateral branch of its axon and an inhibitory interneuron. The small inhibitory interneurons that mediate this are called Renshaw Cells. As a consequence of this inhibition, each time a motor neuron fires, it momentarily inhibits itself and shifts the responsibility for the contraction of a particular muscle to other members of the muscle's motor pool.
What does each tactile sensation appear to be produced by?
The interaction of multiple receptor mechanisms and each mechanism appears to contribute to multiple sensations. Skin cells that surround particular receptors also seem to play a role in the quality of the sensation produced by the receptor.
Pacinian Corpuscles
The largest and most deeply positioned cutaneous receptors, which are sensitive to sudden displacements of the skin. They adapt rapidly and respond to sudden displacements but not to constant pressure.
What is location of sounds in space mediated by?
The lateral and medial superior olives but in different ways. Some neurons in the medial superior olives respond to slight differences in the time of signal arrival from the two ears. But, some neurons in the lateral superior olives respond to slight differences in the amplitude of sounds from the two ears.
Discuss the female vs. make patterns of Gonadal and Gonadotropic Hormone release
The major difference between the Endocrine function of females and males is that in human females, the levels of Gonadal and Gonadotropic Hormones go through a cycle that repeats itself every 28 days or so
Basilar Membrane
The membrane of the organ of Corti in which the hair cell receptors are embedded.
Oval Window
The membrane that transfers vibrations from the ossicles to the fluid of the cochlea. Each pressure change at the oval window travels along the organ of Corti as a wave.
What happens if both ascending somatosensory paths are complete transected by a spinal injury?
The patient can no longer feel body sensation from below the level of the cut.
What do bilateral lesions of the hippocampus invariably disrupt?
The performance of tasks that involve memory for spatial location. Lesions disrupt performance on the Morris water maze test and the radial arm maze test.
Reciprocal Innervation
The principle of spinal cord circuitry that causes a muscle to automatically relax when a muscle that is antagonistic to it contracts. An important principle of spinal cord circuitry. Refers to the fact that antagonistic muscles are innervated in a way that permits a smooth, unimpeded motor response; when one is contracted the other relaxes. When a sudden painful event occurs, the dorsal horn of the spinal cord has two effects: Signals excite both excitatory and inhibitory interneurons with the excitatory interneurons exciting motor neurons and inhibitory interneurons inhibiting motor neurons. A single sensory input produces a coordinated pattern of motor output - activities of agonists and antagonists are automatically coordinated by the internal circuitry of the spinal cord.
Stereognosis
The process of identifying objects by touch.
CA1 Subfield
The region of the hippocampus that is commonly damaged by cerebral ischemia.
Scrotum
The sac that holds the male testes outside the body cavity
Vestibular System
The sensory system that detects changes in the direction and intensity of head movements and that contributes to the maintenance of balance through its output to the motor system.
Free Nerve Endings
The simplest cutaneous receptors; neuron endings that lack specialized structures on them and that detect cutaneous pain and changes in temperature.
Parallel Processing
The simultaneous analysis of a signal in different ways by the multiple parallel pathways of a neural network. There are two fundamentally different kinds of parallel streams of analysis in the sensory system - one is capable of influencing behaviour without conscious awareness and one influences behaviour by engaging conscious awareness.
Cocontraction
The simultaneous contraction of antagonistic muscles. Smooth movements which can be stopped with precision by a slight increase in the contraction of the antagonistic muscles. Insulates us from the effects of unexpected external forces.
What are the two divisions of the peripheral nervous system?
The somatic nervous system, and the autonomic nervous system.
Medial Lemniscus
The somatosensory pathway between the dorsal column nuclei and the ventral posterior nucleus of the thalamus.
What is the fifth step of Digestion?
The stomach gradually empties its contents through the pylon sphincter into the duodenum, the upper portion of the intestine, where most of the absorption takes place
Pituitary Stalk
The structure connecting the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland
How has the role of the hippocampus in memory changed since first published reports of H.M's case?
The structure was thought to be the site of temporary storage for all newly formed memories. But it was soon discovered that structures of the medial temporal lobes have more specific function and appear to play a major role only in explicit episodic memories. Its role in object recognition is minor compared to the adjacent medial temporal cortex. And its considered to be just one of several brain structures involved in memory.
Inferior Colliculi
The structures of the tectum that receive auditory input from the superior olives. The inferior colliculi then synapse on neurons that project to the medial geniculate nuclei of the thalamus, which then project to the primary auditory cortex.
What is electrophysiology?
The study of electrical currents or voltage in live neural tissue
Pharmacodynamics
The study of what a drug does to the body
Pharmacokinetics
The study of what the body does to drugs
What are the two parts of the tectum?
The superior colliculus and the inferior colliculus.
Gonadectomy
The surgical removal of the gonads (testes or ovaries); castration
What is Perseveration?
The tendency to continue making a formerly correct response when it is currently incorrect
Müllerian-inhibiting substance
The testicular hormone that causes the precursor of the female reproductive ducts (the Müllerian system) to degenerate and the testes to descend
Medial Dorsal Nuclei
The thalamic relay nuclei of the olfactory system.
Lipostatic Theory
The theory that eating is controlled by deviations from a hypothetical body-fat set point Viewed as Complimentary, not mutually exclusive; Thought to account for long-term regulation
Glucostatic Theory
The theory that eating is controlled by directions from a hypothetical blood glucose set-point Viewed as Complementary, not mutually exclusive; Thought to account for meal initiation and termination
Core Region
The three adjacent areas of the primary auditory cortex.
Metabolic Tolerance
The tolerance that results from a reduction in the amount of a drug getting to its sites of action
Memory Consolidation
The transfer of short term memories to long term storage.
Puberty
The transitional period between childhood and adulthood during which fertility is achieved, the adolescent growth spurt occurs, and the Secondary Sex Characteristics develop
Pulsatile Hormone Release
The typical pattern of hormone release: Hormones are discharged several times per day in large surges
Hypothalamopituitary Portal System
The vascular network that carries hormones from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary
What is the major factor in Contusions?
The very hardness of the skull, which protects the brain from penetrating injuries
Standard Consolidation Theory / Dual-Trace Theory
Theory that memories are temporarily stored in the hippocampus until they can be transferred to a more stable cortical storage system.
Photopic System
Think COLOR (Cone-mediated vision) predominates in good lighting and provides high-acuity (finely detailed) colored perceptions of the world -Light vision -Cones -High-Acuity -Low Convergence -Low sensitivity with few receptors -Fovea
What two ranges of the spinal cord are included in the sympathetic nerves?
Thoracic and lumbar (two middle)
What are the two common classes of hearing impairments?
Those associated with ossicle damage (conductive deafness) and those associated with cochlea or auditory nerve damage (nerve deafness).
Drug-Addicted Individuals
Those habitual drug users who continue to use a drug despite its adverse effects on their health and social life, and despite their repeated efforts to stop using it.
What body parts is the greatest proportion of SI dedicated to receiving inputs from?
Those we use to make tactile discriminations (hands, lips, tongue).
What type of amnesiac has trouble with episodic memories?
Those with Medial Temporal Lobe Amnesia - they have trouble remembering specific events from their lives even though their memory for general information is often normal. They can't remember going to a movie, having lunch, attending a lecture, etc., but they often remember what their friends are like, a movie they've seen, world events, a language they've learned, or things learned at school.
Differences in BASAL METABOLIC RATE and in the ability
To react to fat increases by DIET-INDUCED THERMOGENESIS
What are lesion methods?
To remove, damage, or destroy a part of the brain to observe impact on behaviour.
Nicotine
Tobacco
Conditioned Drug Tolerance
Tolerance effects that are maximally expressed only when a drug is administered in the situation in which it has previously been administered
Cross Tolerance
Tolerance to the effects of one drug that develops as the result of exposure to another drug that acts by the same mechanism
The layout of the auditory system tends to be ______________.
Tonotopic
Parvocellular Cell (P-Cell)
Top 4 layers Composed of neurons with small cell bodies -Neurons are particularly responsive to COLOR, FINE PATTERN DETAILS, & STATIONARY OR SLOWLY MOVING OBJECTS
Many studies have shown that early experience influences the ________________ Maps of Sensory cortex
Topographic
Mirror Drawing Test
Tracing stay by looking at mirror image of one's hand without seeing actual real hand.
Give an example of what the tracking of blood volume is good for.
Tracking arousal, or lack of.
What is Meningiomas?
Tumors that grow between the Meninges, the 3 membranes that cover the central nervous system
Metastatic Tumors
Tumors that originate in one organ and spread to another. Many brain tumors originate as cancers of the lungs
Head Direction Cels
Tuned into the direction of head orientation.
What are the two types of skeletal muscle fibers?
Two basic types: Fast and Slow Fast are those that contract and relax quickly. Capable of generating great force, they fatigue quickly because they are poorly vascularized (few blood vessels) giving them a pale color. Facilitate jumping etc. Slow are those which are weaker, but capable of more sustained contraction because they are more richly vascularized (and much redder). Facilitate gradual movements like walking. Each muscle has both fast and slow fibers.
In how the Pupil and Lens can affect the image that falls on the retina, when Illumination = High & Sensitivity is NOT important
Visual system takes advantage of the situation by constricting the pupils. When constricted, the image falling on each retina is Sharper & there is greater Depth of Focus
Lense
Which focuses incoming light on the retina
Can injured people one day be able to control wheelchairs, prosthetic limbs or their own paralyzed limbs through the power of thought?
Yes maybe someday. Paralyzed patients have learned to control robotic arms with neural signals collected via multi-electrode arrays implanted into the primary motor cortex.
Epilepsy
a neurological disorder characterized by spontaneously recurring seizures
What is a horizontal cut of the brain?
a slice parallel to the ground
Deep Brain Stimulation
a treatment in which low-intensity electrical stimulation is continually applied to an area of the brain through a stereotaxically implanted electrode
What is pia mater?
adheres to the CNS surface
What does golgi staining do?
allows for visualization of individual neurons
Ventral Striatum and Sexual Activity
associated with the anticipation and experience of sexual activity and other pleasurable activities
What is retrograde tracing?
backward, tracing where axons are projecting into an area
What is the function of the red nucleus?
basic movements, such as posture control.
Toxic Psychosis
chronic mental illness produced by exposure to a neurotoxin Ex. Mad Hatter
What chemical is used in nessl staining, and what makes it different from golgi staining?
cresyl violet, and it stains every single sell body.
What is the function of the amygdala?
fear, anger, anxiety. One on each side of the brain.
What is antrograde tracing?
forward, tracing where axons project away from an area.
what does ipsilateral mean?
from or on the same side
what does contralateral mean?
from or to the opposite side
What is radio-frequency lesions?
heat destroys the tissue.
What is ventral referred to in humans?
inferior
What is IP or Intraperitoneally?
into the abdomen
What is Microglia?
involved in response to injury or disease
What is the function of the Ventral Tagmental Area?
mediates reward, is what causes the addictive behaviour to drugs.
The Cortex and Sexual Activity
mediates the most complex aspects of sexual experience -Fundamental role in reproduction -May include feelings of release and loss of control, changes in self-awareness, disturbances of perceptions of space and time, and feelings of love
what does bilateral mean?
on both sides
What does unilateral mean?
on one side
What is the function of the inferior colliculus?
relays auditory information
Retinal Ganglion Cells
retinal neurons whose axons leave the eyeball and form the optic nerve
Where is the hindbrain located?
right above the spinal cord
What does nessl staining do?
selectively stains cell bodies
What is the sensory function of the abducen cranial nerve?
sensory signals from certain eye muscles
What is the sensory function of the spinal accessory cranial nerve?
sensory signals from muscles of the neck
What is the sensory function of the auditory cranial nerve?
sensory signals from the organs of balance in the inner ear.
What is the sensory function of the hypoglossal cranial nerve?
sensory signals from tongue muscles
What is a sagittal cut of the brain?
separates the left and right halves of the brain
What chemical is used in golgi staining and what does it do?
sliver chromate, stains only some neurons, but the either neuron gets stained.
What are astrocytes?
star shaped, help from Blood-Brain-Barrier (BBB)
What seperates the precentral and postcentral gyrus?
the central fissure
Energy Metabolism
the chemical changes by which energy is made available for an organism's use
Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)
the dementia and cerebral scarring observed in boxers, rugby players, American football players, and other individuals who have experienced repeated concussions, or even subconcussive, blows to the head
What is the motor function of the hypoglossal cranial nerve?
tongue movements
What does medial mean?
towards the middle
what does lateral mean?
towards the side
What is the equilibrium potential of Cl-?
-70mV (same as resting potential)
Describe the Components and Layout of the Retina-Geniculate-Striate System
-90% of Axons of RGC become part of the pathway -Has PREDOMINANT PAIR (LEFT & RIGHT) pathways of Cortex -All SIGNALS from LEFT Visual Field reach the RIGHT Primary Visual Cortex Lateral Geniculate Nucleus has 6 LAYERS, and each layer of each nucleus receives input from ALL PARTS of the Contralateral Visual field of one eye LGN receives visual input only from the Contralateral Visual Field; 3 layers receive input from One Eye, & 3 the other
What is the equilibrium potential of K+?
-90mV
Drug Addiction: What is it?
-A brain disease expressed as a compulsive behavior -The continues abuse of drugs despite negative consequences -A chronic, potentially relapsing disorder Initial Drug Taking —> Habitual Drug Taking —> Drug Craving and Repeated Relapse
All set-point systems have 3 components:
-A set-point mechanism -A detector mechanism -An effector mechanism
Sex Differences in the Brain
-Activational vs. Organizational Effects Embryonic Organizational Perinatal Activational Adult -Behavioral Endocrinology -Arnold Adolph Berthold, 1949 -Castration -Testosterone
Binding results in 3 actions
-Agonistic -Allosteric -Antagonistic
What are the different types of Serotonin Peptides?
-Agonists reduce food intake (help fight obesity) -Desire to create serotonin agonist without side effects
Neural Signals
-All endocrine glands, with the exception of the anterior pituitary, are directly regulated by signals from the nervous system -Endrocrine glands located in the brain (I.e., The Pituitary and Pineal Glands)bare regulated by cerebral neurons -Those located outside the CNS are inner cages by the Autonomic Nervous System—Usually by both the Sympathetic and Parasymphatetic branches, which often have opposite effects on hormone release
Hormonal Signals
-Also influence hormone release -Tropic Hormones of the anterior pituitary influence the release of hormones from their respective target glands -circulating hormones often provide feedback to the very structures that influence their release -Stable blood levels of the hormones -High gonadal hormone loveless usually have effects on the hypothalamus and pituitary that decrease subsequent gonadal hormone release, and low levels usually have effects that increase hormone release
What are the 3 classes of hormones?
-Amino Acid Derivates -Peptides and Proteins -Steroids
Serving Size and Satiety
-Amount of consumption is influences by this -The larger the serving, the more we tend to eat
Sensory-specific Satiety
-An increases variety of food -The number of different tastes available at each meal has a major effect on meal size
What are the 3 classes of Gonadal Hormones?
-Androgens -Progestins -Estrogens
Describe the role of Testosterone in male sexual behavior
-Androgens activate male sexual behavior -Orchidectomy -Castration -No relation between testosterone levels and sexual motivation/performance
What are the 2 disorders of Human Neurodevelopment?
-Autism Spectrum Disorder -Williams Disorder
What are the 2 types of Brain Infections?
-Bacterial -Viral
What are the structures of the Retina
-Bipolar Cell -Horizontal Cell -Amacrine Cell -Retinal Ganglion Cell (RGC)
What do the External Reproductive Organs Involve?
-Bipotential precursor -Glans -Urethral Folds -Lateral Bodies -Labioscrotal Swellings At 6 weeks,all human fetuses have the antecedents of both male (Wolffian) and female (Müllerian) reproductive ducts
Olds and Milner (1954)
-Brain regions involved in Reward and Addiction -Rats press a bar to self-administer electrical stimulation to specific sites in the brain (intracranial self-stimulation) -Lateral Hypothalamus and medial forebrain bundle (part of Mesolithic dopamine system) are especially effective
What are the different types of Satiety Peptides?
-CCK -Bombesin -Glucagons -Alpha-Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone -Somatostatin
How do animals on free-feed become typically less healthy in the set-point assumption about Body Weight &Eating?
-Calorie-restricted have greater longevity -Calorie-restricted have less aging with energy metabolism shifts
Genetic Factors
-Can be accidents of cell division -Down Syndrome is an extra 21 chromosome -Abnormal recessive or dominant genes -Most diseases involve numerous loci on chromosomes.
Set-Point Assumptions about Body Weight and Eating
-Can't account for: *Large changes in body weight *Wave of obesity *Animals on free-Feed are typically less healthy -Body Controls fat levels by altering metabolism, not intake -Diet-induced thermogenesis
Describe the role of the Gastrointestinal tract in Satiety
-Canon and Washburn's experiment -1980's Koopman's second-stomach preparation
Describe the role of Serotonin in Satiety
-Caused the rats to resist the powerful attraction of highly palatable cafeteria diets -Reduced amount of food consumed during each meal rather than reducing the number of meals -Associated with a shift in food preferences away from fatty foods
What is the excess glutamate release in the mechanism of Ischemia Brain Damage?
-Causes release of glutamate on receiving cell -Can kill Postsynaptic cell
What are the 3 phrases of Energy Metabolism?
-Cephalic -Absorptive -Fasting
What are the 2 different types of strokes?
-Cerebral Hemorrhage -Cerebral Ischemia
Nonhormonal Signals
-Circulating chemicals other than hormones can play a role in regulating hormone levels -Glucose, Calcium, & Sodium levels in blood influence the release of particular hormones -The increase in blood glucose increase the release of INSULIN from the PANCREAS -Insulin reduces blood glucose levels
Describe the structure of the retina and name the cell types that makeup the retina
-Composed of 5 different types of neurons -60 different kinds of retinal neurons -30 different RETINAL GANGLION CELLS -LATERAL COMMUNICATION -RETINAL NEURONS communicate both chemically (via synapse) & electrically (via gap junctions) -RETINA is inside-out Light reaches receptor layer after passing through 4 layers --> once receptors activated, neural message transmitted back out through retinal layers-retinal ganglion cells, whose Axons project across the outside of the retina before gathering together in a bundle & exiting the eyeball -Contains blind spot
The Photopic System has
-Cone receptors -4 million receptors per eye -3 classes of cone opsins; The basis of color vision (Photopigments) -LOW SENSITIVITY; Needs relatively strong stimulation; Used for DAY VISION -Concentrated in & near Fovea; present less densely throughout Retina -SMALL in Fovea, so ACUITY IS HIGH, LARGER OUTSIDE Fovea
What are the 2 types of Closed-head injuries?
-Contusion -Concussion
What are the 4 roles of the brain that involve Sexual Activity?
-Cortex -Hypothalamus -Amygdala -Ventral Striatum
Why is there a Blind Spot in each eye?
-Created by the inside-out structure of the Retina -Found in an area where the Optic nerve exits the eye. -This area contains no Photoreceptors -Will also experience COMPLETION (Filling In) Ex. With Lines
Akinetopia
-Deficiency in the ability to see smooth movement -Can be triggered by high doses of antidepressants -Damage to Medial Temporal Area (MT)
Social Influences and Satiety
-Depends on whether we are eating along or with others -People consume more when eating with others. Lab rats do the same.
The Reward System
-Dopamine Release rises markedly when animals are engaged in intracranial self-stimulation -Drugs that enhance release of dopamine increase self-stimulation. Drugs that reduce dopamine release reduce self-stimulation. Amount of dopamine is released somehow determines how rewarding an event is -When animals engage in a behavior such as feeding or sexual activity, dopamine release rapidly increases in locations such as the nucleus accumbens -Highly addictive drugs such as Nicotine and Cocaine increase the level of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens
What is the relation between drug tolerance and withdrawal?
-Drug exposure leads to the development of adaptive neural changes that produce tolerance by counteracting the drug effect -With no drug to counteract them, the neural adaptations produce withdrawal effects opposite to the effect of the drug
Explain the ways in which drugs can influence the nervous system and how they are eliminated from the body?
-Drug penetration of the Central Nervous System (blood brain barrier) -Mechanisms of Drug Action -Drug Metabolism and Elimination
In the context of the Retina-Geniculate-Striate System, Explain what is meant by Retinotopic
-Each level of the system is ORGANIZED like a MAP of the RETINA -2 STIMULI presented to adjacent areas of the Retina excite adjacent neurons at all levels of the system -Retinotopic Layout of the primary visual cortex has a disproportionate representation of the fovea
Describe Sham Eating
-Eat how much they are used to eating -Even with a tube (where the food goes out) -Typically having small normal meals,after a couple... the rats end up having larger Sham Eating meals
1950's genetically obese mouse ob/ob mouse
-Eat more than control mice -Convert calories to fat more efficiently -Use calories more efficiently Lack a critical hormone that normally inhibits fat production and maintenance. The gene is expressed only in fat cells. The discovery of Leptin. -These mouse lacked Leptin
Appetizer Effect and Satiety
-Eating a small amount before the actual meal increases the size of your main meal -Having appetizers before a mean increases hunger rather than reducing it
Premeal Hunger
-Eating as a stressor: Cephalic/Malaise -To appreciate that eating meals stresses the body -Cephalic phase takes steps to soften the impact of the impending homeostasis-disturbing influx by releasing insulin into the blood and thus reducing blood glucose -The strong unpleasant feelings of hunger you may experience at mealtimes are not cried from your body for food; they are sensations of your body's preparations for the expected homeostasis-disturbing meal
What are the 3 different Layers in the Embryo?
-Ectoderm -Mesoderm -Endoderm
Factors that modify Biotransformation Capacity include:
-Enzyme Induction -Enzyme Inhibition -Drug Competition -Individual differences in age, gender, and genetics
Describe the role of Testosterone in Female Sexual Behavior
-Estrous Cycle -Menstrual Cycle
One Mechanism of Ischemia
-Excessive release of excitatory amino acids -Glutamate released when blood vessels blocked -Excess glutamate release -New research (NDMA receptor blockers)
Robinson and Berridge (2008)
-Experiment In Rewards -Wanting and liking have separable neural systems
Receptor
-Fairly Large Molecule (Usually Protein) -Located in site(s) where naturally occurring compounds (Transmitters or Modulators) produce biological effect -Involves hundreds of known receptor types
Energy is stored in 3 forms:
-Fats (preferred) -Glycogen -Proteins Most of the body's energy reserves are stored as fats, relatively little as glycogen and proteins
Rates of Excretion
-First-order System -For most drugs, the amount of drug metabolized is proportional to the amount of drug present
Eye Movement
-Fixations -Saccades -Stabilized retinal images disappear -Temporal Integration
What are the 2 organizer areas in the Neural Tube?
-Floor plate -Roof plate
What are the 4 categories of Epileptic Disorders?
-Focal Seizures that involve (Single Partial & Complex) -Generalized Seizures (Tonic-clonic & Absence)
Why do some people become obese while others do not?
-Food preferences -Social Factors -Basal Metabolism -Differences in consumption and energy expenditures -Genetics -Differences in non-exercise activity thermogenesis
Drugs
-Form reversible ionic bonds with specific receptors -Do not create unique effects; Merely modulate normal neural functioning
The Pituitary Gland
-Frequently referred to as the Master Gland because most of its hormones are Tropic Hormones -Is made up of 2 parts: Anterior Pituitary, Posterior Pituitary -Hypothalamus Connection
What involves Axonal Growth?
-Growth Cone -Filopodia -Chemoaffinity Hypothesis -Guidance Molecules
Reward
-Has 2 independent processes: Wanting & Liking -Usually, wanting and liking occur together but this is not always the case -Robinson and Berridge (2008)
What are the 3 types of Neurotoxins?
-Heavy Metals -Drugs to treat Neurological or psychiatric disorders -Endogenous
Epidemiological Studies of Multiple Sclerosis (MP)
-Higher concordance in Monozygotic twins (32%) than dizygotic twins (5%) -Occurs more in females (3%) -Higher in Caucasians -Higher among populations living in colder climates
Leptin and the Regulation of Body Fat
-Hormone produced by fat cells -In animals decreases eating -In animals decreases body fat -Correlated with subcutaneous fat -Receptors in accurate nucleus -In humans who have low levels,administration can maintain reasonable weight
Lateral Inhibition in the Retina
-Horseshoe Crab research -Ommatidia -When Ommatidium is activated, it inhibits its neighbors -Contrast enhancement occurs because receptors near edge receive more lateral inhibition -Receptors near edge of bright side receive less inhibition
How is the Anterior Pituitary Controlled?
-Hypothalamic releasing hormones -Hypothalamopituitary Portal System -Hormones of the anterior pituitary
Feeding and Satiety centers were found false:
-Hypothalamus is important in energy metabolism -The Ventromedial Hypothalamus lesions also damage ventral noradrenergic bundle or PVN
How is Drug Tolerance Measured?
-In tolerant individuals, the same does has less effect -In tolerant individuals, a greater dose is required to produce the same effect
What are some treatments for Alzheimer's Disease?
-Increase Acetylcholine function -Reduce ameyloid plaques -Treatments based on relationship between Downs & Alzheimer's -Treatment's directed toward misfiled protein hypothesis
What are the 8 stages of Neurodevelopment?
-Induction of the Neural PLATE -Formation of the NEURAL Tube -Neural PROLIFERATION -Neural MIGRATION -NEURAL aggregation -Growth of Neural PROCESSES (AXONS & DENDRITES) -Formation of SYNAPSES -Neuron DEATH & Synapse REARRANGEMENT
The flow of energy during the 3 phases of energy metabolism is CONTROLLED BY 2 PANCREATIC HORMONES
-Insulin -Glycagen
Insulin does 3 things:
-It promotes the use of glucose as the primary source of energy by the body -It promotes the conversion of bloodborne fuels to forms that can be stored: Ex. Glucose to Glycogen and Fat and Amino Acids to Proteins -It promotes the storage of glycogen in liver and muscle, fat in adipose tissue, and proteins in muscle
What are the routes through which drugs can leave the body?
-Kidneys -Lungs -Bile -Skin
What are 2 factors that determine what we eat?
-Learned Taste Preferences and Aversions -Learning to eat Vitamins and Minerals
What are the 2 feedback signals for the regulation of body fat?
-Leptin -Insulin
Energy is derived to the body in what 3 forms?
-Lipids -Amino Acids -Glucose
2 Types of Ganglion Cells
-Magnocellular Cell (M-Cell) -Parvocellular Cell (P-Cell)
The Binding = Affinity is
-More potent drug has greater affinity for its receptor (binds more tightly) -Less potent drug has less affinity for its receptor; Does not bums so tightly, can be more easily knocked off receptor -Different drugs may bind to the same receptor, but with different affinities
Effects on Cellular Processes
-Numbers of Postsynaptic Receptors -Modulation of Intracellular Signals
Explain why weight-Loss programs are typically ineffective?
-Once the program ends, the individual returns to old lifestyle (Bad food choices, lack of exercise) -Physical activity is only a small amount of a person's caloric expenditures
What are the 4 various routes of Drug Administration?
-Oral Ingestion -Injection -Inhalation -Absorption through Mucous Membranes
Hypothalamic Control of Posterior Pituitary
-Oxytocin and vasopressin are synthesized in the Paraventricular and Supraoptic Nuclei of the Hypothalamus -Oxytocin and vasopressin are carried by axonal transport down the pituitary stalk -Oxytocin vasopressin are releases into general circulation from terminal buttons in the posterior Pituitary
How is the Posterior Pituitary controlled?
-Paraventricular and Supraoptic Nuclei of Hypothalamus -Vasopressin -Oxytocin
4 lines of research support MT as area affected
-Patients with damage akinetopsia tend to have Unilateral or Bilateral damage to MT -Activity in the MY increases when humans view movement -Blocking activity of the MT with TMS produces Motion Blindness -Electrical Stimulation of the MT induces visual perception of motion
Hypothalamic Control of the Anterior Pituitary
-Releasing and inhibiting hormones are released from hypothalamic neurons into the hypothalamo-pituitary portal system -Hypothalamic-releasing and hypothalamic-inhibiting Hormones are carried down the pituitary stalk by the hypothalamopituitary portal system -Hypothalamic-releasing and hypothalamic-inhibiting hormones increase or decrease, respectively, the release of anterior pituitary hormones into the general circulation
Explain the Nature of the relationship between Blood Glucose levels and Hunger and Satiety
-Research on blood glucose is mixed -The Campfield & Smith experiment: Rats were housed with free access to food and water, and their blood glucose levels were continually monitored Found that blood glucose levels drop sharply 10 minutes premeal
In the Retina-Geniculate-Striate System, Visual info travels from:
-Retina -Geniculate Nucleus (In Thalamus) -Striate Cortex (Occipital Lobe)
Geniculostriate Pathway
-Retinotopic Organization -The Retina projects to the brain in topographic fashion -Goes from the retina to the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN) of the Thalamus and then to the Primary Visual Cortex in the Occipital Lobe
Transduction by rods
-Rhodopsin is bleached -Separate into retinal and opsin -Hyperpolarizes the rods -At rest, rods are slightly depolarized -Rods transmit signals through inhibition
The Scotopic System has
-Rods receptor -100 million receptors per eye -Rhodopsin (Photopigments) -HIGH SENSITIVITY; Can be stimulated by weak light intensity; used for NIGHT VISION -Outside Fovea -LARGER, so ACUITY IS LOWER
What are the 3 studies of the effects of experience in Topographic Sensory Maps?
-Roe & Colleagues experiment -Knudsen & Brainard experiment -Several studies have shown that early music training influences the organization of human cortex. Ex. Early musical training expands the area of auditory cortex that responds to complex musical tones
Describe the various factors that influence how much we eat?
-Satiety Signals -Shan Eating -Appetizer Effect and Satiety -Serving Size Satiety -Social Influences and Satiety -Sensory-Specific Satiety
What are the characteristics of Epilepsy?
-Seizure recur spontaneously -Convulsions make diagnosis easier (Clonus/Tonus) & Loss of Balance/Loss of Consciousness Some seizures involve changes in thought, mood, and/or behavior with no convulsions -Epileptic spikes may be evident in EEG -Auras
Factors that influence the Development and Maintainence of Drug Abuse and Addiction
-Self Administration -Conditioned Place Preference (CPP)
What are the 2 general manipulations of experience?
-Sensory Deprivation -Enrichment
What are the 2 types of treatments for obesity?
-Serotonergic Agonists -Gastric Surgery
What causes Huntington's Disease?
-Single dominant gene -Huntingtin Often passed from parent to child
What are the 2 methods by which developing cells migrate?
-Somal Translocation -Glia-mediated
Viral Infections
-Some preferentially attack CNS (rabies) -May play a role in etiology of many disorders -Can be dormant
What are the 3 different types of Brain Tumors?
-Structure -Origination -Behavior
Temporal Integration
-Sum of inputs -Explains why images are detailed, colored, and wide-angled -Explains why things don't disappear when we blink
Most psychoactive drugs exert their effects by influencing Synaptic chemical signaling
-Synthesis -Storage -Release -Receptor Interaction -Degradation -Reuptake -Inactivation
Transmitter Production
-Synthesis -Transport -Storage
The Third Month of Gestation
-Testes release androgens -Testes release Müllerian-inhibiting Substance -Default is to femaleness
Aromatization Hypothesis
-Testosterone converted to estradiol = Aromatization -Estradiol Masculinizes brain -Testosterone Immune to Alpha-fetoprotein Evidence: Estradiol Injections; No Masculinization with Aromatization Blockers
Brain regions involved in Reward and Addiction:
-The Reward Mechanism May have evolved to increase the adaptive fitness both of the entire species and of individual members of a species -Maintain contact with some stimuli but not others
Hypothalamus and Sexual Activity
-The Ventromedial Nucleus (VMN) -Medial Preoptic area
Summarize the Model of Gonadal Endocrine Regulation
-The brain controls the release of Gonadotropin-releasing hormone from the Hypothalamus -The Gonadotropins are then released from the Anterior Pituitary. —Behavior is influenced by the Gonadal hormones acting on the brain. Which are then carries by the Circulatory System to the Gonads. (Positive or negative feedback influences the subsequent release of hormones). -The Gonads then release Androgens, Estrogens, and Progestins, which feed back into the pituitary and hypothalamus to regulate subsequent gonadal hormone release (Feedback of the brain)
What are some risk factors involving Multiole Sclerosis (MS)?
-The most well-establishes ones include vitamin D deficiency —Exposure to Epstein-Barr Virus, most common cause of mononucleosis -Cigarette smoking
Experimental Data Alcohol
-The occasional drug-taker May experience an increased responsiveness to successive equal doses -Whereas tolerance generally develops with repeated use of a drug, sensitization is much more likely to develop with occasional (intermittent) use
What are the 2 types of viral infections in the nervous system?
-Those that have a particular affinity for neural tissue -Those that attach neural tissue but have no greater affinity for it than for other tissues
What are the 3 main causes of Cerebral Ischemia?
-Thrombosis -Embolism -Arteriosclerosis
What are the 2 major factors that govern migration in the developing Neural Tube?
-Time -Location
What is the evidence that Blood Glucose decline is triggered by eating
-Time course is glucose is not directly correlated with body's energy -Eliminating premeal drop doesn't stop the meal -If meal is not served m, glucose returns to its previous level -Glucose in Brain is relatively constant
Pharmacokinetics
-Time course of a particular drug's action -Along with knowledge of the dosage taken, allows determination of: -Concentration of a Drug at its receptors -Intensity of drug effect on the receptors over time
Transmitter Release
-Transmission -Altered Release -Altered Release
Drug Effects on Presynaptic Mechanisms
-Transmitter Production -Transmitter Release -Transmitter Clearance
Drug Effects on Postsynaptic Mechanism
-Transmitter Receptors -Effects on Cellular Processes
Bacterial Infections
-Treated with antibiotics -Can cause Meningitis -Brain abscesses -General paresis
3 kinds of Involuntary Fixational Eye Movements
-Tremor -Drifts -Saccades
What are the 2 Lesions is the Hypothalamus
-Ventromedial Hypothalamus -Lateral Hypothalamus
Functional Anatomy of the Visual System
-Vision is our PRIMARY SENSORY EXPERIENCE -Far more of the human brain is dedicated to vision than any other sense -Understanding the visual systems's organization is therefore key to understanding human brain function
Seeing Edges
-Visual Edge -Contrast Enhancement -Mach Bands Illusion
Anatomy of the Retina The Fovea
-Visual Field -Visual Acuity -Optic Disc -Blind Spot
Satiety Signals
-Volume -Studies in which laboratory rats have been maintained on a single diet -Some rats eventually learn to adjust the volume of food they consume to keep their caloric intake and body weights relatively stable
Set Points and Settling Points in Weight Control
-Weight drifts around settling point: Food intake and energy expenditure achieve balance -Body weight will stay stable as long as no long-term changes in any factors occur -Negative feedback controls impact of changes in intake and output -The Settling Point Model
Pavlovian Conditioning of Hunger
-Weingarten Research: We way when we are used to eating; Despite the fact that the subjects were never deprived during the test phase, the rats started to eat each time the buzzer and light were presented—even if they had recently completed a meal That hunger is often caused by the expectation of food, not by an energy deficit
What are the 2 Internal Reproductive Ducts?
-Wolffian System -Müllerian System
What are the Sex Differences Addiction Progression
-Women progress from first use to drug abuse and addiction faster than men -Once drug use is initiated, women show a more rapid escalation of drug use and intake -During attempts to quit, women exhibit greater withdrawal symptoms than men do -Women and men differ in factors related to relapse
What are the 3 Prenatal Stages?
-Zygote -Embryo -Fetus
What were the three contributions that patient HM's case gave to the study of the neural basis of memory?
1) Showed that the medial temporal lobes play an especially important role in memory. Individual brain structures being specific (mnemonic) memory-related processes. His case led to research aimed at clarifying the mnemonic functions of the hippocampus and other medial temporal lobe structures. 2) The discovery that bilateral medial temporal lobectomy abolished his ability to form certain kinds of long-term memories without disrupting his performance on tests of memory (short term) or his remote memory supported the theory that there are different modes of storage for short term, long term and remote memory. 3) His case was the first to reveal that an amnesic patient might claim no recollection of a previous experience while demonstrating memory for it by improved performance, and which led to the creation of two distinct categories of memory: explicit and implicit memories.
What are the three discoveries that led to the identification of a descending pain-control circuit?
1) The discovery of electrical stimulation to the periaqueductal gray. 2) Discovery that the PAG and other areas of the brain contain specialized reports for opiod analgesic drugs like morphine. 3) The isolation of several endogenous (internally produced) opioid analgesics (endorphins). These findings suggest that analgesic drugs and psychological factors might block pain through an endorphin-sensitive circuit that descends from the PAG.
Why do humans release sexual pheromones?
1) The olfactory sensitivity of women is greatest when ovulating or pregnant. 2) Menstrual cycles of women living together become synchronized. 3) Humans, especially women, can predict the sex of a person from their breath or underarm odor. 4) Men can judge the stage of a women's cycle on the basis of her vaginal door.
What are the two important features of the gustatory system?
1) There appears to be only one receptor protein per taste receptor cell. 2) Taste receptor proteins are not restricted to the oral cavity with many found in the throat, esophagus and lungs.
What are 4 invasive research methods?
1. Lesioning 2. Electrical Stimulation 3. Invasive recording methods 4. Manipulating or measuring within the brain.
What 4 techniques are used to examine the function?
1. MEG 2. PET 3. FMRI 4. TMS
What are 3 advantages of MRI?
1. No use of ionizing radiation (little side effects) 2. Can imagine on any plane 3. Great contrast and spatial resolution
What are 4 advantages of FMRI over PET?
1. Nothing injected 2. Provided both structural and functional info in one image 3. Better spatial resolution 4. Can create 3D images of activity over the entire brain.
What are the two factors contributing to even distribution to ions?
1. Random motion - particles tend to move down the concentration gradient 2. Electrostatic pressure - like repels like, opposites attract
What are 3 factors contributing to uneven distribution of ions?
1. Selective permeability to certain ions 2. Sodium-Potassium pump 3. Chemical gradient / electrical gradient
What are 4 ions contributing to resting potential?
1. Sodium (Na+) 2. Chloride (Cl-) 3. Potassium (K+) 4. Negatively charged proteins ( A-)
What 2 forms of EMG are there?
1. Surface - outside the body 2. Intramuscular - more invasive, stick needle into the muscle.
What are the 3 problems of set-point theories of hunger and eating
1.) Inconsistent with evolutionary pressures 2.) Major predictions of theories not confirmed 3.) Fail to recognize the pressures of taste, learning, social influences
What are the 5 Phases of Neurodevelopment?
1.) Induction of the Neural Plate 2.) Neural Proliferation 3.) Migration & Aggregation 4.) Axon Growth & Synapse Formation 5.) Neuron Death & Synapse Rearrangement
What are the five stages of a typical weight-loss program?
1.) Weight loss occurs rapidly at beginning of diet 2.) As weight declines, the amount of energy "leakage" is automatically reduced, and this reduces the rate of weight loss 3.) Gradually the reduced rate of intake is matched by the reduced energy output,and a new stable settling point is achieved 4.) When the diet is terminated, weight gain is rapid because of the high incentive value of food and the low level of energy leakage 5.) As weight accumulates, the incentive value of food gradually decreased and the energy leakage increases until the original settling point is regained
What are the 4 types of Cognitive Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex?
1.) Working Memory 2.) Planning & carrying out sequences of actions 3.) Inhibiting responses that are inappropriate in the current context but not in others 4.) Following rules for social behavior
How many steps are there to a typical-weight loss program?
5
Belt
A band of areas of secondary auditory cortex which surround the core region of the primary auditory cortex.
Engram
A change in the brain that stores a memory. Retained memories become progressively resistant to disruption by hippocampal damage because each time a similar experience occurs, or the original memory is recalled, a new change in the brain that stores a memory is established and linked to the original engram, making the memory easier to recall and the original engram more difficult to disrupt.
Reticular Formation
A complex network of about 100 tiny nuclei that occupies the central core of the brain stem. Contains motor programs that regulate complex species-typical movements such as walking, swimming, jumping via the brain stem interactions with the ventromedial cortico-brainstem-spinal.
Contralateral Neglect
A disturbance of the patient's ability to respond to stimuli on the side of the body opposite (contralateral) to a site of brain damage, usually the left side of the body following damage to the right parietal lobe. Most patients behave as if the left side of their world doesn't exist, and don't appreciate they have a problem. They also can't respond to objects on their left, regardless of where it is in their visual fields. Usually associated with large lesions of the right posterior parietal cortex, and damage to other brain regions has been implicated. Partly due to gravitational coordinates, when tilting one's head the field of vision neglected is not normally tilted with it. But, they are still perceiving objects. When objects are repeatedly presented in the same spot to patient's left side, they tend to look to the same spot in future trials, and they can more readily identify fragmented (partial) drawings viewed to their right if complete versions of drawings had been previously presented to the left (the area not consciously perceived).
Anterolateral System
A major somatosensory pathway that ascends in the anterolateral portion of the spinal cord and tends to carry information related to pain and temperature. Lesions in this system don't eliminate perception of pain or temperature. Most dorsal root neurons of this system synapse as soon as they enter the spinal cord and the axons of most second-order neurons decussate but then ascend to the brain in the contralateral anterolateral portion of the spinal cord. But, some don't decussate but ascent ipsilaterally. The system comprises 3 different tracts: -Spinothalamic tract -Spinorecticular tract -Spinotectal tract The 3 branches of the trigeminal nerve care pain and temperature from the face to the same thalamic sites and once the information reaches the thalamus its then distributed to the somatosensory cortex and other brain parts.
Patient HM
A man, who at 27 had the media portions of his temporal lobes removed for treatment of a severe case of epilepsy. His memory deficits were instrumental in the understanding of the neural basis of memory. The 11 years following his surgery, he suffered an average of a generalized seizure each week, and many focal seizures each day, despite massive amounts of anticonvulsant medications. Electroencephalography suggested that his seizures were from the loci in the medial portions of both is right and left temporal lobes. Because removing one medial temporal lobe proved to be effective for treating patients with a unilateral temporal lobe focus, the decision was made to perform a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy. In many respects the surgery was a success because his generalized seizures were eliminated for the most part. And partial seizures were limited to 1-2 a day, in addition to lowering his medication amounts. He became a reasonably well adjusted person, with normal perpetual, motor abilities and intelligence. His IQ increased. But he was the last patient to receive such a surgery because of the effects. His memory for past events remained in tact, and his short term anterograde memory was also normal. BUT he had almost total inability to form new long term memories. He had an inability to form certain long term memories, he had global amnesia, his anterograde amnesia did not involve all long term memories, and he was capable in forming long term memories as seen through mirror drawing test which suggested that sensorimotor tasks were the exception.
Cerebellum
A metencephalic structure that is thought to participate in the storage of memories of learned sensorimotor skills thought its various neuroplastic mechanisms. Pavlovian conditioning; stimulation, recording and lesion studies suggests that the effects of conditioning are stored in the form of changes in the way that cerebellar neurons respond to tones.
Korsakoff's Syndrome
A neuropsychological disorder that is common in alcoholics and whose primary symptom is severe memory loss, sensory and motor dysfunction and in its advanced stages severe dementia. Largely attributable to thiamine deficiency and brain damage accompanied by heavy alcohol use. There is extreme confusion, personality changes, and risk of death from the liver, gastrointestinal or heart disorders. There are typically lesions to the medial diencephalon (medial thalamus and medial hypothalamus) and diffuse damage to several other brain structures which are notably the neocortex, hippocampus and cerebellum. Similar symptoms to those with Medial Temporal Lobe Amnesia in some aspects. Dearly early stages, anterograde amnesia for explicit episodic memories is prominent, and as it progresses, retrograde amnesia can develop. Deficits in implicit memory depend on which test is used, but in general they are less severe than those in explicit memory. Insidious onset and progressive. Mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus has been suggested, but doesn't occur in all cases. What does occur in ALL cases is damage to another pair of medial diencephalic nuclei, the mediodorsal nuclei of the thalamus. But its unlikely that memory deficits are due to any single structure.
What is acetylcholine?
A neurotransmitter junction - where a neuron meets a muscle.
Glucagon
A pancreatic hormone that promotes the release of free fatty acids from adipose tissue, their conversion to ketones, and the use of both as sources of energy
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
A peptide that is released by the gastrointestinal tract and is thought to function as a satiety signal Induced illness. After eating an unfamiliar substance, It induced a conditioned taste aversion for that substance and induced nausea in humans
Describe the set point assumption, and describe the glucostatic and lipostatic set-point theories of hunger and eating
A person's energy resources are assumed to be near the set-point and to decline thereafter as the body uses energy to fuel its physiological processes When the level of the body's energy resources falls far enough below the set point, a person becomes motivated by hunger to initiate another meal. The meal continues, according to the set-point assumption, until the energy level returns to its set point and the person feels SATIATED
Thrombosis
A plug called a thrombus is formed and blocks blood flow at the site of its formation. May be composed of a blood clot, fat, oil, an air bubble, tumor cells, or any combination thereof
What is the Bregma?
A point at the top of the skull often used as a reference point.
Drug Tolerance
A state of decreased sensitivity to a drug that develops as a result of exposure to the drug
Striatum
A structure of the basal ganglia that is the terminal of the dopaminergic nigrostriatal pathway. Thought to store memories for consistent relationships between stimuli and responses - the type of memories that develop incrementally over many trials. Habit formation learning.
Neural Crest
A structure situated just Dorsal to the Neural Tube. It is formed from cells that break off from the Neural Tube as it is being formed
Intersexed Persons
A term used to refer to a person who is born with sexual anatomy that does not clearly fit into typical definitions of male and female sexual anatomy
Delayed Nonmatching-To-Sample Test
A test in which the subject is presented with an unfamiliar sample object and then, after a delay, is presented with a choice between the sample object and an unfamiliar object, where the correct choice is the unfamiliar object. Tests on monkeys reveals that those with bilateral medial temporal lobe lesions had major object recognition deficits which modelled patent HM.
Tonic-clonic Seizures
A type of Generalized Seizure whose primary behavioral symptoms are loss of consciousness, loss of equilibrium, and this specific type of seizure convulsion—a convulsion involving both tonus & clonus
Absence Seizure
A type of generalized seizure whose primary behavioral symptom is a disruption of consciousness associated with a cessation of ongoing behavior, a vacant look, and sometimes fluttering eyelids More common in children. Not convulsions.
Explain what is Encapsulated Tumor?
All Meningiomas. Tumors that grow within their own membrane. Easily identified through CT scans Can influence the function of the brain only by the pressure they exert on surrounding tissue
Where is cannula implanted into on a rat?
Amygdala.
What are contrast x-rays?
An X-ray where you inject an opaque dye which absorbs x-rays less or more than the surrounding tissue. A pseudo-colour is used to help visualize.
Leaky-Barrel Model
An analogy for the settling-point model of body-fat regulation.
What is an example of a contrast x-ray?
An angiography, which is used to visualize the circulatory system.
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
An anterior pituitary hormone that triggers the release of adrenal hormones from the adrenal cortices
Mumby Box
An apparatus that is used in a rat version of the delayed nonmatching-to-sample test.
What is needed to quality as secondary motor cortex?
An area must be appropriately connected with association and secondary motor areas.
Posterior Parietal Association Cortex
An area of association cortex that receives input from the visual, auditory, and somatosensory systems and is involved in the perception of spatial location and guidance of voluntary behaviour. Portion of parental neocortex posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex. Integrates directing behaviour by providing spatial information and directs attention.
Association Cortex
An area of correct that receives input from more than one sensory system. Most input to areas of association cortex comes via areas of secondary sensory cortex.
Piriform Cortex
An area of medial temporal cortex that is adjacent to the amygdala and that receives direct olfactory input.
Secondary Sensory Cortex
An area of sensory cortex that receives most of its input from the primary sensory cortex of one sensory system or from other areas of secondary cortex of the same system.
Dermatome
An area of the body that is innervated by the left and right dorsal roots of one segment of the spinal cord. Neural fibres that carry information from cutaneous receptors and other somatosensory receptors gather together in nerves and enter the spinal cord via the dorsal roots - with the dermatome innervated by the left and right dorsal roots of a given segment. There is considerable overlap between adjacent dermatomes and the destruction of a single dorsal root typically provides little somatosensory loss.
Secondary Motor Cortex
An area of the cerebral cortex that receives much of its input from association cortex (i.e., posterior parietal cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and sends much of its output to primary motor cortex. Neurons in this area often become more active just prior to the invitation of voluntary movement and continue to be active throughout the movement. Areas are thought to be involved in the programming of specific patterns of movements after taking general instructions from dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
Lobotomy
An operation in which a lobe, or a major part of one, is separated from the rest of the brain by a large cut but is not removed.
What is an example of a retrograde messanger?
Anandomide (An)
What does sodium amytal do?
Anesthetize one hemisphere of the brain A reverse lesion
Explain the effects of Deprivation on Neurodevelopment
Assessed the effects of giving birth to animals in the dark. Rats that gave birth in the dark were found to have fewer synapses and fewer dendritic spines in their primary visual cortexes, and as adults they were found to have deficits in depth and pattern vision.
What are Ionotropic receptors?
Associated with ligand-activated ion channels
What are metabotropic receptors?
Associated with signal proteins and G proteins
Areas of cortex that receive input from more than one sensory system are called ____________ cortex.
Association
What area is at the top of the sensorimotor hierarchy?
Association Cortex
What are two examples of Antagonists?
Atropine Curare
What is the function of the septum?
Attention and brain synchrony
The inferior colliculi and medial geniculate nuclei are components of the ________________ system.
Auditory
The primary ________________ cortex is organized tonotopically.
Auditory
The auditory nerve is a branch of cranial nerve VIII, the ______________ nerve.
Auditory Vestibular
What are the two most common structures of synapses when it comes to synaptic transmission?
Axodendritic and Axosomatic
What is Axodendritic transmission?
Axons on dendrites
Retrograde
Backward acting amnesia.
Cerebellum
Balance and coordination; only 10% of mass of the brain but contains more than half of the brain's neons. Organized systematically in lobes, columns and layers. It receives information from the primary and secondary motor cortex, information about descending motor signals from brain-stem motor nuclei and feedback from motor responses via the somatosensory and vestibular systems. Believed to compare sources of input, correct ongoing movements, and plays a major role in motor learning, especially the learning sequences of movements in which timing is crucial.
What are the only responses NOT normally influenced by sensory feedback?
Ballistic Movements - brief, all or none, high speed movements. Ex: Swatting a fly.
Cholinergic area that has been linked to the memory problems of Alzheimer's disease: _________________.
Basal Forebrain
The _____________ are part of neural loops that receive input from various cortical areas and transmit it back to the cortex via the thalamus.
Basal Ganglia
What is Neurodevelopment (Neural Development)?
Begins with a single Fertilized egg cell & ends with a functional adult brain
Physically Dependent
Being in a state in which the discontinuation of drug taking will induce withdrawal reactions
Some areas of secondary auditory cortex are located in a band adjacent to and surrounding the core region. These areas are often called the ______________ areas.
Belt
What is a pro of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) when compared to xrays?
Better resolution than x-rays
At what hertz/cycles per second do humans hear molecular vibrations?
Between 20 and 20,000.
What does the posterior parietal cortex contain?
Bimodal neurons that respond to both somatosensory and visual stimuli. Each receptive field of each neuron is spatially related. Ex: If a neuron has a somatosensory receptive field centred in the left hand, its visual field is adjacent to the left hand. As the left hand moves, the visual receptive field of the neuron moves with it.
The outcomes of Drug-Receptor Interactions are
Binding = Affinity
Allosteric Action
Binding to nearby site to facilitate transmitter binding
Antagonistic Action
Binding to receptor site, blocking access of transmitter to binding site
Agonistic Action
Binding to site of normal endogenous neurotransmitter initiates similar cellular response
Cerebral Hemorrhage
Bleeding in the brain. Occurs when a Cerebral Blood Vessel ruptures & Blood seeps into the surrounding Neural tissue & damages it. Bursting Aneurysms are a common cause of it
What is BOLD and when is it used?
Blood Oxygen Level Dependent signal, and in FMRI
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Body features, other than the reproductive organs, that distinguish males from females
What protects the CNS?
Bone and it is covered by the three meninges
Merkel's Disks and Ruffini Endings
Both are cutaneous receipts but adapt slowly and respond to gradual skin indentation and to skin stretch.
Magnocellular Cell (M-Cell)
Bottom 2 layers Composed of neurons with large cell bodies -Neurons are particularly responsive to MOVEMENT -RODS provide majority of input in this layer
Inhalation
Breathing in drugs Ex. Tobacco and Marijuana
Cochlear Implants
Bypass damage to the auditory hair cells by converting sounds picked up by a microphone in the person's ear to electrical signals which are them carried into the cochlea by a bundle of electrodes. The signals excite the auditory nerve. They have benefits but don't restore normal hearing. The sooner a person gets an implant after becoming deaf, the more likely they'll benefit because disuse leads to alterations of the auditory neural pathways.
What is Apoptosis?
Cell death that is actively induced by genetic programs. Programmed cell death. Occurs in cells that are dysfunctional. More adaptive. Nucleus is impacted early in process.
Both Migration & Aggregation are thought to be mediated by
Cell-adhesion Molecules (CAMs)
Receptors
Cells that are specialized to receive chemical, mechanical, or radiant signals from the environment; also proteins that contain binding sites for particular neurotransmitters.
Pluripotent
Cells that can develop into many, but not all, classes of body cells
Unipotent
Cells that can develop into only one type of cell Ex. Bipolar Neurons
Concept Cells
Cells, such as those found in the medial temporal lobe, that respond to ideas or concepts rather than to particulars. Also known as Jennifer Aniston neurons.
Hormones
Chemicals released by the endocrine system directly into the circulatory system
Pheromones
Chemicals that are released by an animal and elicit through their odor specific patterns of behavior in its conspecifics. Chemicals influencing physiology and behaviour of conspecifics (members of same species.)
What is Neurotrophins?
Chemicals that are supplied to developing Neurons by their targets and that promote their survival
What is the motor function of the trigeminal cranial nerve?
Chewing
What is the first step of Digestion?
Chewing breaks up food and mixes it with saliva
Amyloid Plaques
Clumps of scar tissue composes of degenerating neurons and aggregates of a proteins called Beta-amyloid
Raphé Nuclei
Cluster of serotonergic nuclei in the core of the medulla.
Medial Temporal Cortex
Cortex in the medial temporal lobe that lies adjacent to the hippocampus and amygdala.
Wanting
Incentive; Involves dopamine
Amnesia
Any pathological loss of memory.
How many different areas of auditory cortex are in primates?
Appx 20
Simple Partial Sezuire
Are Focal Seizures whose symptoms are primarily sensory or motor or both. Sometimes called "Jacksonian Seizures". As the Epileptic such stages spread through the sensory or motor areas of the brain, the symptoms spread systematically through the body. Involves one part of the body and may spread
Infarct
Area of dead or dying tissue surrounded by Penumbra
Parabelt Areas
Areas of secondary auditory cortex. There appears to be 20 different areas of auditory cortex in primates.
Where does much of the output of the posterior parietal cortex go to?
Areas of the motor cortex which are located in the frontal cortex: 1) to the dorsolateral prefrontal association cortex 2) then to various areas of secondary motor cortex 3) and the frontal eye field
What are the functions of the RAS?
Arousal, attention, reflexes, and consciousness.
Glucose is to Glycogen as
As Fat and Amino Acids is to Protein
What are examples of two Amino Acid Neurotransmitters?
Aspartate Glycine
Acetylsalicylic Acid
Aspirin
Lateral Communication
Communication across the major channels of sensory input
What does electrical stimulation of an areas of secondary motor cortex typically elicit?
Complex movements often involving both sides of the body.
Adult ___________________ occurs I'm at least 2 areas of the human brain
Neurogenesis
What is Necrosis?
Neuron dies passively due to injury. Can cause inflammation. Nucleus is impacted late in process
What are the two components of the cells of the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells
Melanocortin System
Neurons in the arcuate nucleus that release melanocortins.
Spindle Afferent Neurons
Neurons that carry signals from muscle spindles into the spinal cord via the dorsal root.
Mirror Neurons
Neurons that fire when an individual performs a particular goal-directed hand movement or when they observe the same goal-directed movement performed by another.
Engram Cells
Neurons that maintain an engram.
Bimodal Neurons
Neurons that respond to activation of two different sensory systems.
Astrocytes
Play a much more extensive role in Synaptogenesis by processing, transferring, and storing information supplied by Neurons
What is floor plate?
Runs along the midline of the ventral surface of the tube
What is the biggest glial cell?
astrocytes
What are the 4 processes of Pharmacokinetics ?
(ADME) -Absorption -Distribution -Metabolism -Elimination
Refract
(Bend) light & thus brings close objects into sharp focus
Axillary Hair
(underarm hair) in females
What are the 3 strengths of the Settling Point Model?
- Accounts for Homeostasis -Accounts for instanced where there are long-term changes in body weight -Better describes food intake and body weight research
Describe, from an Evolutionary Perspective, why there is a current epidemic of obesity
-"Fast food" society -Evolution (Not adaptive when food is readily available and high calorie) -Social Factors -Eat at specific times (eat maximum amounts)
What is the resting membrane potential?
-70mV
Transmitter Receptors
-Blockade -Activation
Transmitter Clearance
-Reuptake -Degradation
Glycogen in muscle and liver make up this percentage in the distribution of stored energy
0.5%
How does retrograde and anterograde amnesia occur after a concussion producing blow to the head?
1) Blow to the head produces coma. 2) When regaining consciousness, there is a period of confusion. 3) When period of confusion ends, the victim has retrograde amnesia for events that occurred during the period just before the blow and anterograde for events occurring during period of confusion. A) Normal Cognitive Function B) Retrograde Amnesia C) Coma D) Confusion and Anterograde Amnesia E) Normal Cognitive Functioning
What are the three but interacting systems in the somatosensory system?
1) Exteroceptive 2) Proprioceptive 3) Interoceptive
What are the two advantages of shifting control to lower levels of the sensorimotor system during training?
1) Frees up the higher levels of the system to deal with more esoteric aspects of performance. Ex: pianists concentrating on a piece of music because they don't have to consciously focus on pressing the right keys. 2) Permits great speed because different circuits at the lower levels of the hierarchy can act simultaneously without interfering with one another. Ex: typing 120 words a minute because the circuits responsible for activating each individual key press can become active before the preceding response has been completed.
What are the three major principles pertaining the interactions among the three types of sensory cortex and other sensory structures?
1) Hierarchical Organization 2) Functional Segregation 3) Parallel Processing
What are the four neural structures which play some role in the storage of memory?
1) Hippocampus 2) Medial temporal cortex (roles with episodic memory) 3) Medial dorsal nucleus of the thalamus 4) Basal forebrain which is implicated in the memory deficits in Korsakoff's and Alzheimer's disease
Why is the perception of pain paradoxical?
1) Important for survival and has evolutionary advantage. There is no special stimulus for pain but its a response to potentially harmful stimulation of any type and warns us to stop engaging in potentially harmful activities or to seek treatment. 2) There is no obvious cortical representation. Painful stimuli activate many areas of the cortex including the thalamus, SI and SII, the insult and the anterior cingulate cortex. But none of these areas seem necessary for the perception of pain. 3) Pain being effectively suppressed by cognitive and emotional factors such as participating in religious ceremonies or soldiers in battle experiencing severe wounds and not feeling much pain.
What are the two ways attention can be focused?
1) Internal cognitive processes (endogenous attention) and 2) external events (exogenous attention).
What are the two important principles of organization of primary auditory cortex?
1) It is organized in functional columns. 2) Its organized tonotopically.
What have lesions of particular structures during surgery found regarding retrograde amnesia?
1) Memories stored diffusely in the brain can survive destruction of any single structure. 2) Memories become more resistant to disruption over time.
Describe the Organization of the Primary Visual Cortex
3 Important things 1.) It was organized into Functional "Vertical" Columns 2.) Locations of various columns was influenced by location of Retina of the column's visual fields, dominant eye of the column, & column's preferred straight-line angle - All of the columns that analyze Input from 1 area of the Retina are CLUSTERED together -Half of a CLUSTER receives input from LEFT eye & other half receives input from RIGHT eye -Each cluster includes Neurons with Preferences for Straight-line Stimuli of Various Orientations 3.) Preferences of the neurons became more complex -Occurred because Neurons with simpler preferences converged on Neurons with more complex preferences
Describe the development of the Neural Plate into the Neural Tube?
3 weeks after conception. Tissue that is destined to develop into the human Nervous System becomes a NEURAL PLATE. DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEURAL PLATE IS THE FIRST MAJOR STAGE OF NEURODEVELOPMENT IN ALL VERTEBRATES. Induced by chemical signals from an area of the underlying mesoderm layer. Cells of it are often referenced to as the embryonic stem cells. The growing Neural plate folds to form the NEURAL GROOVE, & then the lips of the NEURAL GROOVE fuse to form the Neural Tube. The fates of the new cells become more specified.
What does neuroanatomical and neurophysiological research on monkeys and humans reveal about the secondary motor cortex?
A case for at least 8 areas of secondary motor cortex in each hemisphere, each with its own subdivisions: three different supplementary motor areas (SMA, preSMA, and supplemental eye field), two premotor areas (dorsal and ventral), and three small areas (cingulate motor cortex in the cortex of the cingulate gyrus).
Stem Cell
A cell that can differentiate into any one of many cell types. They replicate itself
Endorphins
A class of endogenous opioids.
Melanocortins
A class of peptides that includes the gut satiety peptide a-melanocyte-stimulating hormone
Asomatognosia
A deficiency in the awareness of parts of one's own body that is typically produced by damage to the right parietal lobe. Typically unilateral and affecting only the left side of the body and usually associated with extensive damage to the right temporal and posterior parietal lobe. Commonly a component of contralateral neglect which is the tendency not to respond to stimuli that are contralateral to a right-hemisphere injury.
Cafeteria-Diet
A diet offered to experimental animals that is composed of a wide variety of palatable foods
Simultanagnosia
A difficulty attending to more than one stimuli at a time.
Apraxia
A disorder in which patients have great difficulty performing movements when asked to do so out of context, but can readily perform them spontaneously in natural situations. Not attributable to simple motor deficits (paralysis or weakness) or deficits in comprehension or motivation. Its symptoms are bilateral, but often caused by unilateral damage to the left posterior parietal cortex or its connections.
Contralateral Neglect
A disturbance of the patient's ability to respond to stimuli on the side of the body opposite to a site of brain damage, usually the left side of the body following damage to the right parietal lobe.
Sry Gene
A gene on the Y chromosome that triggers the production of Sry Protein
Neuropeptide Y
A gut hunger peptide
Ventromedial Nucleus (VMN)
A hypothalamic nucleus that is thought to be involved in female sexual behavior
Fourier Analysis
A mathematical procedure for breaking down a complex wave form into component sine waves of various frequencies.
Radial Arm Maze Test
A maze in which several arms radiate out from a central starting chamber, commonly used to study spatial learning in rats. Intact rats readily learn to visit only those arms which contain food and do not visit the same arm more than once each day. Rats with hippocampal lesions display major deficits on both working and reference memory measures. Tests reference and working memory.
What is Ligand?
A molecule that binds to a receptor
Tardive Dyskinesia (TD)
A motor disorder that results from chronic use of certain antipsychotic drugs Primary symptoms: Involuntary smacking & sucking movements of the lips, thrusting & rolling of the tongue, lateral jaw movements, puffing of the cheeks
Intrafusal Motor Neuron
A motor neuron that innervates an intramural muscle.
Describe the process of Neuron Death
A normal and important part of Neurodevelopment. Large-scale occurs in waves in various parts of the brain throughout development. Cell death during development is usually active. Genetics programs inside Neurons are triggered and cause them to actively completely suicide. Caused by Necrosis & Apoptosis
Arcuate Nucleus
A nucleus of the hypothalamus that contains high concentrations of both leptin receptors and insulin receptors
Mediodorsal Nuclei
A pair of thalamic nuclei, damage to which is thought to be responsible for many of the memory deficits associated with Korsakoff's syndrome.
Insulin
A pancreatic hormone that facilitates the entry of glucose into the cells and the conversion of bloodborne fuels to forms that can be stored
Tetraplegic
A person suffering from paralysis of all four limbs.
Reconsolidation
A process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again. Each time a memory is retrieved from LT storage, its temporarily held in liable (changeable or unstable) ST memory, and susceptible to post traumatic amnesia until its reconsolidated.
Progesterone
A progestin that prepares the uterus and breasts for pregnancy
Leptin
A protein normally synthesized in fat cells; It is thought to act as a negative feedback signal normally released by fat stores to decrease appetite and increase fat metabolism
Sry Protein
A protein that causes the medulla of each primordial gonad to develop into a testis
What is the NMDA receptor?
A receptor for glutamate. Won't respond maximally unless two simultaneous events occur: 1) Glutamate must bind to it. 2) Postsynaptic neuron must already be partially depolarized.
SII
A second somatotopically organized area lying ventral to SI in the post central gyrus and extends into the later fissure. It receives most of its input from SI and regarded as secondary. Receives its substantial input from both sides of the body.
Focal Seizure
A seizure that does not involve the entire brain
Injection
A shot; The "throwing" of medicine into the body by a needle
Glucose
A simple sugar that is the breakdown product of complex CARBOHYDRATES, that is, starches and sugars; It is the body's primary, directly utilizable source of energy
What is a Zygote?
A single cell formed by the amalgamation of an OVUM & SPERM. Divides into 2 daughter cells, then the 2 divide to form 4, and then into 8 & so on. Until the mature organism is produced. Germinal/Staminal Period. Fertilization to 2 weeks. Starts around conception
Motor Units
A single motor neuron and all of the skeletal muscle fibers that are innervated by it. The smallest units of motor activity. When firing, all the muscle fibers of that unit contract together. They differ in the number muscle fibers they contain, with the units with the fewest such as those of the fingers and face permitting the highest degree of selective motor activity.
Frontal Eye Field
A small area of prefrontal cortex that controls eye movements.
Bottom Up Processing
A sort of neural mechanism that involves activation of higher cortical areas by lower cortical areas. Lower to higher levels. Exogenous attention.
Top Down Processing
A sort of neural mechanism that involves activation of lower cortical areas by higher cortical areas. Higher to lower levels. Endogenous attention.
What is a stereotaxic atlas?
A source that provides coordinates for locating structures within the brain.
Homeostasis
A stable internal environment-which is critical for mammals to survive
Transient Global Amnesia
A sudden onset severe anterograde amnesia and moderate retrograde amnesia for explicit episodic memories that is transient - typically lasting only between 4 to 6 hours. The amnesia is transient, its like being healthy and then suddenly developing symptoms of medial temporal lobe amnesia. There are abnormalities in the CA1 subfield of the hippocampus, which are not usually apparent for several hours after the beginning of the attack and usually can clear up 10 days later, which is suggestive of stroke induced damage.
Adjustable Gastric Band Procedure
A surgical procedure for treating obesity in which an adjustable band is implanted around the stomach to reduce the flow of food.
Gastric Bypass
A surgical procedure for treating obesity in which the intestine is cute and connected to the upper portion of the stomach, which is isolated from the rest of the stomach by a row of staples
What are Brain Image Archives?
A system that allows researchers to share their data.
Incomplete Pictures Test
A test of memory measuring the improved ability to identify fragmented figures that have been previously observed. A nonsensorimotor test of memory that employs 5 sets of fragmented drawings. Each set contains drawings of the same 20 objects, but differ in their degree of completeness. Subject is to identify the 20 objects from the most fragmented set. Objects unrecognized are presented in a second set, etc until all have been identified.
Ventral Posterior Nucleus
A thalamic relay nucleus in both the somatosensory and gustatory systems.
Intrafusal Muscle
A threadlike muscle that adjusts the tension on a muscle spindle.
What are three types of iontopic receptors?
AMPA, Icainate, NMDA.
Naproxen
Aleve
Ibuprofen
Advil
What are the two divisions within the somatic nervous system?
Afferent nerves and efferent nerves
Describe the discover of Hunger and Satiety Peptides
After discovering that the stomach and other parts of the gastrointestinal tract release chemical signals to the brain, evidence began to accumulate that these chemicals were Peptides Ingested food interacts with receptors in the gastrointestinal tract and in so doing causes the tract to release peptides into the bloodstream Circulating that gut peptides provide the brain with information about the quantity and nature of food in the gastrointestinal tract. Playing a role in Satiety
Drug Action/Effect
Agonist + Receptor = Agonist-receptor Interaction
Motor Pool
All of the motor neurons that innervate the fibers of a given muscle.
Functional "Vertical" Columns
All of the neurons in the same vertical column respond to stimuli applied to the same area of the Retina; Dominated by the Same Eye; Prefer the same straight-line angles In this context, it means at right angles to the Cortical Layers
Phase of Synaptic Rearrangement
Also tends to focus the output of each neuron on a smaller number of Postsynaptic cells. Increasing the selectivity if transmission
What are natural sounds composed of?
Always a mixture of frequencies.
Medial Temporal Lobe Amnesia
Amnesia associated with bilateral damage to the medial temporal lobes; its major features are anterograde and retrograde amnesia for explicit memories, with preserved intellectual functioning. Difficulty in forming explicit long term memories while retaining the ability to form implicit long term memories - a symptom of this amnesia and other disorders. People with this amnesia have deficits in forming new explicit memories.
Global Amnesia
Amnesia for information presented in all sensory modalities.
Post-traumatic Amnesia
Amnesia produced by a non penetrating head injury (blow that does not penetrate the skull).
Growth Cone
Amoebalike structure at the top of each growing Axon or Dendrite that guides growth to the appropriate target
Entorhinal Cortex
An area of the medial temporal cortex that is a major source of neural signals to the hippocampus.
Medial temporal lobe structure involved in the emotional significance of memories: _________________.
Amygdala
What are the 5 parts of the Limbic system?
Amygdala Cingulate gyrus septum hippocampus Fornix
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Association Cortex
An area of the prefrontal cortex that plays a role in the evaluation of external stimuli and the invitation of complex voluntary motor responses. An area of association cortex with important sensorimotor functionsL 1) It RECEIVES projections from the posterior parietal cortex. 2) It SENDS projections to areas of secondary motor cortex, primary motor cortex and frontal eye field. 3) And PROJECTS BACK to the posterior parietal cortex. The activity of its neurons are related to the response rather than the object: an object's characteristics, location, or a combination of both. The neurons usually start firing before the response, and continue firing until the response is complete. The neurons in this area tend to fire first over neurons in the many other cortical areas that will fire in anticipation. This suggests that the decisions to intimate voluntary movements may come from this cortex area with decisions depending on critical interactions between the posterior parietal cortex and other areas of the frontal cortex.
What is the diagnosis of Alzheimer's Disease?
An autopsy. -Amyloid plaques -Neurofibrillary tangles -Loss of Cells in hippocampus, amygdala, & entrohinal cortex
Congenital Insensitivity to Pain
An inability to feel pain. People with this disorder die usually young due to infections in the skin and bone trauma. Scientists were able to identify the gene abnormality underlying the disorder which is a gene that influences the synthesis of sodium ion channels. Those missing the gene show comparable indifference to pain. Other genetic disorders of painlessness have been identified.
Astereognosia
An inability to recognize objects by touch that is not attributable to a simple sensory deficit or to general intellectual impairment. Cases of pure astereognosia that occur in the absence of simple sensory deficits are rare.
Drug Sensitization
An increase in the sensitivity to a drug that develops as a result of exposure to the drug
The Fovea
An indentation, about 0.33 centimeter in diameter, at the center of the retina; It is specialized for high-acuity vision (for seeing fine details)
Electroconvulsive Shock (ECS)
An intense, brief, diffuse, seizure-inducing current administered to the brain via large electrodes attached to the scalp.
Global Cerebral Ischemia
An interruption of blood supply to the entire brain. People with this often suffer from Medical Temporal Lobe Amnesia. Can result from complications during surgery.
Encephalitis
An invasion of the brain by microorganisms (brain infection) that results inflammation. 2 common types
Lobectomy
An operation in which a lobe, or a major part of one, is removed from the brain.
Lateral Hypothalamus
Causes Aphagia & Adipsia
No Drug Action/Effect
Antagonist + Receptor = Antagonist-receptor Interaction
What are the two neuroanatomical tracing techniques?
Anterograde and Retrograde
Describe the Component & Opponent-Process Theories of Color Vision
Based on seeing color -Young and Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory -Hering Opponent Process Theory Hering based his Theory on several Behavioral Observations. -Complementary Colors CANNOT exist together: There is no such thing as Bluish yellow or Reddish green -The after image produced by staring at red is green & vice versa -Afterimage produced by staring at yellow is blue & vice versa
Why is the posterior parietal cortex classified as association cortex?
Because it receives input form more than one sensory system; 3 systems playing roles in localization of the body and external objects in space: the visual, auditory and somatosensory systems. TMS and fMRI studies indicate that the posterior parietal cortex contains a mosaic of small areas that are each specialized for guiding particular movements of eyes, head, arms or hands.
Ventromedial Hypothalamus
Causes Hyperphagia
Totipotent
Capable of developing into any type of body cell. Usually fertilized egg. New cells tend to be created by cell division becoming specialized. Ex. Bone, Skin, Neuron, Heart Cells, etc.
Multipotent
Capable of developing into different cells of only one class of cells. New cells are becoming more specialized Ex. Different kinds of blood cells
What are 2 Monoamines?
Catecholamine Indolamine
Taste Buds
Clusters of taste receptors found on the tongue and in parts of the oral cavity. Taste receptor cells which typically occur in clusters of 50 to 100. They are often located around small protuberances called papillae. The receptor cells that compose each taste bud come in several types and subtypes and their functional significance is unknown. Like olfactory receptor cells, they survive only a few weeks before being replaced by new cells.
The axons of the auditory nerves synapse in the ipsilateral ______________ nuclei.
Cochlear
In general, the sensory and motor areas of cerebral cortex achieve maturity before the _______________ areas
Cognitive
Cocaine
Coke, Big C, Snow
Set-point systems
Combine negative feedback with a set point to keep an internal environment fixed at the prescribed point
What does CA stand for?
Comu Ammonis - another name for the hippocampus.
What are the main properties that differentiate Rods & Cones?
Cones: Cone-shaped; Photopic Vision; Red colored Cells; Color Rods: Rod-shaped; Scotopic Vision; Blue colored Cells; Black & White Mediate Different Kinds of Vision
What is the function of the Fornix?
Connects hippocampus to the hypothalamus
Explicit Memories
Conscious long term memories. Also called Declarative memories.
The gradual increase in the resistance of memories to disruption by brain trauma (blow to the head) is termed ___________________.
Consolidation
Dynamic Contraction
Contraction of a muscle that causes the muscle to shorten.
Isometric Contraction
Contraction of a muscle that increases the force of its pull but does not shorten the muscle.
Oxytocin
Contractions of uterus; Milk ejection; One of two major peptide hormones of the posterior pituitary, which in females stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor and the ejection of milk during suckling
What are the two regions of the spinal cord included in the parasympathetic nerves?
Cranial and Sacral (top and bottom)
The Female Gonadal Hormones are
Cyclic
Egocentric Left
Deficits in responding to stimuli on the left of one's own body. Found in contralateral neglect. Partially defined by gravitational coordinates as when patients tilt their head, their field of neglect is not normally tilted with it.
What do most hearting problems typically result from?
Damage to the inner or middle ear, or to nerves leading from them rather than more central damage.
What is one of the most prevalent human disabilities?
Deafness; appx 360 million worldwide suffer from hearing impairments. Total deafness is rare occurring in only 1% of hearing impaired people.
Positive Punishment
Decrease Behavior + Add to environment
Negative Punishment
Decrease Behavior + Remove from environment
What are the four different pathways that neural signals travel from the primary motor cortex to the motor neurons of the spinal cord?
Descending in the dorsolateral region of the spinal cord (dorsolateral motor pathways) includes the Dorsolateral Corticospinal Tract and the Dorsolateral Corticorubrospinal Tract. Descending in the ventromedial region of the spinal cord, called the (ventromedial motor pathways), are the Ventromedial Corticospinal Tract and the Ventromedial Cortico-Brainstem-Spinal Tract. They act together in control of voluntary movement.
Dose-response Curves
Describe extent of effect (response) produced by a given drug concentration
Detector Mechanism
Detects deviations from set-point Ex. Thermometer
What is the function of the Hypothalamus?
Detects glucose levels, testorone, estrogen, and regulates internal drive states for hunger, thirst, and sex - controls release of pituitary hormones.
Synaptogenesis emphasizes a Nutrional Role
Developing Neurons need high levels of cholesterol during Synapse formation
What is the function of the cerebellum?
Development and coordination of movement.
Describe the functions of the Prefrontal Cortex
Development is believed to be largely responsible for the course of human cognitive development. 4 types of Cognitive Functions.
Visual Simultanagnosia
Difficulty in attending visually to more than one object at a time. Usually associated with bilateral damage to the posterior parietal cortex.
What is the sixth step of Digestion?
Digestive enzymes in the duodenum, many of them from the gall bladder and pancreas, break down protein molecules to amino acids, and starch and complex sugar molecules to simple sugars. Simple sugars and amino acids readily pass through the duodenum wall into the bloodstream and are carried into the liver
Olfactory Glomeruli
Discrete clusters of neurons on the surface of the olfactory bulbs. There is a systematic layout with glomeruli being sensitive to particular doors which tend to be located at the same sites on the mirror symmetry between the right and left olfactory bulbs. They are also sensitive to particular doors arrayed on the bulbs in the same way different in different members of the same species (mice). With the layout being similar in related species (rats and mice).
What happens in a Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)?
Disrupts brain activity to observe effects on consciousness - allows casual interference. Can alter the way neurons function Can increase or decrease brain activity
Basal Ganglia
Doesn't contain as many neurons as the cerebellum, but are more complex. A complex heterogeneous collection of interconnected nuclei. Its anatomy performs modulatory function, contributing few fibres to descending motor pathways and is part of neural loops receiving input from various cortical areas and transmit it back to the cortex via the thalamus. Plays a role in cognitive functions, and project to cortical areas that participate in habit learning through trial by trail.
Huntingtin
Dominant gene that is mutated in cases of Huntington's Disease
What are 3 examples of catecholamines?
Dopamine Norepinephrine Epinephrine
Contingent Drug Tolerance
Drug tolerance that develops as a reaction to the experience of the effects of drugs rather than to drug exposure alone.
Functional Tolerance
Drug tolerance that results from changes that reduce the reactivity of the sites of action to the drug
Some drugs alter presynaptic events
Drugs may act postsynapticlly
Endocrine Glands
Ductless glands that release chemicals called hormones directly into the circulatory system
What are the names of the three meninges?
Dura mater, Arachnoid mater, and Pia mater
About the 3 phrases of Energy Metabolism
During periods of rapid weight gain; people often go directly from one absorptive phase into the next cephalic phase, without experiencing an intervening fasting phase
What provides a controlled method for studying memory consolidation?
ECS. Electroconvulsive Shock. By disrupting neural activity, ECS erases from storage only those memories not yet converted to structural synaptic changes. The length of the period of retrograde amnesia produced by ECS would provide an estimate of the amount of time needed for consolidation of memories.
Hypothalamus is primarily involved in
ENERGY METABOLISM, not food intake
Is postsynaptic depolarizations an EPSP or IPSP?
EPSP
What is Dichotic listening?
Ear contralateral to dominant hemisphere shows superior hearing ability
Dorsal Stream
Flows from PRIMARY Visual Cortex to the Dorsal Prestriate Cortex to the Posterior Parietal Cortex -Respond to Spatial Stimuli, such as those indicating the location of objects or their direction of movement. -Travels through Dorsal Prestraite Secondary Visual Cortex -Ends in Association Cortex of Posterior Pariental Region -WHERE Pathway
Ventral Stream
Flows from the Primary Visual Cortex to the Ventral Prestriate Cortex to the Inferotemporal Cortex -Most neurons respond to the characteristics of objects, such as color and shape -Travels through the Ventral Prestriate Secondary Visual Cortex -Ends in Association Cortex of Posterior Parietal Region -WHAT Pathway
What is conditioned defensive burying, and how can it be eased?
Following a single stimulus delivered from a object, rats will spray bedding at the object. Anti-anxiety drugs are used to ease this behaviour.
What is an example of conditioned taste aversion?
Food poisoning.
Blind Spot
For the bundle of Retinal Ganglion Cell Axons to leave the eye, there must be a gap in the Receptor Layer
What is the presumption for why humans developed explicit memory systems?
For the flexible use of information.
Labioscrotal Swellings
Form the scrotum in the male or the labia majors in the female
Lateral Bodies
Form the shaft of the penis in the male or the hood of the clitoris in the female
Anterograde
Forward acting amnesia.
Antonini & Stryker experiment on Monocular Deprivation of the Development if Ocular Dominance Columns
Found that a few days of MD produce a massive decrease in the axonal branching of the lateral geniculate nucleus neurons that normally carry signals from the deprived eye to layer IV of the primary visual cortex
Explain the effects of Enrichment on Neurodevelopment
Found that it had beneficial effects.
Ad Libitum
Free feeding; Levels of consumption are unhealthy
What are most structures of the auditory system arrayed according to?
Frequency. Similar to the organization of the visual system is largely retinotopic, the auditory system is largely tonotopic.
What is the strongest evidence that selective hippocampal damage can cause Medial Temporal Lobe Amnesia?
From cases of transient global amnesia.
Learning to eat vitamins and minerals
How dietary deficiencies influence diet selection One for sodium and one for the other essential vitamins and minerals. When an animal is deficient in sodium, it develops an immediate and compelling preference for the taste of sodium salt An animal deficient in some vitamin or mineral other than sodium must learn to consume foods that are rich in the missing nutrient by experiencing their positive effects Ex. Rats maintained on a diet deficient in Thiamine (vitamin B1) develop an aversion to the taste of that diet
Spectral Sensitivity Curves
Human photopic and scotopic spectral sensitivity curves. The peak of each curve has been arbitrarily set at 100 percent
What does each skeletal muscle comprise?
Hundreds of thousands of threadlike muscle fibers bound together in a tough membrane and attached to a bone by a tendon.
Sensitive Period of Development
If an experience has a great effect on development when it occurs during a particular interval but can still have weak effects outside the interval, this interval is called ____________. Vast majority of experimental effects development have been shown to have this.
Critical Period of Development
If it is absolutely essential for an experience to occur within a particular interval to influence development. This interval is called __________________. The term is widely used.
Female (XX)
If no Sry Protein is present, the context of the primordial gonad develops into an ovary
The mirror-drawing test, the incomplete-pictures test, and the repetition priming tests are all tests of ___________________ memory.
Implicit
When were mirror neurons discovered?
In the 1990s, by Rizzolatti and colleagues studying macaque monkeys. What's unique about them is that they will not only fire when the monkey engages in a specific behaviour but also when the monkey simply observes another engage in the same specific behaviour. Researchers have proposed that these mirror neurons may be responsible for empathy, social cognition, and the evolution of language. And dysfunction in mirror neurons has been suggested to be related to many conditions such as autism and schizophrenia.
External Reproductive Organs of Female (XX)
In the absence of testosterone, the Müllerian System develops into female reproductive ducts, and the Wolffian System fails to develop
Explain how the Neuroendocrine System regulates the release of hormones from the gonads. Illustrate with a diagram of the regulatory model
In the anterior pituitary, the gonadotropin-releasing hormone stimulates the release of gonadotropins, which are carried by the circulatory system to the gonads. In response to the gonadotropins, the gonads release hormones which feed back into the pituitary and hypothalamus to regulate subsequent gonadal hormone release
Dendritic Branching
In the cortex duplicates the original pattern of neural migration in the sense that it progresses from a deeper to more superficial layers. Can reconfigure themselves. Speed with which even mature ones can change their shape.
Synaptogenesis
In the human cortex shortly after birth, but there are differences among the cortical regions. In the prefrontal cortex occurs at a relatively steady rate, reaching maximum Synapse density in the second year
What ions pass readily when the neuron is at rest? Why?
K+ and Cl- Helps maintain the negative charge
High glucagon levels also stimulate the conversion of free fatty acids to
KETONES; which are used by muscles as a source of energy during the fasting phase After a prolonged period without food, however, the brain also starts to use ketones, Thur further conserving the body's resources of glucose
What is Working Memory?
Keeping relevant information accessible for short periods of time while a task is being completed
What is the worst lesioning method?
Knife cuts
What are some treatments for Parkinson's Disease?
L-DOPA Deep brain stimulation
What is Retinotopically?
Laid out like a map of the retina
Ataxia
Loss of motor coordination
Amplitude
Loudness
Why is MEG better than FMRI?
MEG provides a higher temporal resolution of brain activity changes over FMRI
What is the difference between MRI and FMRI?
MRI measures hydrogen, FMRI measures hemoglobin.
Because of the Glucostatic Theory
Main purpose of eating is to defend a blood glucose set point because glucose is the brain's primary fuel
What is the function of the thalamus?
Major relay station for sensory messages to the cortex, but also receives feedback from the cortex.
What does depolarization do to the membrane potential?
Make it less negative
What does hyperpolarization do to the membrane potential?
Make it more negative
External Reproductive Organs 6 weeks after Conception
Male and Female
External Reproductive Organs Dully Developed
Male vs. Female
External Reproductive Organs Partially Developed
Male vs. Female
What does bilateral surgical removal of the hippocampus produce most often?
Modest deficits in performance on the delayed nonmatching-to-sample test and other tests of object recognition.
Ligand
Molecule that binds to a receptor with some selectivity
Cell-adhesion Molecules (CAMs)
Molecules on the surface of cells that have the ability to recognize specific molecules on the surface of other cells and adhere to them
Proprioceptive System
Monitors information about the position of the body that comes from receptors in the muscles, joints and organs of balance.
Do EPSP's make it more or less likely for a neuron to fire?
More
When Ommatidum is activated, it inhibits its neighbors, Contrast enhancement occurs because RECEPTORS NEAR EDGE receive
More Lateral Inhibition
Describe the symptoms of Parkinson's Disease
Movement disorder of middle age & old age. Occurs in 1 % of population over 55. More often in males. -Tremor or stiffness in fingers -Tremor at rest -Muscular rigidity -Slowness of movement -Mask-like face
Morphine
Morphine
Role of learning in addiction
Most abused drugs act as POSITIVE REINFORCERS; Consuming the drug strengthens whatever preceding behavior was performed
Describe the symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease
Most common cause of dementia in elderly. -Decline in memory -Emotional Instability -Lots of speech function -Total Dementia -Loss of ability to do simple tasks (Swallow) -Terminal
Auditory Cortex Damage
Most of the human auditory cortex is located in the lateral fissure. Its rarely destroyed in its entirety, but there is almost always extensive damage to surrounding tissue. Most research revolves around surgically placed lesions in nonhumans and assessed the effects of large lesions involving the core region, most of the belt and parabelt areas. Following bilateral lesions there is usually a complete loss of hearting which presumably results from the shock of the lesion because hearing typically recovers weeks later. Major permanent effects are loss of the ability to localize sounds and impairment in discriminating frequencies. Unilateral auditory cortex lesions suggest the system is partially contralateral with unilateral lesions disrupting localizing sound abilities in space contralaterally but not ipsilaterally to the lesion. Also, other deficits produced the the unilateral auditory cortex lesions tend to be only slightly greater for contralateral sounds.
What is the eight step of Digestion?
Most of the remaining water and electrolytes are absorbed from the waste in the large intestine, and the remainder is ejected from the anus
Glutamate
Most prevalent excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS.
Explain with is Infiltrating Tumors?
Most tumors are this. That grow diffusely through surrounding tissue. As a result, they can be Malignant Tumors
Convulsions
Motor seizures that involve tremors, rigidity, and loss of both balance and consciousness. Most seizures don't take this form, they involve subtle changes of thought, mood, or behavior that are not easily distinguishable from normal ongoing activity.
What does a Electromyogram measure (EMG)?
Muscle tension
Flexors
Muscles that act to bend or flex a joint.
Extensors
Muscles that act to straighten or extend a joint.
All set-point systems are
NEGATIVE FEED-BACK SYSTEMS
Can you remove the language dominant hemisphere of the brain?
NO, not worth the consequences.
Is the inside of the neuron more positive or negative?
Negative
What is the definition of Tumor(s)?
Neoplasm (Literally "new growth"), is a mass of cells that grows independently of the rest of the body. About 20% that are found in the human brain are Meningiomas
Olfactory System
Olfactory receptor cells are located in the upper part of the nose and embedded in a layer of mucus-covered tissue (olfactory mucosa). Their dendrites are located in the nasal passages with axons passing through a porous portion of the skull (cribriform plate) and enter the olfactory bulbs where they synapse on neurons that project via the olfactory tracts to the brain. Olfactory receptor proteins are in the membranes of the dendrites of the olfactory receptor cells where they are stimulated by circulating airborne chemicals in the nasal passages. All the types of receptor seem to be scattered throughout the mucosa, and each type of receptor responds in varying degrees to a wide variety of doors with each odor encoded by component processing - the pattern of activity across receptor types. Olfactory receptor axons terminate in discrete clusters of neurons (olfactory glomeruli) lying near the surface of the olfactory bulbs. Each glomerulus receives input from several thousand receptor cells with the same receptor protein. Each bulb projects axons to several structures of the medial temporal lobes including the amygdala and piriform cortex. Two major pathways leave the amygdala piriform area with one going to the limbic system and the other via the medial dorsal nuclei of the thalamus to the orbitofrontal cortex.
What are the 12 Cranial nerves, in order?
Olfactory, Optic, Oculomotor, Trochlear, Trigeminal, Abducens, Facial, Auditory, Glossopharyngeal, Vagus, Spinal Accessory, Hypoglossal.
What are the four classes of glial cells?
Oligodendrocytes, schwann cells, Astrocytes, microglia
Ipsilateral
On the same side of the body
Hyperpolarization
One class of Color-coding cells signaled red by changing its activity in one direction
Pyramidal Cell Layer
One of the major layers of cell bodies in the hippocampus.
What do many skeletal muscles belong unambiguously to?
One of two categories: flexors or extensors.
Glia-mediated Migration
One of two major modes of Neural Migration during development, by which immature neurons move away from the central canal along Radial Glial Cells
Somal Translocation
One of two major modes of Neural Migration, in which an extension grows out from the undeveloped neuron and draws the cell body up into it
Where does the perception of pitch occur?
One small area just anterior to the primary auditory cortex contains many neurons that respond to pitch over frequency regardless of sound quality. The same small area also contains neurons for frequency, and its suggested that this area is likely the place where frequencies of sound are converted to the perception of pitch.
In the Photopic System
Only a few cones converge on each retinal ganglion cell
I'm Migration,
Patterns of Proliferation and Migration are different for different areas of the cortex
Central Sensorimotor Programs
Patterns of activity that are programmed into the sensorimotor system. According to this view, all but the highest levels of the sensorimotor system have certain patterns of activity programmed into them, and complex movements are produced by activating the appropriate combinations of programs. The programs then activate spinal programs that control the various elements of the sequences and cause muscles to complete objectives. When activated, each level of the systems can operate on sensory feedback without higher level control, with most individual responses performed without direct cortical involvement and without much conscious awareness.
What happens if only part of the cochlea is damaged?
People have nerve deafness for some frequencies but not others. Ex: age related hearing loss is a specific deficit in hearing high frequencies and why older people have trouble distinguishing S, F, or T sounds.
Hemispherectomized Patients
People with one cerebral hemisphere removed. They can still perceive pain from both body sides.
Satiety Peptides
Peptides that decrease appetite
Hunger Peptides
Peptides that increase appetite. Usually synthesized in the hypothalamus
What causes Multiple Sclerosis (MS)?
Perhaps faulty immune systems
Absorptive Phase
Period during which the energy absorbed into the bloodstream from the meal is meeting the body's immediate energy needs; Nutrients from a meal meeting the body's immediate energy requirements, with the excess being stored
What are the four areas of the human medial temporal cortex?
Perirhinal Cortex, Lateral Fissure, Entorhinal Cortex and Parahippocampal Cortex.
Treatment of Obesity
Permanent change in lifestyle
Frequency
Pitch
What are the 3 parts of the Diencephalon?
Pituitary Gland Hypothalamus Thalamus
Accommodation
Process of adjusting to configuration of the lenses to bring images into focus on the retina
Endogenous
Produced by patient's own body. Body can produce antibodies that attack particular components of the nervous system. Antibodies against CNS components
Primary function of Testes
Produces Sperm
Primary Function is Ovaries
Produces an Ova
Define Adult Neurogenesis
Production of new neurons derived from adult neural stem cells
Alzheimer's Disease
Progressive degeneration of the brain that ultimately results in dementia. A major cause of amnesia. Terminal. The first sign is usually mild deterioration of memory, with dementia typically developing and becoming so severe that the person isn't able to do simple activities such as eating, speaking, recognizing a person or bladder control. Acetylcholine levels in patients are greatly reduced, which results from degeneration of the basal forebrain (midline above the hypothalamus) which is the brain's main source of Acetylcholine. AcH depletion in the basal forebrain can cause amnesia and is the cause of Alzheimer's dementia but not the only factor. Brain damage is also diffuse and involves many areas such as medial temporal lobes and prefrontal cortex which play major roles in memory.
Describe the symptoms of Multiple Sclerosis
Progressive disease that attacks the Myelin of axons in the CNS. Degeneration if Myelin -Ataxia -Weakness -Numbness -Tremor -Poor Vision
Describe the symptoms of Huntington's Disease
Progressive motor disorder. A progressive terminal disorder of motor & intellectual function that is produced in adulthood by a dominant gene. Inherited. Associated with dementia. -Complex jerky movements -Do not show up until 40 to 50 years of age
Contralateral
Projecting from one side of the body to the other
What is Chemoaffinity Hypothesis?
Proposed by Sperry. Axonal development. Hypothesized that each Postsynaptic surface in the nervous system releases a specific chemical label and that each growing Axon is attracted by the label to its Postsynaptic target during both Neural Development and Regeneration Ex. Sperry's Frog Study
What is Topographic Gradient Hypothesis?
Proposed to explain accurate Axonal growth involving topographic mapping in the developing brain. Axons grow from one topographic surface (Ex. The retina) to another (Ex. The optic tectum). Guided by specific targets that are arranged on the terminal surface in the same way as the axons' cell bodies are arranged in the original surface.
Receptors
Proteins on cell surfaces or within cells
Interceptive System
Provides general information about conditions within the body (ex: temperature and blood pressure).
Fluoxetine
Prozac
In how the Pupil and Lens can affect the image that falls on the retina, when illumination = Too Low, to properly activate the receptors
Pupils dilate to let more light in = Sacrificing Acuity & Depth of Focus
Although ______________ tones have been widely used in electrophysiological studies, auditory neurons often respond only weakly to them.
Pure
What does a Position Emission Tomography (PET) do?
Radiofluor (radiotracer) into the carotid artery
Knudsen & Brainard experiment of effects on Topographic Sensory Maps
Raised barn owls with vision-displacing prisms over their eyes. Led to corresponding change in the auditory spatial map in the tectum. Ex. And owl that was raised wearing prisms that shifted its visual world 23 degrees to the right had an auditory map that was also shifted 23 degrees to the right. So that objects were heard to be where they were seen to be.
Example of Enrichment in Neurodevelopment
Rats that were raised in this complex group cages rather than by themselves in barren cages were found to have thicker cortexes with more dendritic sounds and more synapses per neuron.
Vasopressin
Reabsorption of water; One of two major peptide hormones of the posterior Pituitary; It facilitates reabsorption of water by kidneys and is thus also called ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE
Muscle Spindles
Receptors that are embedded in skeletal muscle tissue and are sensitive to changes in muscle length. Respond to changes in muscle length but don't respond to changes in muscle tension.
Golgi Tendon Organs
Receptors that are embedded in tendons and are sensitive to the amount of tension in the skeletal muscles to which their tendons are attached. Respond to increases muscle tension but are completely intensive to changes in muscle length. Function is to provide the CNS with information about muscle tension, but also sever a protective function. When the contraction of a muscle is so extreme that there is risk of damage, the Golgi tendon organs excite inhibitory interneurons in the spinal cord that cause the muscles to relax.
What does a Electrocardiogram do? (ECG/EKG)
Records electrical signals associated with heartbeats. Measures heart rate.
What does a Electroculogram measure (EOG)?
Records eye movements based on electrical potential.
What is Extracellular unit recording?
Records the firing of the neuron, so it is put into the tissue right beside a neuron.
What are the parasympathetic nerves known to do?
Rest and restore
Explain the differences between the Phototopic & Scotopic Systems
Result in part from a difference in the way the two systems are "Wired"
Describe Postnatal Growth of the Human Brain?
Results from 3 kinds of growth. Synaptogenesis Myelination of Axons Increases Branching of Demdrites
Retinal Ganglion Cells
Retinal Neurons whose axons leave the eye-ball and form the optic nerve
How are the superficial layers of the superior colliculi arranged?
Retinotopically. They receive visual input, and it appears there general function is to locate sources of sensory input in space.
The gradual onset of Korsakoff's syndrome complicates the study of the resulting ___________________ amnesia.
Retrograde
Because gradients of retrograde amnesia tend to be long, occurring over months or years, it is unlikely that memory consolidation is mediated by ___________________ neural activity, as hypothesized by Hebb.
Reverberating
Tonus
Rigidity
Tinnitus
Ringing in the ears. Hearing loss is sometimes associated with it and when only one ear is damaged the ringing is perceived as coming from that ear. Cutting the nerve from the ringing ear has no effect on the ringing which suggests that changes to the central auditory system that were caused by the deafness are the cause of tinnitus.
Visual Information travels from the Retina through the
Rods & Cones
Duplexity Theory
Rods and Cones mediate different types of vision
What are four kinds of cutaneous receptors that occur in human skin?
Ruffini Ending, Merkel's Disks, Free Nerve Ending, and Pacinian Corpuscles.
Sensory Feedback
Sensory signals that are produced by a response and are often used to guide the continuation of the response. The sensorimotor system monitors the effects of its own activities and uses the information to fine tune activities. This feedback plays an important role in the directing the continuation of the responses produced by it. Ex: eyes, organs of balance, receptors in skin, muscles and joints all feed information back to the sensorimotor circuits. Motor output adjustments occurring in response to sensory feedback are controlled unconsciously by lower levels of the hierarchy without higher level involvement.
What is an example of a Indolamine?
Serotonin
Compare set point and positive incentive theories of hunger and eating
Set Point- the point at which an individuals "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. If it drops below, the body increase hunger and lowers the metabolic rate to try to restore balance; it encompasses glucostatic (immediate hunger when blood sugar glucose is low) and lipostatic (long-term hunger; responds to fat; more fat stores, less hunger) theories Problems: Cannot loose or gain weight then; external things that influence behavior Positive-Incentive Theories -We eat not because we have to restore energy but because of the attractive pleasure of eating. How hungry you feel depends on external factors like light, friends, time, etc.
Compare set-point regulation and settling-point regulation of the body weight. Describe and discuss relevant evidence
Settling point is the point at which the various factors met; influences body weight to equilibrium, so as body fat levels increase, changes occur that tend to limit former increases until a balance is achieved between all factors that encourage and discourage weight gain; Settling point limits- set point returns to set point
What does bilateral surgical removal of the medial temporal cortex consistently produce?
Severe and permanent deficits in performance on the delayed nonmatching-to-sample test and other tests of object recognition.
Copulation
Sexual Intercourse
Peptides
Short chains of amino acids that can function as hormones and neurotransmitters
Absorption through Mucous Membranes
Some drugs can be administered through the mucous membranes of the nose, mouth, and rectum EX: cocaine
Epileptic Auras
Some epileptics experiences peculiar psychological changes just before a seizure. May take many different forms. Ex. Bad smell, a specific thought, a vague feeling of familiarity, a hallucination, or a tightness of the chest.
Examples of drugs to treat neurological or psychiatric disorders
Some of the antipsychotic drugs introduced in the early 1950s produced effects of distressing scope. Patients with Schizophrenia Tardive Dyskinesia (TD)
Subdural Space
Space between the Dura Mater & Arachnoid membrane
Penumbra
Surrounding the Infarct is a dysfunctional area. The tissue in this may recover or die in the ensuing days, depending on a variety of factors
Islands Of Memory
Surviving memories for isolated events that occurring during periods for which other memories have been wiped out.
Vestibular Nucleus
The brain stem nucleus that receives information about balance from receptors in the semicircular canals. Receives information about balance from receptors in the semicircular canals of the inner ear via the brain stem interactions with the ventromedial cortico-brainstem-spinal.
Learning
The brain's ability to change in response to experience.
Memory
The brain's ability to store and access the earned effects of experiences. Deals with how experience changes the brain; how they're stored and retrieved/reactivated.
Glutamate
The brain's most prevalent excitatory neurotransmitter, plays a major role in Ischemia-Induced Brain Damage
Amino Acids
The breakdown products of proteins; The building blocks of proteins
Zygote
The cell formed from the amalgamation of a sperm cell and an ovum
Describe the process of Neural Proliferation?
The cells in different parts of the Neural Tube proliferate in a particular sequence that is responsible for the pattern of swelling & folding that gives the brain of each member of that species characteristic shape
X Chromosomes
The cells of females have 2 large sex chromosomes. (XX)
Estrogens
The class of steroid hormones that are released in large amounts by the ovaries; an example is estradiol; Feminization
Progestins
The class of steroid hormones that includes progesterone
Androgens
The class of steroid hormones that includes testosterone
Tectorial Membrane
The cochlear membrane that rests on the hair cells.
Flavor
The combined impression of taste and smell. Influenced by many factors like temperature, texture and the appearance of food in addition to one's level of hunger.
Anosognosia
The common failure of neurophysiological patients to recognize their own symptoms. Is fairly common and a symptom of many neurological disorders such as patients with severe behavioural problems thinking they are doing very well.
What is the thalamic-orbitofrontal pathway thought to mediate?
The conscious perception of odors.
Discuss the symptoms of Down Syndrome
The consequences tend to be: -Characteristic Disfigurement -Intellectual Impairment -Troublesome Medical Complications
Drug Metabolism
The conversion of a drug from its active form to a nonactive form
In Visual Transduction, Transduction Defined is,
The conversion of one form of energy to another.
What part of the brain does an EEG look at?
The cortex
Anterior Cingulate Cortex
The cortex of the anterior cingulate gyrus. The cortical area most frequently linked to pain, the emotional reaction to pain and adaptive responses to minimize pain rather than pain perception itself.
Orbitofrontal Cortex
The cortex of the inferior frontal lobes, adjacent to the orbits, which receives olfactory input from the thalamus.
Müllerian System
The embryonic precursor of the female reproductive ducts
Wolffian System
The embryonic precursor of the male reproductive ducts
What is the limbic pathway thought to mediate?
The emotional response to odors.
Energy Set Point
The energy resources of the body are returned to their optimal level
Before-and-after Design
The experimental design used to demonstrate contingent drug tolerance; the experimental group receives the drug before each of a series of behavioral tests and the control group receives the drug after each test
Sham Eating
The experimental protocol in which an animal chews and swallows food, which immediately exits its body through a tube implanted in its esophagus
Genitals
The external Reproductive Organs
Sensory-Specific Satiety
The fact that the consumption of a particular food produces increased satiety for foods of the same taste than for other foods
Ovaries
The female gonads
Synaptogenesis
The formation of New Synapses. It depends on the presence of Glial Cells, particularly Astrocytes
What area of the brain does the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) evaluate?
The frontal lobe
Periaqueductal Gray (PAG)
The gray matter around the cerebral aqueduct, which contains opiate receptors and activates a descending analgesia circuit. Electrical stimulation has analgesic (pain blocking) effects.
Infantile Amnesia
The normal inability to recall events from early childhood.
What are the major pathways over which gustatory signals are conducted?
The gustatory afferent neurons leave the moth as part of the facial (VII), glossopharyngeal (IX) and vagus (X) cranial nerves which carry information from the front and back of the tongue, and the back of the oral cavity. They all terminate in the solitary nucleus of the medulla where they synapse on neurons that project to the ventral posterior nucleus of the thalamus. Then axons on the ventral posterior nucleus project to the primary gustatory cortex in the insula. A different area of primary gustatory cortex represents each taste being narrowly tuned. The projections of the system are primarily ipsilateral.
Perception
The higher order processes of integrating, recognizing and interpreting complete patters of sensations.
Fundamental Frequency
The highest frequency of which the various component frequencies of a sound are multiple.
What are the 3 major structures of the medial temporal lobe?
The hippocampus, amygdala and medial temporal cortex.
Pupil
The hole in the iris
Asosmia
The inability to smell. The most common neurological cause is a blow to the head causing displacement of the brain within the skull and shears the olfactory nerves where they pass through the cribriform plate. Less complete deficits have been linked to Alzheimer's, Down syndrome, epilepsy, MS, Korsakoff's and Parkinson's.
Ageusia
The inability to taste. Quite rare and presumably because sensory signals from the mouth are carried via 3 separate pathways. Partial ageusia is limited to the anterior two-thrips of the tongue on one side, and sometimes observed after damage to the ear on the same side of the body. This is because the branch of the facial nerve (VII) that carries gustatory information from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue passes through the middle ear.
Appetizer Effect
The increase in hunger that is produced by the consumption of small amounts of palatable food
Ventromedial Cortico-Brainstem-Spinal Tract
The indirect ventromedial motor pathway, which descends BILATERALLY from the primary motor cortex to several interconnected brain stem motor structures and then descends in the ventromedial portions of the spinal cord. The four major structures what interact with this tract are: 1) Tectum 2) Vestibular Nucleus 3) Reticular Formation 4) Motor Nuclei of Cranial Nerves controlling the face muscles
What is white matter?
The inner component of the spinal cord, primarily cell bodies.
Cochlea
The long, coiled tube in the inner ear that is filled with fluid and contains the organ of the Corti and its auditory receptors. Has an internal structure running almost to its tip which is the auditory receptor organ called the organ of Corti. Highly sensitive.
Digit Span
The longest sequence of random digits that can be repeated correctly 50% of the time- most people have a digit span of 7.
What is Optic Tectum?
The main destination of retinal Ganglion Cells in non-mammalian vertebrates
Free Fatty Acids
The main source of the body's energy during the fasting phase; Released from adipose tissue in response to high levels of glucagon
Testes
The male gonads
What part of the brain is located in the myelencephalon?
The medulla
Metaplasticity
The modulation of long term potentiation (LTP) and/or long-term depression (LTD) induction by prior synaptic activity.
Testosterone
The most common androgen; Masulinization
Estradiol
The most common estrogen
Because of the Lipostatic Theory
The most frequently cited support for the theory is the fact that the body weights of adults stay relatively constant
Hunger
The motivation to eat
Satiety
The motivational state that terminates a meal when there is food remaining
Dorsolateral Corticospinal Tract
The motor tract that leaves the primary motor cortex, descends to the medullary pyramids, decussates, and then descends in the contralateral dorsolateral spinal white matter. Contains the betz cells neurons of the primary motor cortex with most of the axons in this tract synapsing on small interneurons of the spinal gray matter, to then synapse on motor neurons of distal muscles of the wrist, hands, fingers and toes.
Migration
The movement of cells from their site of creation in the ventricular zone of the neural tube to their appropriate target location
Olfactory Mucosa
The mucous membrane that lines the upper nasal passages and contains the olfactory receptor cells.
A complication that Synaptogenesis experiences
The promiscuity that developing Neurons display
Neural Proliferation
The rapid increase in the number of neurons that follows the formation of the neural tube
Basal Metabolic Rate
The rate at which energy is utilized to maintain bodily processes when resting
Motor End-Plate
The receptive area on a muscle fiber at a neuromuscular junction. Activated by acetylcholine released by motor neurons, each muscle fiber contracts with contraction being the only method that muscles have to generate force with any muscle generating force in only one direction.
Semicircular Canals
The receptive organs of the vestibular system.
Hair Cells
The receptors of the auditory system. Mounted in the basilar membrane, while the tectorial membrane rests on the hair cells. A deflection of the organ at any point along its length produces a shearing force on the hair cells at the same point. The force stimulates the hair cells and in turn increases firing in the axons of the auditory nerve.
What is Intracellular unit recording?
The recording of the membrane potential of a single neuron.
Withdrawal Reflex
The reflexive withdrawal of a limb when it comes in contact with a painful stimulus. Is NOT monosynaptic.
What is the functions of the pons?
The relay center
Dorsal Columns
The somatosensory tracts that ascend in the dorsal portion of the spinal cord white matter.
Motor Homunculus
The somatotopic map of the human primary motor cortex.
Somatosensory Homunculus
The somatotopic map that corresponds to the primary somatosensory cortex.
Patellar Tendon Reflex
The stretch reflex that is elicited when the patellar tendon is struck. Patella means "knee".
Set-point Assumption is like a
Thermostat-regulates heating system in a cool climate. Ex. The heater increases the house temperature until it reaches its set point (the thermostat setting). The heater then shuts off, and the temperature of the house gradually declines until it becomes low enough to turn the heater back on
What is the specific function of the structures of the medial temporal lobes?
They play a major role only in explicit episodic memories.
Amygdala
Thought to play a special role in memory regarding special emotional significance of experiences. There is little evidence that it stores memories, but appears to be involved in strengthening emotionally significant memories stored in other structures. Might by the reason why emotional provoking events are remembered better than neutral events.
Neurofibrillary Tangles
Threadlike tangles of protein in the neural cytoplasm
What is the blood-brain-barrier?
Tightly packed cells of blood vessel walls preventing the entry of many muscles.
Complexity
Timbre
What is a negative to Neuropsychological testing?
Time consuming - can only happen on small parts of the brain at a time, and must be repeated numerous times to look for improvements with treatment.
Dendritic Spines
Tiny protrusions of various shapes that are located on the surfaces of many dendrites.
What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid?
To act as a cushion for the brain and protect it from damage.
Why is a membrane polarized?
To allow for communication between neurons
What is the main adaptive role of the chemical senses?
To evaluate potential foods in natural environments. In many other species it is a major role in regulating social interactions.
What is the purpose of stereotaxic surgery?
To pinpoint an exact area in the brain for manipulation, and allows us to get the same exact area every time.
How are the two dorsolateral motor pathways and the two ventromedial motor pathways different?
While each are composed of two major tracts, with one having axons descending directly to the spinal cord and the other whose axons synapse in the brain stem on neurons which in turn descent to the spinal cord, they differ in two major ways. 1) The two ventromedial tracts are much more diffuse with many of its axons innervating interneurons on both sides of spinal gray matter in many different segments. While the axons of the dorsolateral tracts terminate in the contralateral half of one spinal cord segment and sometimes directly on a motor neuron. 2) The motor neurons activated by the two ventromedial tracts project to proximal muscles of trunk and limbs (shoulders) while the motor neurons activated by the two dorsolateral tracts project to distal muscles (fingers).
Human cortical ________________ matter grows slowly and steadily until early adulthood
White
What are the two types of matter in the spinal cord?
White matter and Grey matter
How is Blood Pressure measured?
With a Sphygmomanometer
Describe what sorts of behaviors infants display prior to the Prefrontal Cortex Development?
Young humans do not behind to demonstrate cognitive functions until Prefrontal development has progressed. Piaget's experiment. Found that Children tend to make this Perseverative Error between about 7 to 12 months, but not thereafter. Diamond hypothesized that this error occurred in infants between 7 to 12 months because the Neural Circuitry of the Prefrontal Cortex is not yet developed during that period
Sertraline
Zoloft
What is an example of a Radiofluor (Radiotracer)?
[18F] - Fluoro - 2 - Deoxy - D - Glucose
what does proximal mean?
close
What is dendrodendritic transmission?
dendrite to dendrite
What is dorsal referred to in humans?
superior
