CCBC BIO 110 final exam, FINAL BIOLOGY STUDY GUIDE
If a DNA template strand has a sequence of 3'TACAATGTAGCC5' then the RNA produced from it will be which sequence?
5'AUGUUACAUCGG3'
Why does DNA synthesis only proceed in the 5' to 3' direction?
Because DNA polymerases can only add nucleotides to the 3' end of a polynucleotide strand.
The function(s) of DNA polymerase include(s) which of the following?
DNA synthesis, DNA proofreading, removal of RNA primers and replacement with DNA.
Explain what takes place when a protein is denatured and the factors involved in this process.
Denaturation disrupts the normal alpha-helix and beta sheets in a protein and uncoils it into a random shape. Denaturation occurs because the bonding interactions responsible for the secondary structure and tertiary structure are disrupted.
1- Classify all living organisms from Domain to Species. Know the three domains and the four kingdoms
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species. The three domains are Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. The four kingdoms are Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
1- Identify the role of protons (H+) in ATP and NADPH synthesis
During photosynthetic electron transport, protons accumulate at high concentration inside the thylakoid space. The concentration gradient between the inside and outside of the thylakoids is the energy source used by the ATP synthase.
What enzyme is responsible for the synthesis of mRNA?
RNA polymerase.
What are reactants (or substrates) and products?
Reactants are starting materials in a chemical reaction, and products are what is produced as a result of a chemical reaction.
1- Define recombinant DNA technology. Identify one important application of recombinant DNA technology in fields of medicine, DNA fingerprinting and transgenic organisms
Recombinant DNA technology- intentionally modifying the genomes of organisms, for a variety of practical purposes. An important application is to create organisms that synthesize products that humans need such as paint solvent, vaccines, antibx,enzymes and hormones.
1- List and identify the characteristics of the cell theory
Repires/ breathes, Homeostasis/ balance in body,Input food, fuel and Output heat and faeces.Reproduce,Movement/ activity, Grows, Response to stimuli: Internal and external, Cellular Organisation
1- Define restriction enzymes and identify two ways these enzymes are used in recombinant DNA technology
Restriction enzymes cut specific sequences of DNA; destroy bacteriophage DNA in bacterial cells; cannot digest (host) DNA with methylated cytosines. if phages were used to infect bacteria other than their usual hosts, restriction enzymes in the new host deserted almost all phage DNA. restriction enzymes protect a bacterial cell by hydrolyzing phage DNA. the bacterial DNA is protected from digestion because the cell methylate's some of the cytosines in its DNA.
Define the role of hydrolysis and condensation/dehydration reactions in the formation of molecules including monomers, polymers, functional groups and isomers.
Role of hydrolysis is used to break the glycosidic bond, releasing monosaccharides from a disaccharide. Condensation role is reactions are used to make crucial large molecules called macromolecules in the body, such as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
DNA is duplicated during __________ of the cell cycle.
S phase
1- Compare and contrast the following passive transports: Simple Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion, Osmosis
Simple diffusion- movement from an area of high concentration to low Facilitated diffusion- moving from high to low, requires a carrier protein Osmosis-diffusion of water through a membrane (high to low)
__________ contain identical DNA sequences and are held together by __________ during mitosis.
Sister chromatids; centromeres
1- What is a solution, solvent, and solute?
Solute- A substance that is dissolved in a solution Solution- A mixture that forms when one substance dissolves another. Solvent- a liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances
1- For the process of alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation: identify the initial steps, the intermediates, and end products, and total amount of ATP synthesized, and types of living organisms that can undergo each type of fermentation
Steps in both begin with Glucose--> 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP produced, 2 NADH produced (These three steps are glycolysis)
1- Identify the characteristics and structure of ATP including how it stores and releases energy. Relate ATP to endergonic and exergonic reactions. Relate Endergonic/Exergonic to Anabolic/Catabolic reactions
Structure of ATP is Adenine, Ribose, Phosphate groups, Adenosine, 5 carbon sugar, 3 Phosphate Groups ATP can easily release and store energy by breaking and re-forming the bonds between its phosphate groups. When energy from ATP is released, it is an exergonic reaction. When ADP and inorganic phosphate release then it is an endergonic reaction because it has to be opposite.
1- Distinguish factors that affect enzyme activity including temperature, pH, concentration, competitive inhibition and noncompetitive inhibition
Temperature too high- Enzymes denature. Bonds break. Less to no chemical reactions High temperature- Reactions happen faster. Best speed for reactions Temperature too low- Reactions happen slower. Chance of enzyme and substrate bumping into each other = less reaction Competitive inhibitors- When something blocks the active site so chemical reactions cannot happen Noncompetitive inhibitors- Attaches elsewhere and changes the shape of the enzyme Substrate concentration- Increases until enzymes are at maximum velocity. Can only work so fast
How is the 4-letter language of nucleic acids converted into the 20-word language of amino acids?
The 4 nucleic acid bases combine in 3-letter sequences that define different amino acids.
Which of the following is a characteristic of uracil?
The ability to bond with adenine
1- What is Activation Energy?
The amount of energy required to cause a chemical reaction; specifically the energy required to reach the transition state.
1- Identify the Central Dogma of molecular biology as it relates to the flow of genetic information in cells
The central dogma of molecular biology describes the flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA) to protein. It states that genes specify the sequence of mRNA molecules, which in turn specify the sequence of proteins.
1- Define electron transport systems in terms of where they occur, the structures involved, and their functions.
The electron transport chain occurs across the inner membrane of the mitochondria and its main function is to build an electrochemical gradient on either side of the inner membrane.
DNA primase is the enzyme responsible for:
making short strands of RNA at the site of replication initiation.
The correct number of chromosomes is maintained during sexual reproduction by:
meiosis, which reduces the chromosome number by half.
A mutation that replaces one amino acid in a protein with another is called a __________ mutation.
missense
In eukaryotes, if conditions are aerobic, pyruvate flows directly into the __________ where some of its atoms are converted next to __________.
mitochondia; acetyl coenzyme A
The M phase of the cell cycle involves two main processes:
mitosis and cytokinesis.
The __________ is responsible for the separation of the chromosomes during __________ of mitosis.
mitotic spindle; anaphase
Following peptide bond formation between the amino acid in the A site on the ribosome and the growing polypeptide chain, the tRNA in the A site:
moves to the P site of the ribosome.
1- Determine the net movement of water when two solutions of different tonicity are separated by a semipermeable membrane
moving down the concentration gradient can also mean that the water moves from the hypotonic solution towards the hypertonic solution. If a cell is placed in a solution that is hypertonic in comparison to it, then it shrink because the water will leave the cell.
In producing a strand of DNA the nucleotides combine to form what type of bond?
phosphodiester
Transcription begins near a site in the DNA called the ______, while the terminator specifies the end of transcription.
promoter
Homologous chromosomes undergo synapsis during
prophase I
Which of the following represents the overall sequence of events during mitosis?
prophase − metaphase − anaphase − telophase
During which phase does crossing-over occur?
prophase-I
The role of the oxygen molecules required for aerobic respiration is:
to accept the low energy electrons at the end of the electron transport chain.
A sequence of bases located upstream from a reference point occurs:
towards the 3' end of the mRNA sequence
The final product of DNA replication is:
two DNA molecules, each of which contains one new and one old DNA strand
Introns in pre-mRNA are known to:
undergo excision, whereby they are spliced out of the message.
1- Identify the difference between the following structural abnormalities: translocation, deletions, and fragile sites
Translocation-Movement of genetic material between non-homologous chromosomes. Selections of a chromosome are moved to a completely different chromosome. Deletion-Missing chromosomal segments. Certain parts are cut out and the remaining pieces are fused together. Fragile Sites-Sites prone to breakage under certain conditions.
A gene can be defined as:
a DNA or RNA sequence that carries information to produce a specific polypeptide.
Initiation of transcription requires:
a promoter sequence.
Aerobic respiration is classified as:
a redox process.
The 5' end of each Okazaki fragment begins with:
a separate RNA primer
A maternal homologue and a paternal homologue synapse to form:
a tetrad.
Which of the following is not produced during the citric acid (Kreb's) cycle:
acetyl-CoA.
Cytokinesis in animal cells involves contraction of a ring of __________ microfilaments.
actin plus myosin
The 3' end of eukaryotic pre-mRNAs are changed by:
adding 100−250 adenine nucleotides.
Uracil forms a complementary pair with __________ in RNA and __________ in DNA.
adenine; adenine
During which of the following stages of meiosis do the sister chromatids separate?
anaphase II
Duplicated centrioles start moving to opposite poles of a dividing __________ cell during __________ of the cell cycle.
animal; prophase
1- State the generalized reaction for photosynthesis identifying oxidized and reduced molecules
6CO2 plus 6H2O plus light energy- in the form of sunlight that is traped during light dependent reactions in the Chlorophyll of the leaf and releases C6H12O6 and 6O2.
1- Using an mRNA template and the genetic code, translate the information into a polypeptide sequence
AUG MET AUC ILE UCG SER UAA STOP
Distinguish among the various types of nucleotides including the composition, characteristics and biological function.
Adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine
1- Give examples of commercial products that are the results of those types of fermentation
Fermentation also produces sauerkraut, pickles, and olives. As well as dairy products
Why is DNA able to store large amounts of information?
Its nucleotides can be arranged in a large number of possible sequences.
1- Explain the significance of mitosis and distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis
Mitosis is important in sexual reproduction; it allows organisms to continue to reproduce through generations. The difference between mitosis and cytokinesis is mitosis is when the cell prepares itself and the DNA to divide and Cytokinesis is when the cell is completely divided
Define molecular and structural chemical formulas
Molecular chemical formulas shows the kinds and numbers of atoms present in a molecule of a compound (not reduced) A structural formula is a spatial arrangement of atoms in a compound and the atoms of elements that are bonded together
1- Identify the major reactants, products, and location of the light independent reactions and the Calvin cycle
The light reactions use the reactant water from the equation and release the product oxygen. The Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma, uses ATP and NADPH to convert carbon dioxide to sugar
1- What is the purpose of DNA replication and when does it happen?
To allow for cells to divide therefore allowing the organism to grow, repair and reproduce. Dna replication occurs during mitosis
What is the function of nucleosomes?
To prevent DNA strands from tangling.
1- Define relevant terms related to transcription and translation including enzymes, location and structural components
Translation is catalyzed by a large enzyme called a ribosome, which contains proteins and ribosomal RNA
The sources of genetic variation during meiosis are:
crossing-over and the random assortment of maternal and paternal chromosomes.
DNA from any source contains about the same amount of guanine as __________.
cytosine
Which of the following events does not occur in prophase II
formation of the chiasmata
Which purine base forms 3 hydrogen bonds when binding its complementary nucleotide.
guanine
The cell cycle of a typical somatic cell consists of __________ and M phase.
interphase
a replication fork
is a Y-shaped structure where both DNA strands are replicated simultaneously.
In DNA replication, the lagging strand:
is synthesized as a series of Okazaki fragments.
The DNA strand that is replicated smoothly and continuously is called the:
leading strand
Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of:
linear DNA molecules complexed with histone proteins.
tRNA recognizes codons in the:
mRNA strand.
The mitotic spindle is made of:
microtubules.
Substitution of one base pair for another can result in a __________ mutation that results in the conversion of an amino acid specifying codon to a stop codon.
nonsense
In aerobic respiration, glucose is completely:
oxidized to carbon dioxide.
Define pH in terms of H+ concentration and relate the concentrations to acidic, basic (alkaline), and neutral solutions. What are buffers?
pH is a measure of ion concentration in a solution. An acidic solution is less than 7, while a basic solution are more than 7. Neutral is equal to 7. Buffers donate or accept protons to resist pH changes.
The nucleotides within DNA are composed of a:
phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar and nitrogenous base.
Which of the following is NOT a component of the translation machinery?
protein polymerase
In glycolysis, a six-carbon glucose molecule is converted to two three-carbon molecules of:
pyruvate
The mechanism of DNA replication is:
semiconservative
Which of the following events does not occur during meiosis I?
separation of sister chromatids
The information carried by DNA is incorporated in a code specified by the:
specific nucleotide sequence of the DNA molecule.
The two molecules that alternate to form the backbone of a polynucleotide chain are
sugar and phosphate.
Which of the following contains the anti-codons used during translation?
tRNA
If a cell is dividing by binary fission then you know that:
the cell is prokaryotic
A cell is in metaphase if:
the chromosomes are aligned at the midplane of the cell.
Frameshift mutations result from:
the insertion or deletion of one or two base pairs
Which of the following regions of a structural gene contains the information that specifies an amino acid sequence?
transcribed region
An animal with a diploid number of 36 chromosomes will have __________ chromosomes in its gametes and __________ chromosomes in its somatic cells.
18;36
1- Define the first and second law of thermodynamics, including entropy.
1st law-the total amount of energy in the universe is constant, energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed 2nd law-The principle stating that every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe. Ordered forms of energy are at least partly converted to heat.
1- Identify the major steps of transcription, including post-transcriptional modifications
1st step- RNA polymerase unzips the DNA double helix (initiation) 2nd step- RNA Nucleotides are formed from the nucleotides in the DNA template strand (Elongation) 3rd step- The mRNA that is formed leaves the nucleous (termination) post-transcriptional modifications- after transcription, you have 5' capping and 3' poly-A-tail. Then the mRNA undergoes splicing to remove inactive introns. This only happened in euk, pro don't do splicing.
How many nucleotides are contained in a single codon?
3
Why is only one strand of DNA transcribed into mRNA?
Because the other strand would produce the same amino acid sequence in reverse order
1- Identify various types of mutations (including frameshift, point (silent, missense, nonsense)), their causes and consequences
Frame shift- cause a shift in the reading frame of the genetic message; can alter the protein tremendously; examples: insertion and deletion Point- mutations that involve changes in one or a few nucleotides (bases); include substitutions, insertions, and deletions Missense- the new nucleotide gives a new codon which subsequently leads to a new amino acid so ultimately you have a new protein Nonsense- the new nucleotide gives a new codon which codes for an early stop, the protein is shorter
1- Identify what groups of organisms carry out photosynthesis
Plants, algae, bacteria and even some animals
1- Know and explain the steps involved in the replication of DNA. The explanation should include the following terms: Leading Strand, Lagging Strand, Primer, Replication Fork, Okazaky Fragments, and the function of the following enzymes: helicase, DNA polymerase, Topoisomerase, primase, and ligase
Step 1: Helicase unwinds our double helix into two strands Step 2: Polymerase adds nucleotides to an existing strand Step 3: Ligase brings together the Okazaki fragments Step 4: Topoisomerase cuts and rejoins the helix Step 5: RNA primase catalyzes the synthesis of RNA primers
Distinguish among the various lipids (triglycerides, phospholipids and steroids) including the composition, characteristics and biological function of each.
Triglycerides are three fatty acids "tails" attached to a glycerol "head" Phospholipids are consist of Glycerol portion and fatty acid chains. Only two fatty acids chains; in place of the third is portion that include a phosphate group Steroids are complex structure four connected rings of carbon atoms. They are cholesterol which is in all body cells and used to synthesize other steroids:sex hormones, such as estrogen, and testosterone and several hormones from the adrenal glands
1- Differentiate between channels and transporters. Compare Uniporters, Simporters, Antiporters
Uniport- Integral protein which moves one type of molecule across the membrane Symport- Integral protein which moves two or more molecule types across the membrane in the same direction. Antiport- Integral protein which moves two or more molecule types across the membrane in the opposite direction. *Channels transfer solutes at a MUCH GREATER RATE than transporters. Transporters only transfer molecules or ions that fit into specific binding sites on the protein
1- Arrange the steps of eukaryotic DNA replication in proper sequence
1st step Origin Recognition: DNA helicase binds to the origin (AT region) which has been relaxed by gyrase 2nd Step DNA helicase unwinds the DNA converting double stranded DNA into single stranded DNA. In order to prevent rebinding due to complementary pairs 3rd Step The binding protein binds to the single strands to block contact with the opposing strand. Called the "Single stranded binding protein" 4th Step Primase synthesizes primer that binds to the leading strand which is necessary so that DNA Polymerase III has something to bind to in order to start synthesizing and adding complementary base pairs via phosphodiester bonds 5th Step DNA Polymerase III will move from 5' --> 3' synthesizing DNA following the movement of helicase 6th Step In the lagging strand once everything is done, the primers need to be removed by DNA Poly 1. However the nicks then open from where the primers were once connected to the strand. Then DNA ligase seals thenicks by filling the gaps but it does not seal hydrogen bonds
In a human cell at prophase I, there are __________ tetrads.
23
Which of the following nucleotide sequences represents the complement to the DNA strand 5' − AGATCCG- 3'?
3' − TCTAGGC-5'
What is the complement DNA strand to 5'ATTCGGTGA-3'
3'-TAAGCCACT5'
Which of the following best describes semiconservative replication?
A DNA molecule consists of one parental strand and one new strand
Which of the following combinations of letters accurately represents two sister chromatids?
A and C
Which of the following combinations of letters accurately represents two homologous chromatids?
A and D
1- Identify the 4 stages of the aerobic cellular respiration, including the major reactants, products, location within the cell, and purpose
A metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions in a cell that build and breakdown molecules for cellular processes. Anabolic pathways synthesize molecules and require energy. Catabolic pathways break down molecules and produce energy. Because almost all metabolic reactions take place non-spontaneously, proteins called enzymes help facilitate those chemical reactions.
1- Using a DNA template, transcribe the mRNA sequence
ATCCTGG AUCCUGG
In chemiosmosis, ATP is produced as hydrogen ions (protons) pass through:
ATP Synthase
In the electron transport chain, exergonic redox processes drive the endergonic reaction in which:
ATP is produced by phosphorylation of ADP.
1- Define the terms phenotype, genotype, locus, allele, dominant allele, recessive allele, homozygous, and heterozygous.
Allele- A variation of a gene. Phenotype- The expressed characteristic or trait of an organism that results from the genotype. Genotype- The particular allele combination of an individual. Dominant allele- an allele whose trait always shows up in the organism when the allele is present Recessive allele- an allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present Homozygous- having two identical alleles for a trait ( TT or tt) Heterozygous- having two different alleles for a trait (Tt) Locus- The position of a gene, DNA marker or genetic marker on a chromosome.
1- What are Mendel's principles of segregation and independent assortment?
Alleles segregation- During meiosis alleles seperate during gamete formation(gametes of haploid) Independent assortment- Random placement of homologous chromosomes during metaphase 1 in meiosis
What is an atom? What is an element? What are the four most common elements found within living things? Relate the charges and relative sizes of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Where is each located within an atom?
An atom is a basic unit of a chemical element. Oxygen Hydrogen carbon and nitrogen. Protons are positively charged and found in the nucleus. Neutrons have a neutral charge and located in the nucleus. The electron is negatively charged and found on the electron orbitals or shells outside of the nucleus
What is atomic number and mass number? What are isotopes?
An atomic number is the number of protons, the mass number is number of protons plus number of neutrons. Isotopes have the same number of protons and electrons but different number of neutrons.
1- When meiosis goes wrong: Define aneuploidy, trisomy, monosomy, and nondisjunction and provide examples of genetic abnormalities associated with them
Aneuploidy-variation in the number of a particular chromosome within a setgenerally leads to an abnormal condition because it leads to an imbalance in amount of gene products (too much or too little) Trisomy-A specific case of an otherwise diploid cell having an extra chromosome of a homologous pair. (e.g. and extra 21 chromosome in the case of Down Syndrome in humans) Monosomy-A specific case of an otherwise diploid cell having a missing chromosome of a homologous pair. (e.g. Turner Syndrome - 45, X karyotype in humans) Nondisjunction-Failure of homologous chromosomes to separate during mitosis or meiosis. The main cause of trisomy's and monosomies.
1- Identify differences in cytokinesis in plant and animal cells
Animal: cytokinesis via cleavage. A cleavage furrow forms due to the action of actin & myosin in the contractile ring - results in the pinching of the cell into 2. Plant: cytokinesis via cell plate formation. Golgi vesicles at the equator (old metaphase plate) fuse together to form cell plate that will mature into cell wall and plasma membrane between 2 daughter cells. Microtubules required for transport of golgi vesicles to equator. No microfilaments.
1- State the generalized reaction for aerobic cellular respiration identifying oxidized and reduced molecules
Both processes include glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidated phosphorylation. In aerobic respiration the final electron acceptor is molecular oxygen O2; in anaerobic respiration the final electron Accceptor is a different substance.
1- Identify the similarities and differences between DNA and RNA
Both use A, C, and G. and they both have a sugar phosphate backbone DNA- Double stranded, uses thymine, deoxyribose, and can self-replicate RNA- single stranded, uses uracil, ribose and stores information about protein structure
1- Using a DNA template, predict the structural complement strand of DNA, using proper orientation and nucleotide base pairing
CAG Gln AAG Lys GAG Glu TCG Ser TTG Leu TGG Trp TAA Stop TAT Tyr TAC Tyr
Identify the properties and characteristics (including structure and function) of the four major classes of organic molecules (Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins and Nucleic Acids).
Carbohydrates main functions are providing energy and regulation of blood glucose. Sparing the use of proteins for energy. Breakdown of fatty acids and preventing ketosis. The structure is which are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are organic compounds Lipids main function is storing energy, the structure is glycerol molecule bonded to long hydrocarbon chain. Proteins main function is regulating body processes, transport materials throughout your body, help your immune system and act as a source of energy. The structure is the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in an amino acid-chain molecule. Proteins are polymers - specifically polypeptides Nucleic Acids main function they make up genetic information in living things. The structure is polynucleotides—that is, long chainlike molecules
1- Define chemical reactions (reversible and irreversible), and what it means for a reaction to be at equilibrium.
Chemical Reaction. Convert one set of substances into a completely different set of substances that have very different physical and chemical properties than those beginning substances. Equilibrium. when the rate at which molecules escape from a liquid equals the rate at which molecules return to liquid.
______ produces short sequences of RNA, which allows polymerase to synthesize a new strand of DNA.
DNA primase
1- Define the function and composition of cell organelles and subcellular structures, as well as identifying them in a drawing or model of plant/animal/prokaryotic cell
Cytoskeleton- Supports organelles and cell shape and plays a role in cell motion. Vacuoles- Storage areas for water, sugars, salts, pigments, and toxic substances. Golgi body- To package, store, modify, and distribute molecules produced by the ER, molecules packaged in secretory vesicles and move to the cell membrane for discharge Mitochondria- Powerhouse of the cell, produces ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for cellular energy via aerobic cellular respiration. Nucleus- Controller of cells, controls cell reproduction and protein synthesis. Cell membrane- Controls the passage of molecules in and out of the cell.
Which molecule is responsible for separating double stranded DNA into single strands?
DNA helicase
Which of the following statements about DNA is false?
DNA is only found in eukaryotic cells.
Okazaki fragments are joined together by:
DNA ligase.
Which of the following adds new nucleotides to a growing DNA chain?
DNA polymerase
1- Trace the flow of electrons through photosystems I and II in the noncyclic electron transport pathway
Electrons are transferred sequentially between the two photosystems, with photosystem I acting to generate NADPH and photosystem II acting to generate ATP. The pathway of electron flow starts at photosystem II, which is homologous to the photosynthetic reaction center of R
1- Indicate the differences between endergonic and exergonic reactions; anabolic and catabolic reactions, reduction/oxidation (redox) reactions
Endergonic-Requires a net input of energy, Literally means "energy-in", Yields products rich in potential energy, Starts with reactant molecules low in potential energy, Energy is absorbed from surroundings as reaction occurs --> products store more energy than reactants Exergonic-Releases energy, Literally means "energy-out", Begins with reactants whose covalent bonds contain more energy than those of the products, Releases an amount of energy equal to the Anabolic-The buildup of complex organic molecules from simpler ones, reactions are called anabolic or biosynthetic. They involve dehydration synthesis (release water) and are endergonic. Catabolic-The breakdown of complex organic molecules into simpler ones. Reactions are called catabolic or degradative reactions, they are usually hydrolytic reaction and are exergonic. Reduction reaction-any process in which electrons are added to an atom or ion (as by removing oxygen or adding hydrogen) Redox reaction-A chemical reaction involving the transfer of electrons also called oxidation-reduction reaction.
1- Compare and contrast Endocytosis and Exocytosis
Endocytosis is the movement of materials into the cell by forming vesicles from the cell membrane Exocytosis is movement of materials out of the cell
1- Explain the roles of enzymes in lowering activation energy necessary for metabolic reactions.
Enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction by binding one of the reactants, called a substrate, and holding it in a way that lowers the activation energy
Once nerve cells become mature, they don't usually undergo cell division. Based on your knowledge of the cell cycle, you would predict that mature nerve cells become arrested in the __________ of the cell cycle.
G0 phase
1- Define gel electrophoresis and provide examples of its application
Gel electrophoresis- a technique used to separate segments of DNA based on their size using an electric current Some examples include Genetic disease diagnosis, gene expression studies, Forensic Testing, Paternity testing
1- Compare and contrast isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions
Hypotonic- The solution has a lower solute concentration than the cell so water moves into the cell causing plant cells to swell and animal cells to swell and burst Hypertonic- The solution has a higher solute concentration than the cell, so water moves out of the cell and into the solution causing the cell to plasmolyze Isotonic- The concentration of solutes is equal inside and outside the cell, so water moves across the membrane in both directions maintaining cell size
RNA differs from DNA in all of the following except:
RNA lacks thymine
1- For each one of the 4 stages of the aerobic cellular respiration add up the energy captured as ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
In glycolysis, each glucose molecule produces 2 NADH and 2 ATPs (net). The conversion of 2 pyruvates to acetyl CoA results in the formation of 2 NADH. In the citric acid cycle, the 2 acetyl CoA molecules are metabolized to form 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATPs. To summarize, we have 4 ATPs, 10 NADH, and 2 FADH2
1- Identify the major steps of translation, including relevant terms, enzymes, location and structural components
Initiation: The ribosome assembles around the target mRNA. Elongation: The tRNA transfers an amino acid to the tRNA corresponding to the next codon. Termination: When a peptidyl tRNA encounters a stop codon, then the ribosome folds the polypeptide into its final structure.
Which of the following statements is not correct about lactic acid fermentation?
It produces two ATP molecules for every glucose molecule.
1- Define and give examples of potential energy and kinetic energy.
Kinetic-the energy of motion Potential-stored energy a rubber band zinged from your finger has. kinetic energy when a rubber band is stretched and waiting to be released. potential energy.
The kinetochore serves which of the following functions?
Kinetochores attach to microtubules during mitosis.
1- List and explain all the characteristics that distinguish living systems from nonliving things
Living thing characteristics include Nutrition, Respiration, Movement, Excretion, Growth, Reproduction, Sensitivity. Nonliving characteristics include not growing in size, don't reproduce, don't require any food or type of energy.
1- Differentiate between mitosis and meiosis. What is the significance of mitosis and meiosis?
Meiosis- A type of cellular reproduction in which the number of chromosomes are reduced by half through the separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell. Its significance is sexual reproduction Mitosis- A process of asexual reproduction in which the cell divides in two producing a replica, with an equal number of chromosomes in haploid cell. Its significance is Cellular Reproduction & general growth and repair of the body.
Distinguish among the various types of carbohydrates (monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides) including the composition, characteristics and biological function of each.
Monosaccharide is single polyhydroxy aldehyde/ ketone unit Disaccharides two monosaccharide units linked together by the acetal or ketal linkages Polysaccharides very large chain of linked monosaccharide units; polymer consisting entirely of D-glucose units
1- Predict patterns of inheritance based on pedigree analysis
Offspring MUST have the same status as their mother. Y linked - Females will NEVER be affected.Sons MUST have the same status as their father. X linked dominant- Often more females are affected than males. Affected males MUST have affected daughters. Affected males MUST have an affected mother. Affected individuals MUST have an affected parent. X linked recessive- Often more males are affected than females. Affected females MUST have affected sons. Affected females MUST have an affected father. Offspring of two affected parents MUST be affected.
1- Compare and contrast Passive Transport and Active Transport providing examples of each
Passive Transport- movement of molecules down the concentration gradient. It goes from high to low so that it can maintain equilibrium in the cells. Does not need energy. Examples include diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion Active Transport- uses ATP to pump molecules against/ up the concentration gradient. Examples include phagocytosis, pinocytosis, sodium- potassium pump, secretion of a substance into the blood stream
1- Define karyotyping and pedigree analysis and identify the differences between the two terms
Pedigree-A pedigree chart helps people trace the phenotypes and genotypes in a family to determine whether people carry recessive alleles. Karyotyping- A karyotype shows the homologous chromosomes so that you can see missing, extra or mutated chromosomes. Differences include...Karyotype- show whether a person has any extra chromosomes. Pedigree- determine whether a trait is inherited.
1- Compare and contrast Phagocytosis, Pinocytosis, and Receptor-medicated endocytosis
Pinocytosis is cell drinking Phagocytosis- cell eating Receptors bind specific ligand within coated pits to form endosomes. The endosome becomes acidified and enriched with acid hydrolyses, becoming the late endosome, and ultimately lysosome.
1- Indicate how pigments absorb or transmit visible light to produce color
Plant pigment molecules absorb only light in the wavelength range of 700 nm to 400 nm; this range is referred to as photosynthetically active radiation. ... Pigments reflect or transmit the wavelengths they cannot absorb, making them appear in the corresponding color.
1- Identify the characteristics, function, and composition of the plasma membrane. Your answer should include why the membrane is considered a Fluid Mosaic Model
Plasma membrane functions include Physical isolation - separates inside of cell from the surrounding extracellular fluid. Regulation of exchange with the environment - controls the entry of ions and nutrients, elimination of wastes, and release of secretions. Sensitivity to the environment. The membrane is considered a fluid mosaic model because the movement helps the cell membrane maintain its role as a barrier between the inside and outside of the cell environments.
1- Define plasmids, transformation, and cloning
Plasmids- Plasmids are used to move genes from cell to cell Transformation- Transfer of DNA from one organism to another without conjugation or virusCell takes up "free" DNAUseful for recombinant DNA technology Cloning- A plasmid, restriction enzymes, and DNA ligases are used to clone genes
Define and distinguish among the various chemical bonds (polar covalent, nonpolar covalent, ionic, and hydrogen).
Polar covalent bonds have unequally shared electrons between two atoms. Nonpolar covalent bonds share electrons between two atoms. Ionic bonds completely transfer valence electrons between two atoms. Hydrogen bonds is a weak chemical bond between a electronegative atom
Arrange the four levels of protein structure in order, including their characteristics.
Primary structures are peptide bonds join amino acids in a specific sequence in a polypeptide. Secondary structure is the alpha helix, beta-pleated sheets, or triple helix forms by hydrogen bonding between the atoms in the peptide bonds along the chain Tertiary structure is a polypeptide folds into a compact, 3-D shape stabilized by interactions between R groups of amino acids to form a biologically active protein Quaternary structure have two or more protein subunits combine to form a biologically active protein
1- Compare and contrast the characteristics of prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells and similarities and differences between animal and plant cells
Prokaryotic cells are Unicellular (1 entity), lack organelles, and contain a cell wall. The prokaryotic cell contains no membrane-bound organelles which are independent of the plasma membrane. The prokaryotic cell has no nucleus. Eukaryotic cells Larger than prokaryotic cells, A eukaryotic ribosome is composed of five kinds of rRNA and about eighty kinds of proteins. Eukaryotic has a nucleus, the control center of the cell. This is where the chromosomes (DNA) are stored in a double phospholipid membrane. Similarities include cell membranes made of phospholipid chains with cholesterol and proteins crammed in between. And have DNA which controls how the organism acts, behaves, and looks. Plant Cell differences include cell wall, central vacuole, and chloroplasts. Animal Cell differences include multiple smaller vacuoles Similarities includes nucleus, cell membrane, cytoskeleton and organelles
1- Identify the various steps of meiosis and identify what processes occur in each stage.
Prophase I- The first phase of meiosis I. the replicated chromosomes condense, homologous chromsomes pair up, crossing over occurs between homologous chromosomes, the spindle is formed, and the nuclear envelope breaks apart into vesicles. the longest phase of meiosis. Metaphase I- Assembly of the spindle apparatus is completed, and the chromosome pairs (bivalents) line up across the center of the cell between the two centrioles. Anaphase I- homologous chromosomes are separated (the bivalent is split) and pulled to opposite sides of the cell. Telophase I- 2 haploid daughter cells formed each with only one chromosome from each homologous pair Prophase II- The first phase of meiosis II in which spindle fibers begin to reappear and centrioles move to opposite poles Metaphase II- chromosomes line up along the equatorial plan Anaphase II- centromere splits, sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles by the spindle fibers Telophase II- A nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes and cytokinesis occurs, producing four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of chromosomes.
1- Arrange the steps of the cell cycle (in eukaryotic cells) in order and identify the various stages and what processes occur in each
Prophase- phase of mitosis where condensed chromosomes are first PRODUCED and become visible and the nucleus breaks down Metaphase- phase of mitosis where chromosomes line up along the MIDLINE of the cell Anaphase- phase of mitosis where the chromosomes are pulled APART to opposite ends of the cell by the spindle fibers Telophase- phase of mitosis where TWO new nuclei form Interphase- phase of the cell cycle where the cell grows, replicates DNA then grows again
Which of the following is NOT a criterion for an organism's genetic material?
The genetic material must be dynamic, changing rapidly in response to changes in the enviornment.
Explain the structure of water and its chemical properties
The structure of water is two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The chemical properties are ice solid, water liquid, and gas steam.
What are electron energy levels and valence electrons?
Valence electrons have the highest energy level in an atom, each energy level can hold a certain number of electrons.
1- Trace the flow of electrons through electron transport chemiosmotic phosphorylation (also called ETC or electron transport chain), including the reactants and products and the role of oxygen
When high energy electron is passed through electron transport chain, it looses some of its energy. The complexes associated with the electron transport chain uses some of this energy to pump protons (H⁺) from the matrix towards inter-membrane space
1- Determine what will happen to an animal cell and a plant cell when they are placed in different solutions with different tonicities
When placed into a hypertonic solution, animal cells will shrivel up, while plant cells will stay firm thanks to their air-filled vacuole. In a hypotonic solution, the cells will take on water and appear plumper. In an isotonic solution, they'll stay the same.
To prevent disastrous consequences, the eukaryotic cell cycle is controlled by:
a series of cell cycle checkpoints.
Cytokinesis in plant cells begins with the formation of a(n):
cell plate
When hydrogen ions (protons) are pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane, they form a proton gradient. ATP is then formed by a process known as:
chemiosmosis
During prophase, __________ is(are) compacted into visible chromosomes.
chromatin
If mitosis produced gametes in sexually reproducing organisms, then:
chromosome number would double in each generation
If mitosis produced gametes in sexually reproducing organisms, then:
chromosome number would double in each generation.
In the eukaryotic cell ribosomes carries out its function in the:
cytosol and RER (rough endoplasmic reticulum)
1- Identify the three structural components (subunits) of DNA and describe how these components bond together to form a DNA molecule
deoxyribose,phosphate group,nitrogenous base The nitrogenous bases point inward on the ladder and form pairs with bases on the other side, like rungs. Each base pair is formed from two complementary nucleotides bound together by hydrogen bonds
Human somatic cells are:
diploid
Nucleosomes are best described as:
eukaryotic DNA associated with histone proteins.
Which of the following molecules can be used as a substrate for cellular respiration?
glucose, lipids, proteins and fatty acids
FAD and cytochromes are classified as:
hydrogen or electron acceptors
The RNA segments laid by DNA primase are responsible for:
initiating DNA synthesis.
Interrupted coding sequences include long sequences of bases that do not code for amino acids. These noncoding sequences, called __________, are found in __________ cells.
introns; only eukaryotic
If a cell is in G2
it has twice the amount of DNA present in telophase.
1- Identify the two distinct regions of the chloroplast where photosynthetic reactions occur
light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle
The enzyme DNA ligase is responsible for:
linking short DNA segments.
