Ch. 1

The Human Brain

(A) Shown head-on, as oriented within the human skull, are the nearly symmetrical left and right hemispheres of the cerebrum. (B) A cut through the middle of the brain from back to front reveals the right hemispheres of the cerebrum and cerebellum and the right side of the brainstem. The spinal cord (not shown) emerges from the base of the brainstem.

Australopithecus africanus

(A) The hominid Australopithecus walked upright with free hands, as do modern humans, but its brain was about one-third the size of ours. (B) Human and Australopithecus figures compared on the basis of the most complete Australopithecus skeleton yet found, a young female about 1 meter tall, popularly known as Lucy, who lived 3 million years ago.

The brain and spinal cord together make up the __________. All of the nerve fibers radiating out beyond the brain and spinal cord as well as all of the neurons outside the brain and spinal cord form the __________.

(CNS) central nervous system peripheral nervous system (PNS)

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

- All of the neurons in the body outside the brain and spinal cord; provides sensory and motor connections to and from the central nervous system.

Spinal Cord

- Part of the central nervous system encased within the vertebrae (spinal column); provides most of the connections between the brain and the rest of the body - Most connections between the brain and the rest of the body are made through the spinal cord, which descends from the brainstem through a canal in the backbone.

central nervous system (CNS)

- The brain and spinal cord, which together mediate behavior. - Together, the brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system (CNS).

Darwin's theory of natural selection, Mendel's discovery of genetic inheritance, and the reality of epigenetics have three important implications for studying the brain and behavior:

1. Because all animal species are related, their brains must be related 2. Because all animal species are related, their behavior must be related 3. Brain and behavior in complex animals such as humans evolved from simpler animals' brains and behaviors and also depend on learning

three reasons for linking the study of the brain to the study of behavior:

1. How the brain produces behavior is a major unanswered scientific question 2. The brain is the most complex living organ on Earth and is found in many groups of animals. 3. A growing list of behavioral disorders can be explained and treated as we increase our understanding of the brain.

comparison of a wide variety of species broadly outlines how the nervous system has evolved. We summarize this evolution in the following general steps:

1. Neurons and muscles 2. Nerve Net 3. Bilateral symmetry 4. segmentation 5. Ganglia 6. Spinal cord 7. Brain

The first brain evolved about _____ million years ago.

250

Humanlike brains showed up in evolution about _____ years ago. 6 million 750,000 250,000 10 million

6 million

The first brain cells evolved about _____ million years ago.

700

How long ago did the first brain cells appear in evolution? 700 million years ago 200 million years ago 10 million years ago 6 million years ago

700 million years ago

Which of the following is an accurate definition of a meme? A meme is an idea, behavior, or style that spreads from person to person within a culture. A meme is a cultural expectation that all humans will be approximately the same in their behaviors. A meme is how we learn through observation and practice. A meme is the structure in the brain that the brain uses to adapt to changes in the environment.

A meme is an idea, behavior, or style that spreads from person to person within a culture.

meme

An idea, behavior, or style that spreads from person to person within a culture

Brain is a(n) _____ word.

Anglo-Saxon

chordate

Animal that has both a brain and a spinal cord.

The statement "I believe that behavior is solely the result of processes of the nonmaterial mind" would MOST likely be stated by someone who supports the ideas of

Aristotle

The words consciousness, sensation, and emotion all trace back to the work of

Aristotle

Which of the following statements is NOT true regarding the ideas of Aristotle? Aristotle said that the brain cooled the blood. Aristotle believed that the psyche was responsible for human consciousness. Aristotle believed that when the psyche left the body, it resulted in death. Aristotle placed the seat of the mind in the brain.

Aristotle placed the seat of the mind in the brain

Professor McGraw is interested in studying primate language acquisition. If she wishes to study primates that are MOST closely related to humans she should study

pygmy chimpanzees

But most human behaviors...

retain some mixture of inheritance and learning, because we humans have not thrown away our simpler nervous systems

Brain is to _____ as spinal cord is to _____.

skull vertebrae

Which invertebrates would show ganglia? jellyfish snails earthworms flatworms

snails

Behavior that is displayed by all members of a species is called __________.

species-typical behavior

When two birds preen each other as part of a courtship ritual, we call that: cultural imitation. species-typical behavior. evolutionary pressure. adaptation.

species-typical behavior.

Barry's brain would not be able to communicate with the rest of his body if it was not for his

spinal cord

The basic principle behind the theory of evolution is

that all living things are related

Howard Gardner proposed: that multiple intelligences exist. that intelligence can be severely affected by culture. that intelligence cannot be adequately measured. that intelligence is due to one primary factor.

that multiple intelligences exist.

Phil suffered a traumatic brain injury and was left unable to walk, talk, or feed himself. Through physical and occupational therapy, he was able to regain these abilities over time. His regaining the ability to walk, talk, and feed himself results from all but one of the following. Which one does NOT contribute to his recovery? plasticity in the brain a reduction in swelling in the brain the brain's physical and chemical changes in response to the injury the brain's ability to grow new neurons as needed

the brain's ability to grow new neurons as needed

Phil suffered a traumatic brain injury and was left unable to walk, talk, or feed himself. Through physical and occupational therapy, he was able to regain these abilities over time. His regaining the ability to walk, talk, and feed himself results from all but one of the following. Which one does NOT contribute to his recovery? plasticity in the brain the brain's physical and chemical changes in response to the injury the brain's ability to grow new neurons as needed a reduction in swelling in the brain

the brain's ability to grow new neurons as needed

Plasticity in the brain is: how an injury in the brain increases when cells die that surround the area where the damage occurs. how we describe the damage to the brain when it is injured. how the brain becomes fixed in an injury and leaves little hope for recovery. the nervous system's potential for physical or chemical change to adapt to changes in the environment or due to an injury.

the nervous system's potential for physical or chemical change to adapt to changes in the environment or due to an injury

Plasticity in the brain is: how the brain becomes fixed in an injury and leaves little hope for recovery. how an injury in the brain increases when cells die that surround the area where the damage occurs. the nervous system's potential for physical or chemical change to adapt to changes in the environment or due to an injury. how we describe the damage to the brain when it is injured.

the nervous system's potential for physical or chemical change to adapt to changes in the environment or due to an injury.

Aristotle argued that _____ is responsible for life, and its departure from the body results in death.

the psyche

Blood flow studies of the brains of chimpanzees suggest that they use ______ to produce chimpanzeeish.

the same areas that humans use for language

Neurons communicate with all of the following EXCEPT

vertebrae

The _____ first developed by mentalism remains part of modern behavioral science.

vocabulary

Hominids are primates that: have opposable thumbs. walk upright. use tools. have large brains.

walk upright

Bilateral symmetry in the nervous system means an organization of the nervous system: that results in both a brain and spinal cord. that represents a true brain. where the nervous system is divided into muscular segments. where one side of the nervous system mirrors the other side.

where one side of the nervous system mirrors the other side

Bilateral symmetry in the nervous system means an organization of the nervous system: where one side of the nervous system mirrors the other side. that results in both a brain and spinal cord. that represents a true brain. where the nervous system is divided into muscular segments.

where one side of the nervous system mirrors the other side.

According to your text, which statement is NOT proposed as a reason that the hominid brain enlarged and became more complex? Climate changes required more adaptation and more complex behaviors to survive. The human skull and blood flow allowed a better cooling system for the brain, allowing it to enlarge. Prolonged infancy in hominids allowed for more growth and development of neurons. As the primate lifestyle became more simplistic, more brain growth occurred to adapt to the social demands of larger societies.

As the primate lifestyle became more simplistic, more brain growth occurred to adapt to the social demands of larger societies.

species-typical behavior

Behavior that is characteristic of all members of a species, such as walking in amphibians.

Which statement about behavior is NOT correct? Behavior can be made up of thinking patterns. Behavior can be inherited or it can be learned. Behavior can be made up of patterns of movements, vocalizations, or changes in appearance over time. Behavioral patterns of various species of animals are relatively consistent.

Behavioral patterns of various species of animals are relatively consistent

bilateral symmetry

Body plan in which organs or parts present on both sides of the body are mirror images in appearance. For example, the hands are bilaterally symmetrical, whereas the heart is not

brainstem

Central structure of the brain, including the hindbrain, midbrain, thalamus, and hypothalamus, that is responsible for most unconscious behavior

One hypothesis proposes that Homo sapiens has evolved to adapt to change itself. Explain the reasoning behind this hypothesis in a brief paragraph.

Changes in climate may have driven many physical changes in hominids, including the nearly threefold increase in brain size from apes to modern humans. Evidence suggests that each new hominid species appeared after climate changes devastated old environments and produced new ones. Eventually, modern humans evolved adaptability sufficient to allow us to populate almost every climatic region on earth

Ganglia

Collection of nerve cells that function somewhat like a brain.

locked-in syndrome

Condition in which a patient is aware and awake but cannot move or communicate verbally because of complete paralysis of nearly all voluntary muscles except the eyes.

minimally conscious state (MCS)

Condition in which a person can display some rudimentary behaviors, such as smiling or uttering a few words, but is otherwise not conscious.

persistent vegetative state (PVS)

Condition in which a person is alive but unaware, unable to communicate or to function independently at even the most basic level

clinical trial

Consensual experiment directed toward developing a treatment

traumatic brain injury (TBI)

Damage to the brain that results from a blow to the head

The notion of materialism was advanced by

Darwin

natural selection

Darwin's theory for explaining how new species evolve and how existing species change over time. Differential success in the reproduction of different characteristics (phenotypes) results from the interaction of organisms with their environment.

The philosophical position that both a nonmaterial mind and a material body contribute to behavior, was developed by _____ and is called _____. Aristotle; dualism Aristotle; mentalism Descartes; dualism Darwin; materialism

Descartes; dualism

epigenetics

Differences in gene expression related to environment and experience

mind-body problem

Difficulty of explaining how a nonmaterial mind and a material body interact

segmentation

Division into a number of parts that are similar; refers to the idea that many animals, including vertebrates, are composed of similarly organized body segments.

mentalism

Explanation of behavior as a function of the nonmaterial mind

Given that a relatively large brain with a complex cerebrum and cerebellum has evolved in a number of animal lineages, what if anything makes the human brain unique?

Humans possess the largest brain of all animals relative to body size and the most complex brain structure.

genotype

Particular genetic makeup of an individual

materialism

Philosophical position that behavior can be explained as a function of the nervous system without recourse to the mind

dualism

Philosophical position that both a nonmaterial mind and a material body contribute to behavior

cladogram

Phylogenetic tree that branches repeatedly, suggesting a taxonomy of organisms based on the time sequence in which evolutionary branches arise.

Which statement is true when considering primate characteristics? Primates generally have poor color vision. Primates generally have poor depth perception. Primates have difficulty using visual information to guide their hands. Primates generally have only one offspring per pregnancy.

Primates generally have only one offspring per pregnancy.

neoteny

Process in which juvenile stages of predecessors become adult features of descendants; idea derived from the observation that more recently evolved species resemble the young of their common ancestors

mind

Proposed nonmaterial entity responsible for intelligence, attention, awareness, and consciousness.

the author of the first ever book on brain and behavior is

Rene Descartes.

Explain the concept of embodied behavior in a statement or brief paragraph.

Research on embodied behavior proposes that we understand each other not only by listening to words but also by observing gestures and other body language and that we think not only with silent language but also with overt gestures and body language.

phenotype

Set of individual characteristics that can be seen or measured

nerve net

Simple nervous system that has no center but consists of neurons that receive sensory information and connect directly to other neurons that move muscles.

neuron

Specialized nerve cell engaged in information processing.

psyche

Synonym for mind, an entity once proposed to be the source of human behavior

One of the first remains belonging to the genus Homo was found in _____ in _____. Spain; 1962 Australia; 1949 Africa; 1939 Tanzania; 1964

Tanzania; 1964

Major Divisions of the Human Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord together make up the central nervous system. All of the nerve processes radiating out beyond the brain and spinal cord and all of the neurons outside the CNS connect to sensory receptors, muscles, and internal body organs to form the peripheral nervous system.

Brain Evolution

The brains of representative chordate species have many structures in common, illustrating a single basic brain plan

According to your text, which of the following is NOT a benefit of studying the brain and behavior? Understanding the brain will allow us to make improvements in educational, economic, and social systems. Understanding the brain will give us ways to stop criminal and aggressive behaviors. Studying the brain will give us an understanding of behavioral disorders related to brain abnormalities. Studying the brain will give us an understanding of the brain's place in the biological order of our planet.

Understanding the brain will give us ways to stop criminal and aggressive behaviors.

Asmi is writing an essay on a nineteenth century scientist who proposed a theory of evolution. Which of the following people may be the topic of her essay?

Wallace

Which statement describes the Flynn effect? When intelligence tests are given, they can be impacted by cultural influences. When intelligence tests are given, they can enumerate the effects of nutritional deficiencies. When intelligence tests are given, people will score differently every time they take the test. When intelligence tests are given to subsequent generations, there is a consistent rise in the intelligence scores.

When intelligence tests are given to subsequent generations, there is a consistent rise in the intelligence scores.

Woodburn Heron conducted an experiment to see how the brain would cope without any sensory input. He found that the brain: simply relaxed and remained focused. began to produce hallucinations to make up for the sensory inputs that were lost. became confused and began producing motor movements to make up for the lost sensory experiences. became overstimulated.

began to produce hallucinations to make up for the sensory inputs that were lost.

Descartes placed the seat of the mind in the: heart. brain. mouth. stomach.

brain.

The set of brain structures responsible for most of our unconscious behaviors is called the: brainstem. cerebrum. forebrain. cerebellum.

brainstem.

Kanzi (chimp) learned symbolic language

by watching his mother learn Yerkish

Primates spend more time _____ than other mammals do.

caring for their young

In the core of Damien's body is his

central nervous system (CNS)

One major set of brain structures, the __________, or __________, has nearly symmetrical left and right __________ enfolding the __________, which connects to the spinal cord.

cerebrum forebrain hemispheres brainstem

A branching diagram that represents groups of related animals is called a __________.

cladogram

Representative Classes of Chordates

cladogram illustrates evolutionary relationships among animals that have a brain and spinal cord. Brain size increased with the evolution of limbs in Amphibia. Birds and mammals are the most recently evolved chordates, and both classes have large brains relative to body size.

The large human brain evolved in response to a number of pressures and opportunities, including __________, __________, __________, and __________.

climate changes changes in lifestyle skills physiological changes delayed maturation or neoteny

Modern humans share a __________ with the __________, our closest living relative.

common ancestor chimpanzee

Some modern human behavior is inherent to our nervous system, but far more is learned—passed generation to generation by __________. Ideas, behaviors, or styles called __________ may spread from person to person and culture to culture.

culture memes

Living organisms

don't necessarily have a nervous system or brain.

Tristan is writing an essay about the mind-body problem. Central to the essay is a critique of

dualism

The hypothesis that states that the movements we make and the movements we perceive in others are central to communication is called: embodied behavior. dualism. monism. assumed behavior.

embodied behavior.

The __________ describes brain size relative to body size, but a complete comparison of different species' brains requires __________

encephalization quotient (EQ) counting brain cells (neurons)

The ratio of actual brain size to expected brain size according to the principle of proper mass is known as: intelligence quotient. neuronal net quotient. encephalization quotient. brain to body ratio.

encephalization quotient.

When studying inherited traits, it was noticed that the environment can change the expression of the gene. So, for instance, "tall" pea plants planted in poor soil will not grow to their full potential. This effect is part of the study of: genotypic expression. re-expression. epigenetics. phenotypic expression.

epigenetics

Edmond Jacobson conducted an experiment to see what would happen if all muscle movement stopped and people practiced "total" relaxation. When people practiced "total" relaxation, they experienced their mind: begin to hallucinate unrealistic images. continue to sense movement even when there wasn't any. feeling blank. begin to make up stories to stay busy.

feeling blank.

According to Hebb, consciousness is: the formation of new memories. formed when cell assemblies become interconnected. the activation of previously silent brain areas. an attribute of the brain.

formed when cell assemblies become interconnected.

According to the taxonomy, which animal is capable of the most complex movements? sea anemone frogs flatworms squids

frogs

Spearman proposed a common intelligence factor he called __________. Gardner supports the idea of __________.

g multiple intelligences

The cerebrum consists of two nearly symmetrical parts called: gyri. sulci. lobes. hemispheres.

hemispheres.

Generally, animals with smaller, simpler nervous systems exhibit a narrow range of behaviors that depend mainly on...

heredity.

Modern humans evolved from a __________ lineage that successively featured __________, __________, and __________, groups in which more than one species existed concurrently.

hominid Australopithecus Homo habilis Homo erectus

A simple definition of behavior is any kind of movement in a living organism. All behaviors have both a cause and a function, but they vary in complexity and in the degree to which they are __________, or automatic, and the degree to which they depend on __________.

inherited learning

Joey just studied the anatomy of the brain and remembers that the hippocampus is important in memory. According to Hebb, this learning occurred because: his brain grew new neurons dedicated to the new information. his studying caused a genetic change in the nucleus of his cells so that he will remember. his brain grew a new area that contains the new information causing a bump on his skull. his brain formed new connections between cells called cell assemblies.

is brain formed new connections between cells called cell assemblies

Animals with complex nervous systems have more behavioral options that depend on...

learning.

Which of the following is NOT part of the great ape family? lemurs chimpanzees gorillas humans

lemurs

Descartes believed that _____ could explain most of the processes in the body and brain.

mechanical principles

The word mind is the Anglo-Saxon word for

memory

Simon believes that the mind is responsible for all behavior. Simon agrees with

mentalism

The view that behavior is the product of an intangible entity called the mind (psyche) is __________. The notion that the immaterial mind acts through the material brain to produce language and rational behavior is __________. __________, the view that brain function fully accounts for all behavior, guides contemporary research on the brain and behavior

mentalism dualism Materialism

The philosophical position that a person's mind is responsible for behavior is: realism. materialism. mentalism. dualism.

mentalism.

Brandon is a scientist who wants to understand how a nonmaterial mind and a physical brain can interact. He is studying the: hard problem of consciousness. question of materialism. mind-body problem. the field of neuroendocrinology.

mind-body problem.

The brain demonstrates a remarkable ability to recover, even after severe brain injury, but an injured person may linger in a __________, occasionally able to communicate or to follow simple commands but otherwise not conscious. Those who have such extensive brain damage that no recovery can be expected remain in a __________, alive but unable to communicate or to function independently at even the most basic level.

minimally conscious state (MCS) persistent vegetative state (PVS)

Generally, animals with smaller, simpler nervous systems exhibit a _____ range of behaviors that depend mainly on _____. wide; learning narrow; learning narrow; heredity wide; heredity

narrow; heredity

The implication that the brains and behaviors of complex animals such as humans evolved from the brains and behaviors of simpler animals draws on the theory of __________ advanced by __________.

natural selection Charles Darwin

Evolutionary relationships among the nervous systems of animal lineages are classified by increasing complexity, progressing from the simplest __________ to a __________ segmented nervous system to nervous systems controlled by __________ to nervous systems in the phylum __________, which feature a brain and spinal cord.

nerve net bilaterally symmetrical ganglia chordate

Because brain cells and muscles evolved only once in the animal kingdom, a similar basic pattern exists in the __________ of all animals.

nervous systems

In the evolution of the nervous system in animals, what evolved first? nerve nets ganglia nerve trunks neurons and muscles

neurons and muscles

In the evolution of the nervous system in animals, what evolved first? nerve trunks nerve nets ganglia neurons and muscles

neurons and muscles

Natural selection is the idea that: organisms will naturally evolve traits that let them live longer and pass on their genes to the next generation. organisms make choices about what behaviors to exhibit in different situations. organisms are made up of genes that combine to create behaviors and body characteristics. organisms will pass on only dominant traits to their offspring.

organisms will naturally evolve traits that let them live longer and pass on their genes to the next generation.

Locked-in syndrome is a condition in which the body is: paralyzed but the mind is awake and aware. capable of movement but the mind has limited awareness. paralyzed but the mind is completely blank or unconscious. capable of movement but the mind is unable to think.

paralyzed but the mind is awake and aware

Jeremy had a traumatic brain injury. He is unaware and unable to communicate. He can't perform the most basic of human functions. Jeremy is in a: persistent negative brain state. maximally conscious state. minimally conscious state. persistent vegetative state.

persistent vegetative state

An organism that uses vision to guide its hand movements is called a(n)

primate

common ancestor

Forebear of two or more lineages or family groups; ancestral to both groups

hominids

General term referring to primates that walk upright, including all forms of humans, living and extinct.

species

Group of organisms that can interbreed

The encephalization quotient was developed by: Robin Dunbar. Karina Fonseca-Azevedo. Harry Jerison. Mary and Louis Leakey.

Harry Jerison.

Explain the reasoning behind the statement that what is true for evolutionary comparisons across different species may not be true for comparisons within a single species.

In comparing different species, a larger brain correlates with more complex behavior. In comparing individuals within a species, brain size and intelligence are only remotely related. Rather, the complexity of different brain regions is related to behavioral abilities. Humans, for example, vary widely in body size and in brain size as well as in having different kinds of intelligence. All of these factors make any simple comparison of individuals' brain sizes and intelligence impossible.

Darwin and Mendel were nineteenth-century contemporaries. Briefly contrast the methods they used to reach their scientific conclusions.

In formulating the theory of natural selection, Darwin relied on observation to conclude that living organisms are related and pass traits from parents to offspring. Mendel used experimentation to show that heritable factors underlie phenotypic variation among species.

encephalization quotient (EQ)

Jerison's quantitative measure of brain size obtained from the ratio of actual brain size to expected brain size, according to the principle of proper mass, for an animal of a particular body size

culture

Learned behaviors that are passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and imitation.

hemisphere

Literally, half a sphere, referring to one side of the cerebrum

cerebellum

Major brainstem structure specialized for learning and coordinating movements; assists the cerebrum in generating many behaviors

cerebrum (forebrain)

Major structure of the forebrain that consists of two mirror-image hemispheres (left and right) and is responsible for most conscious behavior.

deep brain stimulation (DBS)

Neurosurgery in which electrodes implanted in the brain stimulate a targeted area with a low-voltage electrical current to facilitate behavior.

plasticity

The nervous system's potential for physical or chemical change; enhances its adaptability to environmental change and its ability to compensate for injury. (Also called neuroplasticity.)

embodied behavior

Theory that the movements we make and the movements we perceive in others are central to communication with others.

Which statement is the defining characteristic of the class of mammals? They have the ability to use tools. They have neurons and muscles used for locomotion. They have visual control of their hands. They have large brains and demonstrate social behavior.

They have large brains and demonstrate social behavior

Which statement is NOT a characteristic of Neanderthals? They lived an isolated existence. They wore makeup and jewelry. They buried their dead. They made music.

They lived an isolated existence.

Which statement is NOT a characteristic of australopiths? They walked upright. They were able to use tools. They had feet shaped more like humans than other apes. They lost the ability to climb trees.

They lost the ability to climb trees

Which statement is NOT a characteristic of australopiths? They had feet shaped more like humans than other apes. They walked upright. They were able to use tools. They lost the ability to climb trees.

They lost the ability to climb trees.

Dualist Hypothesis

To explain how the mind controls the body, Descartes suggested that the mind resides in the pineal gland, where it directs the flow of fluid through the ventricles and into the muscles to move the body. The pineal gland actually influences daily and seasonal biorhythms