Ch. 13-14, 16-17 Personality Theory Psychology (PSY3310)

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Defensive Pessimism

*side note: majority of class thinks this characterizes them* particularly adaptive for you in academic situations using pessimism to manage anxiety >adaptive response to situation >>if have upcoming exam, think of worst possible outcome when get anxious to not only be surprised by later outcome but motivated to do better in the moment ->counterintuitive b/c think should be hopeful and happy -->>in high pressure situation, may be better to think about negative outcomes individual strategies seem to work for individual people >they perform equally well on exams >>perform equally if think positively >being more pessimistic about growing older is related to longer life and lower illness >>manage expectations rather than make goals >>make an anxiety a known instead of unknown = have control >defensive pessimists perform worse if forced to think optimistically >>when higher in DP, if they are encouraged to perform optimistically, they will do worse b/c they can't manage their anxiety ->related to neuroticism in some ways Explanatory Style: Optimistic vs. Pessimistic= >Breakup w/ a romantic partner- >>Stable: "I'll never get over this." -> Global: "W/out my partner, I can't seem to do anything right." -> Internal: "Our breakup was all my fault." -> Depression >>Temporary: "This is hard to take, but I will get through this." -> Specific: "I miss my partner, but thankfully I have family and other friends." -> External: "It takes 2 to make a relationship work, and it wasn't meant to be." -> Successful coping

Individualist Cultures

1 of the 2 dimensions on which cultures differ: individualism-collectivism; more autobiographies are written; tend to pay more attention to the figure than the background; emotional experience more grounded in assessment of self-worth; higher frequency of self-focused emotions (e.g., anger); advertising reflects the value of individualistic choice, self-expression, and uniqueness

Collectivist Cultures

1 of the 2 dimensions on which cultures differ: individualism-collectivism; more histories of the group are within; tend to pay attention to the figure in context; emotional experience more grounded in assessments of social worth; higher frequency of other-focused emotions (e.g., embarrassment); advertising reflects the value of culture history and influence of the group

Depth of relationship: >HSM >>Superficial, short-term exchanges ->Transactional - not manipulative but means for engaging in social situation in limited context >LSM >>Profound, long-term exchanges ->Share a lot of selves

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: What are the relationships between self-monitoring and friendship outcomes? >Depth of relationship?

Descriptions of interactions w/ friends: >HSM >>Utility of interactions >LSM >>Time spend together

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: What are the relationships between self-monitoring and friendship outcomes? >Descriptions of interactions w/ friends?

Implications for friendship: *Closest friends tend to match on levels of self-monitoring* >HSM >>Choose friends w/ HSM >LSM >>Choose friends w/ LSM

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: What are the relationships between self-monitoring and friendship outcomes? >Implications for friendship?

Presence of nurturance: >HSM >>Restricted emotional support ->"well, not my everything friend," so have restricted relationship/time-dependent >LSM >>Unrestricted emotional support/relationship ->Drop everything even at party or event that is not right time to have in-depth conversations so will be there for person

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: What are the relationships between self-monitoring and friendship outcomes? >Presence of nurturance?

Sense of compatibility: >HSM >>Situationally limited >LSM >>Cross-situationally generalizable

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: What are the relationships between self-monitoring and friendship outcomes? >Sense of compatibility?

Neuroticism leads to worse relationship outcomes >more conflict and emotional volatility - harder for it to work Agreeableness and conscientiousness benefit relationships >Conscientiousness is helpful in spouse and long-term relationship >Agreeable people are easier to get along w/ and w/ others and resolve conflict

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: What is the role of the Big Five between personality and romantic relationships?

1. Extraversion* 2. Conscientiousness* 3. Unselfishness 4. Harmfulness 5. Gentle temper 6. Intellect* *Bolded are similar Big 5 Other ones (traits): >things that don't emerge in Big 5 Understand why occur and why we shouldn't just be focusing on Big 5 Used Contemporary Chinese Dictionary (65,000 entries, Mandarin words plus but widely used words from other dialects) **pg. 492-493**

Ch. 13 - Culture and Regional Personality: Emic approach - understand examples used in class and what they imply about those cultures= >Chinese seven factors What is the personality structure in China?

**Think about about Brian Little** >Biogenic personality = certain genetic variance in population that has been spread from marrying people around you >Sociogenic personality = long-term impacts on personality that become just as natural as biogenic >>naturally being more extraverted b/c grew up in U.S. (not going outside comfort zone) >Idiogenic personality **The Etic Approach: Comparing Traits Across Cultures** >Neuroticism = lowest across all cultures -> less socially desirable across cultures except when in East Asia >>profile of East Asia = Neuroticism is higher than Extraversion and Conscientiousness but lower for everyone else >>Agreeableness is lower but highest in North America and Africa >Openness = highest in South America and decreases in East Asia (interesting that it is low but is it b/c of reference effects - embedded in culture where it is normal >Conscientiousness = East Asian people think they are low in Conscientiousness but reference group could be college students, so Conscientiousness in reference to reference groups is little lower but in contrast to whole world, it is average or higher

Ch. 13 - Culture and Regional Personality: Cultural Differences in Personality Traits - Do mean levels of traits differ across cultures?= What are the broad differences in personality between continents?

Spanish "Big Seven": *Identifying personality structures w/in societies* >Saudade = Portuguese word - highlights idea that things can be lost in translation >>similar to longing, melancholy, desire, nostalgia ->describes Portuguese temperament *What is the personality structure in Spain?* >Researchers found personality terms from an unabridged Castilian Spanish dictionary and used them to generate factors >>Lexicon = using words in dictionary - through use of factor analysis - distill 100s of words into smaller chunks for factors/traits ->Big 7= 1) Agreeableness 2) Openness*: low in O. means close-minded -> not able to see bigger picture - concerned w/ gossipy, nosy things 3) Temperance*: orderly, punctual, emotional - relaxed, stable, patient, conventional, traditional, uncomplicated (usually would mean low in O.) (Conscientiousness sort of) 4) Pleasantness: joy, energy, sociability, social and intellectual craftiness, pull pranks, basically 5) Positive Valence: superior, admirable, formidable instead of ordinary, mediocre 6) Negative Valence: associated w/ Dark Triad b/c negative-related to moral depravity, wickedness, evilness (moral dimension not found in Big 5 - similar to Agreeableness but the other side of Agreeableness is not; rather, just not go w/ flow 7) Engagement: extreme levels of arousal - passionate, hard-working >opposite = disengagement - emotionally cold, lazy *Similar to Big 5 traits **when start from dictionary and work way down, they are unique aspects of culture that tend to be more relevant to day-to-day of what focusing on each other and separated 1 another in head w/ classifications **pg. 492-493**

Ch. 13 - Culture and Regional Personality: Emic approach - understand examples used in class and what they imply about those cultures= >Spanish "Big Seven" **pg. 492-493**

Ex: Tsimane forager-farmers in the Brazilian Amazon >1 of remote areas (less industrialized) >Diet is high in protein and carbs and get tons of physical activity (lowest heart problems) >The 2 strongest dimensions that emerged: >>Prosociality ->mix of Extraversion and Agreeableness and things like being ingenious and original means that people who are Prosociality tend to be 1 creative >>Industriousness ->energetic - important in subsistence labor, reliability as a worker = providing for families >Reflects ecological and socioecological characteristics that are unique to small-scale societies >Live in small groups and greatly reduced choice in social and sexual partners and limited numbers of careers >Personal achievement is deemphasized = Extraversion and Agreeableness hang together ->If leading everyone, higher on prosociality - characteristics of leaders >>Not in U.S. presidents seen as disagreeable -->>Be cooperative w/ each other **pg. 492-493**

Ch. 13 - Culture and Regional Personality: Emic approach - understand examples used in class and what they imply about those cultures= >Tsimane two factors

Culture <--> Ecology <--> Personality/Behavior <--> Culture >Model that has been proposed: "everything affects everything else" in iterative cycle >>Everything is intertwined - people's personality is affecting culture and people w/in it >>Political, religious, and social aspects show why differences exist ->People in democratic societies tend to be happier and more trusting compared to authoritarian regimes ->People who have higher subjective wellbeing tend to be in societies that develop democracy more quickly ->Social Ecology = physical, societal, and interpersonal differences like economic systems -->>Areas that depend on farmers and fishermen are more dependent on others than economic activity of herders --->Fishermen and farmers show more holistic tendencies - focusing on relationship between things vs. individual elements would be present for farmers and fishermen and herders --->Fishermen are farmers are more aware of interconnection = seeing big picture than individual's (own self) things ->Culture = more need for achievement vs. affiliation -->>Countries w/ children stories that had need for achievement showed more growth (seeds for desire to grow was reflected in culture and children fed w/ these would affect how move through world) >Ecological approach: cultural tasks = why see geographical clustering *>>ex: Chinese agriculture* ->developed complex agricultural projects and water systems thousands of years ago -->>explains collectivist tendency -->required coordination of many people = community works together *>>ex: German hunter-gatherers* ->hunting parties can't be too large or they won't catch anything - fed through hunting parties but if too large, would scare animals away, so this contributed to how socialize (more insular/inward-looking) *>>ex: North Americas* ->voluntary immigration, task of developing an entire continent -->>pioneer spirit -->>culture of honor = reputation for toughness and defending honor b/c herders had to protect livestock by maintaining reputation for toughness by defending themselves due to no police force

Ch. 13 - Culture and Regional Personality: Etic approach - Ideas about where cultural differences in personality come from (i.e., ongoing relationship between culture/social ecology/personality & behavior)=

Academic Major Selection- >Extraversion: Positive Business, Positive Economics, Positive Political Science; Negative STEM >Agreeableness: Negative Business, Negative Law >Conscientiousness: Positive Med School >Neuroticism: Positive Social Science, Positive Humanities; Negative STEM, Negative Business >Openness: Positive Humanities

Selection Effects: Personality >Purple = positively related, Orange = negatively related >Extraversion: decrease in Engineering and STEM majors >Neuroticism: decrease in Engineering major >Openness: increase in Humanities major; decrease in Natural Science and STEM >Schwartz and Sagiv (1995) Universal Values: goals that everyone, everywhere, wants to achieve to some extent >>Inglehart and Baker analyzed World Values Surveys and found that nations w/ similar religious traditions clustered together on value orientations ->Specifically, traditionally Protestant countries (e.g., Sweden, Norway, Germany) were high in self-expression and secular values; whereas, historically Catholic countries (e.g., France, Italy, Austria) were lower in self-expression and higher in traditional values -->>On the basis of teachers' self-reported values, Schwartz largely replicated findings - some more concerned about hedonism and others = benevolence

Selection Effects: Values (Pt. 1) >what each major is interested in/value >>self-direction - individualism, chart own path >Business majors value high levels of power, achievement, and hedonism >Social science majors value high levels of self-direction >Humanities majors value low levels of power and high self-direction >Natural sciences majors value low levels of power, hedonism, and stimulation >STEM majors value low levels of power and self-direction

Ch. 13 - Culture and Regional Personality: Etic approach - Person-environment fit and geography= Be able to explain a few general trends in who tends to select into certain academic majors based on their values and Big Five scores and why this might be the case. Selection Effects: Values (Pt. 1) >what each major is interested in/value >>self-direction - individualism, chart own path

Selection Effects: Values (Pt. 2) >Business majors value low levels universalism and benevolence and high levels of security >>If care about benevolence as business may, it will be difficult b/c others aren't that way -> salesmen aren't super benevolent >Social sciences majors value high levels of universalism and low levels of conformity >Humanities majors value high levels of universalism and low levels of conformity >STEM majors value high levels of tradition and conformity and low levels of universalism

Ch. 13 - Culture and Regional Personality: Etic approach - Person-environment fit and geography= Be able to explain a few general trends in who tends to select into certain academic majors based on their values and Big Five scores and why this might be the case. Selection Effects: Values (Pt. 2) >what each major is interested in/value >>self-direction - individualism, chart own path

1) Social sciences majors increase a little in conscientiousness and a slightly decrease in neuroticism 2) Business majors slightly decrease in neuroticism 3) STEM majors slightly increase in neuroticism

Ch. 13 - Culture and Regional Personality: Etic approach - Person-environment fit and geography= Be able to explain a few general trends in who tends to select into certain academic majors based on their values and Big Five scores and why this might be the case. Socialization Effects: Major: Degree of which change due to choosing major

>South = friendly but low in openness and high in extraversion >East Coast = quick to anger -> high neuroticism >West Coast = relaxed, high openness, low neuroticism *Crime rate, religiosity, mortality, and healthy behavior = connected to personality* >ex: crime rate = higher in areas of lower agreeableness >Most extraverted = Wisconsin >Most agreeable = Utah -> Mormons >Most conscientious = South Carolina >Most neurotic = West Virginia >Most open = DC -> interested in intellectual pursuits >Least extraverted = Vermont -> live in mountainous area >Least agreeable = (DC), New York -> distant >Least conscientious = Maine (NY) -> Woody Allen - all took place in NY (high stress environment) >Least neurotic = Utah >Least open = North Dakota -> b/c very Republican Selective migration >extraverts seek stimulation of cities, gay community seek tolerance of coastal areas >>naturally seek to socially and meet people Social influence >individual personality changes as a result of interactions w/ locals >>promote stability over time - when move to place, you move b/c of who you are and change due how others are - CA -> become less stressed out Environmental influence >climate, population density, crowding >>beaches, sun -> crowding = more stress

Ch. 13 - Culture and Regional Personality: Etic approach - Person-environment fit and geography= What are the regional differences in the US? >>Understand 3 personality "regions" of the US and how they relate to Big Five ratings

*Does your psychological well-being depend on whether your city's personality is similar to your own?* For extraversion: No (extraversion positively related to self-esteem) >Extraversion = doesn't matter where you live (correlated w/ self-esteem) For neuroticism: No (neuroticism negatively related to self-esteem) >Neuroticism = lower self-esteem regardless of where you live For openness: Yes and No >High O = generally better self-esteem, regardless >Low O = better to live in low-O cities >>sometimes yes and sometimes no (low openness is better off if live in areas w/ similar levels of low openness) For agreeableness: Yes and No >High A = high self-esteem, even higher in high A cities >>better when highly agreeable and around high agreeableness people For conscientiousness: No >High C = high self-esteem, even higher in high C cities *Contingency effects smaller than reference effects*

Ch. 13 - Culture and Regional Personality: Etic approach - Person-environment fit and geography= What are the research findings on "person-city fit"?

1) American kids are supposed to be extraverts and are less happy due to the emphasis - more beneficial to make relationships w/ new people and having high energy positive traits a. Due to people in America moving (unique) compared to other countries that stay in same community (Japan) b. Hierarchical society in Japan = family stay put and care for elders so less likely to put in nursing home when older = invest more energy w/ community rather than new connections -> other countries tend to be on socialist dimension (US = key is networking - doing things for improving self) >Idea of panel studies = take large swath of existing population and study for a long time (kind of longitudinal study) - note how people were before and after change 2) US values excitement and Japan values calmness -> differences in emotional expression (level of restraint of emotional expression)

Ch. 13 - Culture and Regional Personality: Etic approach- What are the takeaways from Shige Oishi and traits across cultures (4-14 pre-class assignment)?

1. Etic approach- >Administration of Big Five questionnaires in various cultures >>Translation of existing questionnaires >>Give US Big Five to Japan (compare Conscientiousness and Agreeableness based on Western ideals) 2. Emic approach- >Analyses of trait descriptors in various languages >>Factor analysis and lexical approach >>Analyze how people naturally use in own language w/ Big 5 (lexical = these are the most important aspects of the daily language we use from our own dictionary)

Ch. 13 - Culture and Regional Personality: How Universal are the Big Five?- What are the 2 ways to approach this?

>Individualistic cultures - needs of person is most important (idea of the self) >>US, UK, Australia = how to optimize individual goals and desires >Collectivistic cultures - needs of group is more important (idea of the whole) >>China, Japan, Latin American countries, India **Leads to differences in how perceive sense of self**

Ch. 13 - Culture and Regional Personality: Individualistic-Collectivistic Spectrum= What is the key difference between the needs of individualistic and collectivistic cultures?

Network models >momentary states: if feel rude, then how might I feel next time you assess me? >>ex: if depressed at 1 point, next time will be rude >>ex: worried at some point, may feel depressed later >how characteristics of Big 5 are organized in different ways from each person >>ex: reliability and rudeness are correlated *It is generally viewed as adaptive to have fewer strong relationships b/c if feeling worried and then feel cascade of other changes all happening at once, then have less stability in P network b/c fee less kind, more quiet, less relaxed = if more strongly intertwined, then more of an issue b/c 1 difference in 1 item may lead to cascade in behavior* **Slide 23/27 on Psychological features of situations = Ch. 4 - Personality Processes Notes**

Ch. 14 - Personality Processes: Cognitive-affective personality system (CAPS)- How do network models conceptualize personality as a dynamic process (broadly)?

This paragraph mentions concepts that we have discussed in this chapter about cultural differences in personality traits and what traits are socially desirable and other chapters in regard to response bias. In regard to socially desirable traits, Americans are raised to think that extraversion is the desired trait over introversion. This extraversion helps Americans to socialize and meet new people. Furthermore, Americans prize this idea of social networking, and how increasing one's social network is key to increasing one's happiness. Also, Americans, living in an individualistic culture, focus on the self and strive to enhance self worth. On the other hand, Mexicans, who are in a collectivistic society, do not value extraversion and self-enhancement as much but rather enhancing others and being modest. Due to how Americans and Mexicans have different socially desirable traits, they may respond not as truthfully on the assessments. This leads to an aspect of response bias in S data, a concept mentioned in earlier chapters. In this case, the Americans and Mexicans are exhibiting social desirability bias, which is the tendency to answer in a way that favors the person answering the assessment. In this case, the Americans and the Mexicans are answering the assessment in a way that will make them seem more favorable. Moreover, the Americans may be rating themselves higher in extraversion, and the Mexicans may be rating themselves lower in extraversion because these levels of extraversion are more socially desirable to each of the cultures.

Ch. 13 - Culture and Regional Personality: Methodological challenges in cultural research and implications for future research- >What you learned from the asynchronous discussion about cultural differences in Mexicans and Americans and how this illustrated methodological differences in Mexicans and Americans and how this illustrated methodological difficulties in cultural psychology

Culture: >Independent self-construals - more common in individualistic cultures >Interdependent self-construals - more common in collectivistic cultures Behavior: >Individualistic - assumes that the causes of behavior lie within the person >>Result: individual is expected to behave consistently from one situation to the next ->associated w/ mental health >Collectivistic - expected to change one's behavior more as a function of particular immediate situation >>Result: individual might feel less pressure to behave consistently and less conflicted about inconsistent behavior ->not associated w/ mental health

Ch. 13 - Culture and Regional Personality: Self-Construal Theory- What are the implications for culture and behavior of the self-construal theory?

*Self-construals = self-traits; ideas of self; your particular experience of the world - forms the basis of how you live your life, including goals, obstacles and opportunities you pursue* >Independent self-construals - more common in individualistic cultures; ideas of self are self-contained and others' ideas do not leak to your beliefs (individual); have pervasive need to think well of selves and have high need for positive self-regard >>ex: U.S. >Interdependent self-construals - more common in collectivistic cultures; ideas of self are based on others; do not have pervasive need to think well of selves and do not have high need for positive self-regard

Ch. 13 - Culture and Regional Personality: Self-Construal Theory- What is the difference between independent and interdependent self-construals? **(pg. 426, 477-480, 483, 561, 563, 565)**

>Tight cultures = strongly enforced rules that are implicit or could be laws/of norms; less tolerance of deviance = less variety >Loose cultures = fewer rules and greater tolerance of deviance = wide variety of behaviors ex: Norway = homogenous cultures w/ race and ethnicity; lack of cultural diversity leads to looseness ex: U.S. = dress however want - not expected way to dress and act >implication = travel from tight to loose culture and vice versa >>travelers who were living in tight culture and have high agreeableness and traveled to different culture had better adaptation and very attuned to new social cues and follow closely ->moderated by agreeableness - really good at picking up on cues ->host country = if low agreeableness and travel from tight country to loose country, it will make it difficult to travel to new country -->>idea w/ pre-existing traits

Ch. 13 - Culture and Regional Personality: What are the dimensions on which cultures differ between tightness and looseness?

1. a. Behaviorism is only focused on things we directly observe - everything else is not scientific - can't observe contents of mind >>Nature vs. Nurture: Environment is more important than genetics when it comes to crafting behavior. b. Conditioning = S-R Conception of Personality (S = stimulus; R = response): Learn through repeated actions; doing a certain thing will give either reward or punishment d. Habituation, Classical conditioning, Operant conditioning >Habituation = behavior changes as a result of experience (pg. 517) >Classical conditioning = events become associated not merely b/c they occurred together, but b/c the meaning of one event has changed the meaning of another (pg. 518-519) >Learned Helplessness = when bad things happen without any stimulus to provide advance warning, you learn that you are never safe, which can result in chronic anxiety - feeling of anxiety due to unpredictability (of rewards and punishments) can lead to this pattern (pg. 519) >Operant conditioning = the animal learns to operate on its world in such a way as to change it to that animal's advantage (pg. 520-521) 2. Over time, humans behave in certain way and get rewarded, so they will keep behavior that way, and if punished, they will stop behaving that way

Ch. 14 - Personality Processes: 1. What are the basics of behaviorism and conditioning? 2. How might they relate to personality?

"If...then" contingencies = every individual's pattern of contingencies is unique and comprises his/her behavioral signature >Mischel's goal = replace personality traits as essential units for understanding personality differences >Main advantages = its specificity, more sensitive to behavior change across situations (situation not always arouse same thing in people) >>describes the exceptions to displaying trait in other situations the same way >>don't think of personality as static thing that predicts 1) that "if extraverted, then will be social across all situations" & 2) conscientiousness may be activated in HW situation or just in being-on-time situation >describe traits as specific behavior patterns >>ex: if friendly person meets a stranger, then he will probably engage in conversation

Ch. 14 - Personality Processes: Cognitive-affective personality system (CAPS)- >"if...then" contingencies and how they compare to traits

1. Appraisal >Think about what something means >ex: see a bear and appraise as a threat 2. Physiology >Feel response to it >>Physical responses (changes in pulse, blood pressure and bodily tension), facial expressions (smiles or snarls) >ex: mental characterization of danger leads you into fight/flight mode, so heart rate increases to promote fight or flight 3. Behavior >Then respond a certain way >ex: then leads you to run away or attack

Ch. 14 - Personality Processes: Emotion- What are the elements of emotional experience?

**People differ in the emotions they experience, the emotions they want to experience, how strongly they experience emotions, how frequently their emotions change, and how well they understand and control their emotions** Emotional experience, intensity, and change- 1. a. Extraversion seems to be based on a strong, consistent, and stable tendency to experience positive and energizing emotions >Rare cases: people are so extraverted they seem out of control and are perceived as manic >Implications = feel good and are peppy -> why act the way they do and are liked by others 2. Differ in the attitudes about the emotions they prefer to experience or avoid a. Extraverts want to be happy and energized, so seek out social situations that will make them feel happy and energized b. Some find anger is enjoyable so they seek out opportunities to get angry. c. Some people dislike fear, so they try to stay away from situations that contain any threat 3. Emotions that are positive or negative a. People high in affect intensity experience both more intense joy and more powerful sadness >overreact in some cases >risk factor for bad outcomes >women are typically higher than men in affect intensity = explains why more prone to depression 4. Rapidly changing emotions a. High change in emotions = high neuroticism = low emotional stability? 5. Emotional intelligence a. Accurately perceiving emotions in self and others and controlling and regulating one's own emotions >low end = alexithymic -> so little emotional awareness that they are virtually unable to think about or talk about their own feelings >>high neuroticism? >high end = more emotionally expressive, have better personal relationships, and tend to be optimistic >>can regulate emotions w/ strategies like focusing on positive (high emotional stability = low neuroticism), planning ahead for big events (high conscientiousness), and remembering to take long, deep breaths and count to 10 to stave off desire to scream at someone (high emotional stability = low neuroticism) ->cognitive control = allow person to use rational thinking to control both how s/he feels and how s/he responds to the way she feels -->>not overreact to stressful experiences and resist temptations = high emotional stability = low neuroticism

Ch. 14 - Personality Processes: Emotion- What are the individual differences in personality and implications for these differences? >Big Five and emotion

Characterize as higher or lower arousal/activation (not sexual arousal - just best word to come up w/) Green = low arousal but still positive affect >Low activation on positive side is more desirable in some cultures than Americans perspective of super high positive affect/emotion Low arousal negative affect = purple Depression is a state of negative affect and low arousal Feeling excited is a state of positive affect and high arousal Are more useful for comparing emotions to each other than they are for explaining particular emotions *Low affect intensity vs. High affect intensity and Frequent positive affect vs. Frequent negative affect*

Ch. 14 - Personality Processes: Emotion- What is the circumplex model of emotion?

1. Idiographic goals = goals that are unique to the individuals who pursue them; involves current concerns, personal projects, and personal strivings >personal projects = life tasks; all constitute personality = help explain why C in one domain but not C in others b/c prioritizing things over others >personal strivings = values relate to different occupations or majors >>guide/think/way/feel b/c overarching things that guide lives >ones that are unique to yourself 2. Nomothetic goals = goals that refer to the relatively small number of essential motivations that almost everyone pursues >nomo = long -> find overarching/captures everything/goals we have >Big Three: characterize as higher or lower in... >>Achievement (ex: idiographic = med. school -> motivation = achievement) >>Affiliation >>Power motivations >Big Five >>Enjoyment >>Self-assertion >>Esteem >>Interpersonal success >>Avoidance of negative affect >Drive behavior in certain ways

Ch. 14 - Personality Processes: Goals- What is the difference between idiographic and nomothetic goals?

1. Judgment goals >Come from entity theories >>Entity = intelligence is fixed or general aspects of selves are fixed and not much you can do to fix them ->Fixed mindset >Response to failure? >>Hopelessness b/c if all on test, can't change it (maladaptive to success) 2. Developmental goals >Come from incremental theories >>Incremental = changeable >Growth mindset = can improve if fail >Response to failure? = mastery b/c can improve by putting hard work into it >Directs dynamics of how personality unfolds

Ch. 14 - Personality Processes: Goals- What is the difference between judgment goals and development goals (Dweck)? >Growth mindset vs. fixed mindset and their implications (response to failure)

c) In what ways might the goals of someone lower in agreeableness differ from the goals of someone higher in agreeableness? Refer to your textbook so that you can include terms and concepts related to goals. There are some ways that the goals, which involve idiographic, judgment, and development goals, of someone lower in agreeableness differ from the goals of someone higher in agreeableness. For idiographic goals, one of the categories is personal strivings. For this personal striving aspect of idiographic goals, a person high in agreeableness may desire to be more helpful and caring towards others than a person low in agreeableness. A person who is low in agreeableness may have a personal striving goal to succeed and get ahead of others in his or her career. The less agreeable person may go through whatever means necessary to climb the career ladder and attain a promotion because they are low in empathy and do not understand or relate to others' feelings. On the other hand, someone who is high in agreeableness wants to cooperate with others and is more selfless, so they may have a personal striving goal of helping his or her coworkers do well at work. Moreover, he or she may try to aid them in getting promotions. As for judgment and development goals. Those that are low in agreeableness may be more likely to create judgment goals for themselves in comparison to people high in agreeableness. People low in agreeableness may be more likely to create judgment goals because they are less cooperative with others and critical of them. Due to this, they may be more pessimistic, which would lead them to have a negative attitude about improving oneself. However, a person that is high in agreeableness may be more likely to pursue development goals. With development goals, a person wants to improve him or herself if he or she fails at a task. People who are high in agreeableness cooperate better, think highly of others, and have a more positive mindset. Due to being more optimistic, highly agreeable people may strive to improve themselves and grow in intelligence, kindness, and other areas of their lives, leaning towards development goals.

Ch. 14 - Personality Processes: Revisit the Scientific American article about antagonism that you read for Asynchronous Discussion #9 post and think about how you would answer any prompts you didn't answer - or read your classmates' posts!( (good way to review the material it covered!)

1. Strange Situation >Child is briefly separated from mother >Child thinks s/he is alone when mother leaves >Mother returns >See reaction to/recovery from separation >Caregiver/mother is secure base 2. Three attachment styles >Anxious-ambivalent >Avoidant >Secure >>depended on the kinds of expectations they had about primary caregivers (mother) and how they reacted to the strange situation 3. Reactions >Anxious-ambivalent = child upset when mother left but child could not be soothed when mother came back >>Child couldn't calm down - too activated = couldn't get comfort should be able to get ->Maladaptive interaction >Avoidant = child upset when mother left. but when mother came back, child avoided mother >>Child looked other way when mother picked up child ->Child knows parent isn't someone to depend on due to parent not being there when needed or parent having difficult personality >Secure = child upset when mother left b/c of properly-functioning attachment system >>Adaptive - cry a lot but when mother returned, child was consoled b/c saw mother as safe and secure base

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Attachment Theory = Attachment Styles in Infancy- 1. What was Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation? 2. How it contributed to our understanding of attachment styles? 3. How did the children with each style of attachment react in the Strange Situation?

Choosing friends for activities: >HSM >>Choose people who are skilled or knowledgeable about an activity ->Choose skilled friends >LSM >>Would rather share it w/ someone whom they like best ->Mentality of being themselves so choose who likes best - does not change who choose from situation to situation -->>Choose friend regardless of skills/knowledge - want ot be themselves, so can talk about shared values

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: What are the relationships between self-monitoring and friendship outcomes? >Choosing friends for activities?

1. Anxious-ambivalent children come from home situations where their caregivers' behaviors are "inconsistent, hit-or-miss, or chaotic" >Children are vigilant about the mother's presence and grow very upset when she disappears for little bit >School = victimized by other children and unsuccessfully attempt to cling to teachers and peers in way that drives these people away and leads to further hurt feelings, anger, and insecurity >Parents = over-responsive/unpredictable 2. Avoidant children come from homes where have been rebuffed repeatedly in their attempts to enjoy contact or reassurance >Mothers don't like hugs or physical contact >Strange situation: heart rate reveals tension and anxiety >School = hostile and defiant, alienating teachers and peers >As grow older, develop an angry self-reliance and cold, distant attitude toward other people >Parents = unresponsive 3. Secure children come from parents that are there for children >Parents = secure base/supportive/reliable Other Factors: >Interaction of: >>Parental (usually maternal) sensitivity >Early childhood experiences (e.g., poverty, parent abuse) >>ex: growing up in poverty, so far too much around for parent to comfort - develops self-soothing = avoidant style >>Genetics = parent sensitivity is part of it but not only thing >>Ongoing experiences

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Attachment Theory = Attachment Styles in Infancy- Mary Ainsworth What are the proposed factors contributing to the development of different attachment styles? >Including parents and beyond

1. Example behaviors specific to adults: >Mutual caregiving >Expressions of sexuality 2. Example behavior similar to children >Proximity maintenance and protest >>Clinging >>Crying >>Following >Caregiving >>Patting partner's head quietly >>Expressions of sexuality

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Attachment Theory = Attachment styles in Adulthood- 1. How is the attachment system in adulthood different from childhood? 2. How is the attachment system in adulthood similar to childhood? *Think about heterotypic continuity from our last unit*

Observationally - An Empirical Investigation (Longitudinal): >Followed 78 individuals from infancy to their early 20s >Classified as secure/insecure at 1 yr. old via Strange Situation Procedure >>Insecure = describe everything that is avoidant or anxious = not adaptive - can't be soothed once attachment system is established >Teacher rated social skills and relationships w/ peers in Grades 1, 2, & 3 >>Agreement w/ older kids' skills/relationships and how teachers would rate them >At age 16, participants rated their friendship security >>Target participants were asked to describe their close friendships, including whether and how they disclosed behaviors and feelings indicative of trust and authenticity w/in their close friendships >>The questions on which ratings were based included the degree to which the adolescent felt comfortable telling private things to close friends, how friends responded to such disclosures, and whether the adolescent felt "close" to friends ->degree to which could trust, how comfortable, how tell private things to them, and how friend responded - if felt safe to tell them >In early 20s, they were filmed engaging in a conflict discussion w/ their partner completed self-reports of emotions in their relationship in general >>Couples also completed a videotaped observational procedure in our laboratory that consisted of 2 interaction tasks: the Markman-Cox procedure and the Ideal Couple Q-Sort ->The Markman-Cox procedure is designed to elicit conflict btw. relationship in partners -->>In 1st phase of procedure, each partner completed a relationship problem inventory privately to identify and rate most important problems in relationship - know recurring issues -->>Each couple then reviewed inventories together and chose problems that caused most conflict in relationship -->>In 2nd phase, each couple was instructed to discuss problem and attempt to reach solution -->>During "cool down" phase, each couple then discussed areas on which agreed most in relationship (to bring them back down) --->>>couple coded how much shared positive affect, shared negative affect, conflict resolution, secure base behavior, amount of hostility /anger, degree to which observe conflicts affectively and how relate to people important in their lives

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Attachment Theory = Attachment styles in Adulthood- How has adult attachment been measured through surveys and observationally? >Observationally?

Surveys: >Avoidant = I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; I find it difficult to trust them completely, difficult to allow myself to depend on them. I am nervous when anyone gets too close, and often, love partners want me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being. >Anxious-ambivalent = I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I often worry that my partner doesn't really love me or won't want to stay with me. I want to get very close to my partner, and this sometimes scares people away. >Secure = I find it relatively easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending on them. I don't often worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too close to me.

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Attachment Theory = Attachment styles in Adulthood- How has adult attachment been measured through surveys and observationally? >Surveys?

1) Attachment style...predict... 2) Peer competence in early childhood... 3)Friendship security at 16 >Adolescence and the transition to young adulthood present a number of new challenges and opportunities that have the potential to not only confirm existing working models, but to recalibrate them as well 3) Friendship security @ 16...predicts... 4) Quality of romantic relationship in early 20s >Daily reports of emotions experienced in romantic relationships (reported by both target participants and their partners) as well as the expression of emotions (as rated by observers) during videotaped interaction tasks ** >Both experiences and expression of emotion in romantic relationships appear to be tied in significant and meaningful ways to experiences rooted in earlier relationships and stages of social development >Earlier developmental stages may have strongest and most directed impact on stages that immediately follow them >>Each transition point has ties where either confirm existing working models you have (existing anxious attachment style - in school you see people don't give you attention you need to feel secure and if experience this, then likely to continue later on but if you had poor relationship w/ parents but to made friends, then this means you may be able to change things (romantic relationships) based on repeated expectations or not confirm and turn a new leaf

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Attachment Theory = Attachment styles in Adulthood- What are the developmental experiences that determine adult attachment - how an indirect path has been proposed between the two?

How partner accessibility ("is partner leaving you?") relate to attachment behavior/attachment system: >Separating partners = more proximity maintenance behaviors (men and women) >>reluctant ot letting leave >Hypothesis: individuals who are separating will demonstrate more proximity-maintenance behaviors than individuals who aren't >>so, in many people, the attachment system was working as expected ->people were sad that their partner was leaving How relationship length related to attachment behavior: >less attachment behavior for longer relationships >association btw attachment behavior and relationship length held for separating and non-separating couples >>Hypothesis: attachment behavior should decrease when couples have been together longer ->happen lot of times so less upsetting >>attachment system deactivates a little b/c know partners are solid relationship

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Attachment Theory = Attachment styles in Adulthood- What did observers see in the *Airport Separations study*? Think about both the activation of the attachment system and how different attachment styles were expressed (behaviorally and via self-report) >Activation of the attachment system?

How attachment style relate to attachment behavior: >Avoidant women: >>Less likely to seek/maintain proximity to their partners, provide/seek care and support >>Used more withdrawal strategies (pulling away, not making eye contact) ->reinforced not dependent on partner >Anxious women: internal - didn't enact attachment anxiety but instead self-reports about distress and subjectively stressed out >>Only 1% of attachment behavior explained by attachment anxiety (consistent w/ prior research) >>Anxiety instead related to self reports of subjective distress >Avoidant men: only weakly negative relation w/ attachment behavior >Anxious men: anxiety accounted for some avoidance behavior >>weaker in men b/c of social expectations of gender roles >Avoidant individuals = fewer attachment behaviors when separating from partners Anxious individuals = more attachment behaviors when separating from partners

Attachment anxiety: >obsessed with their romantic partners - they think about them all the time and have trouble allowing them to have their own lives >suffer from extreme jealousy >report a high rate of relationship failures (not surprisingly) >sometimes exhibit a cycle of breaking up and getting back together with the same partner >tend to have low and unstable self-esteem, and they like to work with other people but typically feel unappreciated by coworkers >>cycle of breaking up and getting back together with same partner >like to work w/ other people but typically feel unappreciated by coworkers >highly emotional under stress and have to work hard to control their emotions >>describe their parents as having been intrusive, unfair, and inconsistent

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Attachment Theory = Attachment styles in Adulthood- What does it mean to be high in attachment avoidance or attachment anxiety as an adult - what does it "look like"? >Attachment anxiety?

Attachment avoidance: >relatively uninterested in romantic relationships; they are also more likely than secure individuals to have their relationships break up and grieve less after a relationship ends, even though they admit to being lonely >they like to work alone, and they sometimes use work as an excuse to detach from emotional relationships >they describe their parents as having been rejecting and cold, or else describe them in vaguely positive ways ("nice") without being able to provide specific examples >under stress, withdraw from their romantic partners and instead tend to cope by ignoring stress or denying it exists >those who were victims of sexual abuse in childhood tend to be unable to remember the experience 14 years later >do not often share personal info., and they dislike people who do >find responsiveness less attractive >>clingy = less attractive and look for people similarly avoidant b/c less risk and less likely to have to open up to them

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Attachment Theory = Attachment styles in Adulthood- What is the relationship between attachment styles and life/relationship outcomes?

1. Looked at this by focusing on creating surrogate mothers for monkeys >Raised w/out mothers >Wire mother w/ food >Cloth mother w/out food 2. Monkeys spent majority of time w/ cloth mother except when needed food >Stayed on cloth mother and momentarily got food by stretching enough to wire mother >>Creature comfort - basic love we have for parents as babies ->Attached to caregivers early on = not just food but emotional comfort 3. Cloth mother = secure base - if put monkey in scary environment, couldn't explore if wire mother there (b/c did not warmth and comfort but just food) and could explore/play if cloth mother was there b/c provided warmth and comfort and security

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Attachment Theory = The Attachment System- 1. What are the basic set-up and the experimental situations Harry Harlow's studies of monkeys? 2. How did Harry Harlow's studies of monkeys contribute to our understanding of "creature comfort" in the attachment system? 3. How did Harry Harlow's studies of monkeys idea of attachment system is functional both for infants' sense of security and exploration?

1. Separation anxiety is adaptive >Toddler freaks out when parent leaves - good for helpless creature to call out to parents to get help and security and love >>b/c need someone to protect you 2. (pg. 600) If an attachment system properly functions in infants, the child's attachments provide both a safe haven from danger and a secure base from which to explore in happier times. >If attachment figure (mom) is around, able to explore environment and remain calm = take in different sensations and objects in environment rather than preoccupied w/ safety and clinging to parents

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Attachment Theory = The Attachment System- >John Bowlby - 1. Why is the attachment system adaptive? 2. What does a properly-functioning attachment system look like in infants?

Konrad = studied how ducklings imprint on first parental figure they see and followed him around by being present 1st few days of life - depend on nurturance and food >children are predisposed to human faces - wiring to bond w/ mothers and drawn to them and vice versa b/c of stew of hormones = parents important early on b/c of emotional bond

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Attachment Theory = The Attachment System- >Konrad Lorenz and imprinting: What does it tell us about the mother-child bond?

1. Income related to high conscientiousness, high extraversion, and low agreeableness 2. Personality predicts outcome over and above SES

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Evidence relating Big Five to income- 1. What can the Big Five predict? Which traits have the greatest direct effect on higher income? 2. How does this compare to predictions from SES?

1. Related to greater job satisfaction, income, promotions 2. Why? >Outsourcing = C. spouses tend to handle household chores and planning if necessary so their partner (you) can focus more on job/have time to mentally recharge and unwind and prepare for next workday >Relationship satisfaction = more satisfied w/ marriages b/c less stress @ home and things are taken care of so can relax >Emulation = traits of C. spouse rubs off on partner - spending time getting things done so start to pick up on their habits and rise to meet where partner is at >>spouse "may upgrade you" like Michelle did for Obama

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Evidence relating Big Five to income- What is the impact of having a conscientious spouse on your own career success: know the reasons why these effects occur?

1. More extraverted, less agreeable, less open to experience overall (except: openness to feelings), and higher in achievement striving 2. More open, more extraverted, more conscientious, less agreeable, less emotionally vulenerable 3. Reasons adaptive: >Higher in achievement striving = Hardworking >Able to get their own way >In touch w/ their emotions = openness to feelings >Conventional and traditional in their moral views = less open to experience overall >Willing to take liberties w/ the truth and manipulate others >Have a good opinion of themselves

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Leadership- 1. How do the US Presidents' trait scores relate to the average person? 2. How do the greatest US Presidents' trait scores relate to the average US president? 3. Why are these adaptive for presidents?

1. Good Leader >Best predictor: High emotional stability (low neuroticism) >High conscientiousness >High extraversion >High openness 2. Reasons: >High emotional stability = managers who were calm and not anxious or depressed made better leaders b/c they will be less stressed under situations and be able to focus better without anxiety or depression >High conscientiousness b/c task-focused, hard worker, efficient, on-time, do things ahead of time, dedicated to job/employees/clients >High extraversion b/c good communication w/ employees and clients, make connections/relationships easier due to good social/speaking skills and energetic/positive demeanor >High openness b/c high creativity/inventiveness on projects, open to new ideas of employees, eager for new tasks

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Leadership- 1. How does the Big Five relate to leadership? 2. Why?

1. 3 Traits >Psychopathy = impulsive, emotionally cold, remorseless >Narcissism = perceived superiority, entitlement >Machiavellianism = manipulative, self-interested, domineering 2. Reasons: >Help them achieve organizations' goals, advantage in gaining power b/c will do no matter what to gain power/success/climb the ranks >They are ruthless and cunning

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Leadership- 1. How does the Dark Triad relate to leadership? 2. Why?

R = Realistic I = Investigative A = Artistic S = Social E = Enterprising C = Conventional >dimensions on opposite side of hexagon don't tend to correlate >>Investigative not w/ Enterprising >>Artistic not w/ Conventional >>Social not w/ Realistic >Realistic >>like work that includes practical, hands-on problems and answers, do not like careers that involve paperwork or working closely w/ others >>like working w/ plants and animals and real-work materials like wood, tools, and machinery, and doing outside work >>ex: Construction workers, police officer >Investigative >>like work that has to do w/ ideas and thinking rather than physical activity or leading people >>like searching for facts and figuring out problems >>ex: Engineering/science interests >Artistic >>like work that deals w/ artistic side of things, such as acting, music, art, and design >>like creativity in their work and work that can be done w/out following a set of rules >>ex: Musicians, architects, lawyers >Social >>like working w/ others to help them learn and grow and working w/ people more than working w/ objects, machines, or information >>ex: Social services, teachers >Enterprising >>like work that has to do w/ starting up and carrying out business projects and like taking action rather than thinking about things >>like persuading and leading people, making decisions, and taking risks for profits >>ex: Salesmen, entrepreneurs >Conventional >>like work that follows set procedures and routines and prefer working w/ information and paying attention to details rather than working w/ ideas >>like working w/ clear rules and following a strong leader >>ex: Accountant, office workers, people that work w/ spreadsheets and numbers (things rather than people)

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Vocational Interests- >What are the RIASEC dimensions? > What kinds of careers are they associated w/?

>Considerations: >>Personality- Social, Enterprising -> Extraversion; Conventional -> Openness, Conscientiousness; Artistic -> Openness; Investigative -> Openness; Realistic -> no consistent relations >>Maslow's hierarchy of needs- ->motivations for a job include salary, see jobs as respected and impactful (everyone wants to make a difference) ->if possible (if basic needs are met), they will seek an occupation where they can do more than make a living >There are outcomes that vocational interests won't predict. >>If interested in a hobby, such as hands-on projects, this does not mean there is a real reason to pursue this hobby as a future career. >>Things other than your interest may prevent your expression, such as income, ability, gender roles, cultural background. >>Person-environment fit and occupational outcomes- ->Person-organization fit: related to job turnover, task performance, organizational commitment behavior ->Person-major fit: related to academic outcomes like GPA ->Person-peer fit: related to interpersonal outcomes (helping behaviors) ->Self-determination theory

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Vocational Interests- >What other considerations besides vocational interests might determine the career that someone actually considers? >How should we think of the role of vocational interests in helping us to determine our future goals?

Like to work w/ the following: >Investigative and Artistic = ideas >Realistic = things >Conventional and Enterprising = data >Social = people

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Vocational Interests- How do the RIASEC dimensions connect w/ Ideas/Data vs. People/Things?

Vocational interests tend to be very stable over lifespan in comparison of personality traits >Stability during high school in vocational interests is higher than personality - more stable from year to year already at mid to late adolescents >Stability gets higher in college and peaks in early adulthood in VI >Not much data in later age in VI so not clear how stability in VI changes throughout lifespan >Start out as higher stability and stay more stable in vocational interests than personality Vocational interests are more stable than personality traits across the lifespan, and hit their peak of rank-order stability earlier than personality traits.

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: Vocational Interests- How does the stability of vocational interests compare to that of personality traits?

Basis for friendships: >HSM >>Shared situations, activity preferences ->ex: need tennis friend, so become close w/ them for that but different friend for concerts >LSM >>Shared values, attitudes similarity ->Values, not interests - deeper underlying similarities that go across situations = not willing to change what talk about or what interested in - don't tamp down true feelings about things

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: What are the relationships between self-monitoring and friendship outcomes? >Basis for friendship?

Agreeableness: >More likely to have friends they've known for a long time; more likely to have friends nearby; more likely to have family as friends (close family = friends) - smooth over conflicts >Have higher-quality friendships >>More cooperative and help someone when in need and high empathy >Larger social networks; more likely to be befriended by an extravert so less likely to initiate - get along w/ all types so larger social network

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: What are the relationships between the Big Five and friendship outcomes? >Think about the conceptual connections btw each trait and the outcome; it will help you to remember why each association exists >Agreeableness?

Conscientiousness: >Have higher quality friendships, better conflict management style >>Not as related b/c arises in work context and chores around home - not as related to friendships >>Better conflict management = the "parent" of the group = high in C. so better quality friendships

*Depth of convos.* >People who tend to spend more time in deep convos. have higher wellbeing Extraversion, Conversations, and Well-being >As trait extraversion increases, relationship decreases >>When get high on trait extraversion, correlation btw. depth and connectedness falls to 0 >>High extraversion doesn't relate to depth >>Low extraversion has strong relationship btw. depth of conversation and how feel connected to other people *Unless extreme extravert, then depth not is as important - tends to moderate relationship btw. 2 >EAR = external observers listening to recordings to see how deep they are

Extraversion: >Larger social networks; more likely to initiate friendship >Enjoy friendships more >>More positive affect and more reward w/ interactions of people >Less likely to have close friends who live far away, more likely to see their close friends often >>B/c like frequent interactions >Less likely to engage in "social surrogacy" - such as following celebrities >>Following celebrities or watching lot of TV shows/reading books w/ close relationships >>Replaces real people in here and now

Neuroticism: >More likely to engage in "social surrogacy": consume comfort food, spend time w/ pets, watch mew episodes of favorite TV shows >>Comfort feelings from friends through food and other things instead of reacting w/ people in real time ->Safe way w/out possibility of rejection -->>High in social anxiety and cues of rejection so effort to find comfort and connectedness >Lower relationships quality, more conflict, more problematic style >>Traits of depression - take things negatively instead of see best in people's intentions

Openness: >Friendships are less traditions- >>Have close friends who live further away, are more recent acquaintances ->Due to traveling or they themselves tend to move around a lot b/c open to doing different things >>Keep less contact w/ close friends ->Due to being on the move b/c of adventurous personality >>Have friends who differ in gender and race ->Due to being open to different kinds of people and relationships -->>Easier to conceptualize as friend even tho. only see once in a while >>Larger social networks = due to message boards

People high in dispositional contempt have worse romantic relationships, reported by both themselves and by their partner; same for people high in rejection sensitivity >Dispositional contempt = people who tend to criticize others are not as satisfied >Rejection sensitivity = 1) enter conversation to look for any hint to be rejected -> detrimental b/c more reactionary when not supposed to be taking that way - self-fulfilling prophecy >>Important to focus in therapy if want long-term relationships

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: What is the role of dispositional contempt and rejection sensitivity between personality and romantic relationships?

HSM: >Date more people; shorter relationships >>More alternatives - here and now, what works best in moment >Better flirts; may exaggerate/lie more >>Exaggerate or lie on data - adjust to person >More willing to spend time w/ people outside of the relationship >>Got friends for everything - sports friends, music friends ->"you are a section of my relationships" - not most important part of relationships LSM: >Date fewer people; longer relationships >>Fewer people over time

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: What is the role of self-monitoring between personality and romantic relationships? >How do they date?

HSM: >As a "game"; less committed to 1 person >>Less commitment and more flexible and have shorter relationships LSM: >As an emotionally profound experience

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: What is the role of self-monitoring between personality and romantic relationships? >How do they view love and relationships?

HSM: >More likely to get divorced LSM: >Less likely to get divorced *No evidence for "birds of a feather" theory in marriage*

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: What is the role of self-monitoring between personality and romantic relationships? >Implications for marriage?

HSM: >"Exterior" concerns - attractiveness, social status, financial resources, sex appeal LSM: >"Internal" concerns - personality desirability, honesty, responsibility, similarity of values and beliefs >>Internal characteristics

Ch. 16 - Personality and Relationships: What is the role of self-monitoring between personality and romantic relationships? >What do they prioritize in potential romantic matches?

1. Empirical evidence rather than clinical expertise 2. Used to be lot of people thrown into this category 3. Now these people can be specified by particular tendencies that are causing them problems in their lives >doesn't meet criteria of all clinical expertise so look at personality defined model >>personality disorder trait-specified ->Ross not having self-harm, substance abuse

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Characteristics of the disorders- 1. What is the main way in which the assessment for Personality disorder - Trait Specified differs from the assessments for the main personality disorders 2. What problem was it intended to fix? 3. When might a clinician use it?

1. More and less ego-syntonic: >Schizotypal = more ego-syntonic >Narcissistic = more ego-syntonic >Antisocial = more ego-syntonic >Obsessive-compulsive = more ego-syntonic >Borderline = more ego-dystonic >Avoidant = more ego-dystonic 2. Affect others more than the individual themselves >Narcissistic and antisocial >Other PDs affect individual themselves more than others

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Characteristics of the disorders- 1. Which personality disorders are more and less ego-syntonic? 2. Which personality disorders affect others more than the individual themselves?

1. Core themes: >Mindfulness = being aware of present moment w/out judgment and acknowledge emotions >Emotion regulation = understanding and reducing vulnerability to emotions, changing unwanted emotions >Interpersonal effectiveness = getting interpersonal objectives met, maintaining relationships, and increasing self-respect in relationships; express needs, hear other people instead of overwhelming them w/ what self is feeling >Distress tolerance = getting through crisis situations w/out making things worse and accepting reality as it is; objective statements about what is happening - objective reality rather than emotional reaction to it 2. In individual and group sessions, therapist and client closely examine past episodes of inappropriate emotional reactions and analyze how similar situations could be handled better next time >Works b/c it is basic training in how to deal w/ emotions, which is a skill people w/ BPD never learned

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Characteristics of the disorders- Extras about BPD= 1. What are the core themes of dialectical behavior therapy? 2. Why does it work for people w/ BPD in particular?

1. Self-harm >8-10% kill themselves >don't understand their actions 2. Emotional instability >Person's mood rapidly changes from one moment to next and may seem on verge of going to pieces 3. Do not know who they are >Confused about career goals, values, and sexual identity 4. Interpersonal relationships are confusing, chaotic, noisy, unpredictable, and unstable >b/c prone to splitting

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Characteristics of the disorders- Extras about BPD= What are the outcomes associated w/ borderline personality disorder?

>OCD = ego-dystonic -> repetitive intrusive thoughts and compulsions b/c of intrusive/obsessive thoughts >>Terrorized by thoughts and want fix >OCPD = like organizing things even if causes problems >>Like what they do

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Characteristics of the disorders- Extras about OCPD= How is OCPD distinct from OCD?

APD adaptive in certain settings: >Diagnosed in people who are poor and commit criminal activities = associated w/ poverty - adaptive to be deceitful and manipulative if think wronged by society so can survive (pulled into gangs bc don't have much and this is a way for people to get along/get by)

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Characteristics of the disorders- Extras about antisocial PD= How does antisocial personality disorder (APD) demonstrate problems w/ distinguishing normal/adaptive from abnormal/maladaptive due to its relationship w/ SES?

>Deceitful, manipulative >Impulsive >Irritable, aggressive -> mean to other people >Engage in many illegal activities >>A lot of people in prison diagnosed w/ this >Distinct from psychopathy (psychopathy has more emphasis on the interpersonal aspects: callous, cold behavior) >>Most psychopaths meet the criteria for APD; the reverse is not true ->Psychopathy: lack of emotion, socially dominant in way of behaving, rise to power >Bad Five? >>Antagonism (manipulativeness, callousness, deceitfulness, hostility) >>Disinhibition (risk-taking, impulsivity, irresponsibility) >Psychopathy is a *specifier* (a distinct variant of APD): >>Lack of anxiety or fear (low in Negative Affectivity) >>Low in withdrawal (low in Detachment) >>High in attention-seeking (high in Antagonism) >APD adaptive in certain settings? >>Diagnosed in people who are poor and commitment criminal activities = associated w/ poverty-adaptive to be deceitful and manipulative if think wronged by society so can survive (pulled into gangs b/c don't have much and this is a way for people to get along/get by)

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Characteristics of the disorders- What are the characteristics of Antisocial Personality Disorder?

>Emotional instability >Unstable/confused behavior >Poor sense of identity >>Not knowing who they are and going from thing to thing and not comfortable in own skin >Tendency to self-harm = interrupts negative cascade of emotions; overwhelm w/ different kind of sensation >>8-10% die by suicide >Can't handle the slightest interpersonal disappointment >Prone to "splitting"; view people as all good or all bad >>friend being separated in crowd = terrified to lose person and wanted them back but when back, was very upset w/ them (resentment) >Prone to substance abuse (2/3 of people w/ BPD have abused substances at some point in their lives: alcohol and opioids) = related to disinhibition >Bad Five? >>Negative affectivity (emotional lability = emotions tend to change a lot, anxiousness, separation insecurity, depressivity) ->*Negative affectivity = most salient aspect in personality >>Disinhibition (impulsivity, risk-taking) >>Antagonism (hostility) ->abandonment = cut people off if feel wronged (had friend for 5 years = success b/c usually 2 year mark is when something happens and can't tolerate it so they cut them off as friends) >Dialectical behavioral therapy may help

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Characteristics of the disorders- What are the characteristics of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)?

>Ego-syntonic = people who have personality disorders do not think anything is wrong; in sync w/ sense of identity - it feels like you/you are ok w/ it/natural sense of self >>don't want to change part of them >Ego-dystonic = people who suffer from others kinds of mental disorders generally experience their symptoms of confusion, depression, or anxiety - afflictions they would like to be cured >>ex: people w/ depression are distressed by it and don't want to feel badly about themselves - doesn't feel like the self they know

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Issues of classification and diagnosis- Understand what is unique about personality disorders, compared to other psychological disorder= What is the difference between ego-syntonic and ego-dystonic, and what are the implications that these terms have for personality disorders vs. other disorders?

>Belief of being superior, self-important >Excessive bragging >Expectation of special treatment, sense of entitlement >>Get upset if people don't recognize how special they are and deserve more than the average person >Exploitation of others (b/c they aren't important as they are) >Lack of empathy >>Thinking about themselves and not trying to invest time in others' experiences >Arrogant, rude >Ego-syntonic = believe you are the best and no one can tell you others so it is problematic >Bad Five? = Antagonism (grandiosity, attention seeking) >Cross-sectional rather than longitudinal = social media >>correlational research b/c hard to assign people to use social media in a natural way ->Narcissism is not making us more narcissistic but rather just expressing those that are more narcissistic before use of social media >Diagnosis is rare b/c have to be very extreme in Antagonism and Narcissism; less common for it to impair personality functioning levels - is it so continuous that it is deeply affecting people around them - abusing others in relationship -->>Narcissism is very common; extreme levels to point of NPD is rare >Q: Are narcissists happy? >>A: Only @ moderate levels of narcissism, so, not NPD

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Characteristics of the disorders- What are the characteristics of Narcissistic Personality Disorder?

>Rigid perfectionism (extreme Conscientiousness) = feel nothing is good enough >Negative affectivity (perseveration) >Detachment (intimacy avoidance, restricted affectivity) >>act black and white to people -> problems w/ relationships >SSRIs may help (hints @ possibility of depression/anxiety/general unhappiness) >How might be useful? - *connection to Freudian personality type* >>Fixation @ Anal psychosexual stage so have anal personality = extremely obsessed w/ order >Critical of others = others can't meet their standards >>problems w/ intimacy

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Characteristics of the disorders- What are the characteristics of Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder?

>Strange ideas >Unconventional behaviors >Superstitious beliefs >Conspiracy theories >Related schizophrenia >>not every person w/ SPD has schizophrenia (schizophrenia = more sudden onset than SPD and SPD is less severe compared to schizophrenia) >Bad Five? >>Psychoticism (cognitive and perceptual disregulation, unusual beliefs, and experiences, eccentricity) -> extreme openness = break from reality >>Detachment (restricted affectivity, withdrawal, suspiciousness) ->if have beliefs different from most people think - gov't. out to get us, so don't use certain public facilities and can't let it go or talk to people about lives = have trouble maintaining relationships) >Difficult to treat b/c beliefs are deep-rooted

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Characteristics of the disorders- What are the characteristics of Schizotypal Personality Disorder?

>Their fear of failure, criticism, or rejection may lead them to avoid normal activities of school, work, and interactions w/ others >expect the absolute worst: criticism, contempt, and rejection >cannot join a group activity or have a relationship w/out constant reassurance that they will be uncritically accepted, and they may actively inhibit any emotional expression b/c they fear being mocked and rejected >result: others cannot get close to them, and their interpersonal world is constricted >>it is safer to stay at home w/ the blinds pulled and the phone turned off >have deep craving for affection and social acceptance and spend much of solitary time fantasizing about how much fun it would be to have friends or a lover >trouble in careers b/c they try to avoid meetings and social functions that are important for success in business world

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Characteristics of the disorders- What are the characteristics of avoidant personality disorder?

1. Define: >Unusually extreme >and problematic >Social, >stable, >and (often) ego-syntonic 2. Unusually extreme and problematic: Normal- >Having narcissism is something that anybody may have but everyone is at different levels Abnormal- >Narcissism only reaches personality disorder if have extreme levels of narcissism and becomes then problematic b/c difficult to work w/ b/c think you are always right and won't let any other idea be used so difficult in group settings b/c attention is about you >>Abnormal = a. extreme when deny reality - deny that some people are trustworthy, that other people are worthy of respect, or even that oneself is actually, potentially loveable *Stems from a denial or distortion of reality* b. Extreme behavior causes problems for person or others - suffering (anxiety, depression, confusion)

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Issues of classification and diagnosis- 1. How do clinicians define personality disorders? (5) 2. How do they decide what is "normal" vs. "abnormal" in any given situation? *(pg. 623-624, 641-642)*

1. >Negative affectivity = extremely high neuroticism >Detachment = extremely low extraversion >Antagonism = extremely low agreeableness >Disinhibition = extremely low conscientiousness >Psychoticism = extremely high openness 2. Bad 5 and Personality Disorders >Schizotypal Personality Disorder >>Psychoticism and Detachment >Narcissistic Personality Disorder >>Antagonism >Antisocial Personality Disorder >>Antagonism and Disinhibition >>Psychopathy = a specifier (distinct variant of APD) ->lack of anxiety (low in Negative Affectivity) ->low in withdrawal (low in Detachment) ->high in attention-seeking (high in antagonism) >Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder >>Reverse Disinhibition = rigid perfectionism >>Negative Affectivity = perseveration >>Detachment >Borderline Personality Disorder >>Negative Affectivity >>Disinhibition >>Antagonism

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Issues of classification and diagnosis- The Bad Five= 1. What are they and how do they relate conceptually to the Big Five? 2. How does the Bad Five apply to the personality disorders based on understanding of personality disorders?

>NPD: >>Informant Report is higher than Self Report b/c partner picks up on narcissism more than the individual w/ NPD ->Individual reporting it, but partner reports it higher ->Affecting partners of narcissistic personality disorder ->important for multiple perspectives = socially situated >BPD: >>Informant Report is reporting higher level of symptoms at lower level of intensity >>Self Report (individual w/ BPD) takes a little longer to see that they have trait to point at which report it when gets to extreme levels of

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Issues of classification and diagnosis- Understand that "I data" is often collected when diagnosing personality disorders, which is uncommon for other disorders >Know, generally, how to interpret the charts displayed in lecture for both NPD and BPD, about identification of symptoms from targets and informants, and what they tell us about these disorders=

1. Characteristics: a. a fundamentally wrong idea that the person has somehow made the foundation of how s/he views the world b. a strategy or style of behavior for dealing w/ the world that results from this wrong idea 2. Criteria >Criterion A: level of personality functioning - self and interpersonal >Criterion B: pathological personality traits >Criterion C: inflexible and pervasive across a broad range of personal and social situations >>PDs like personality traits >Criterion D: relatively stable across time; onset can be traced back to at least adolescence or early adulthood >Criterion E: not better explained by another mental disorder >>Differential diagnosis that clinician would do >Criterion F: not attributable to the effects of a substance or other medical condition >>Always want to know if person's personality changed drastically b/c of medical issues or substances are drastically changing behavior >Criterion G: not better understood as normal for an individual's developmental stage or sociocultural environment >>Have to make sure not normal for sociocultural environment - eastern cultures are more "passive" to Americans

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Issues of classification and diagnosis- Understand what is unique about personality disorders, compared to other psychological disorders= 1. What are the characteristics that apply to many personality disorders? 2. What is the criteria that must be ruled out in order for them to be diagnosed?

1. Self = stable sense >Identity = probably where person is not able to experience selves as unique >Self-direction = identity and pursue meaningful goals and achieve them, self-reflection, assess what you are going to do to have purpose >>ex: someone super high in narcissism doesn't have this self-direction problem b/c focused on self but interpersonal might be taking a hit b/c not focused on others 2. Interpersonal = is it causing problems w/ having close relationships w/ others >Empathy = on either end, lot of: overwhelmed w/ feeling so in tune w/ others' emotions that you can't separate from self; not being able to appreciate others' experiences or understand feelings >Intimacy = developing close relationships; relationships are a 2-way street and put effort into relationship, see as reciprocal and as a person

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Issues of classification and diagnosis- Understand what is unique about personality disorders, compared to other psychological disorders= What are the 2 major components clinicians assess when determining level of personality functioning?

** 1. >Benefits of categorical = helps us understand what most salient issues are for 1 individual >Drawbacks of categorical = is it useful to characterize someone in terms of having 1 personality disorder when they have a lot of symptoms of other disorders 2. Benefits of dimensional = now people in category of "personality disorder, not otherwise specified" can be specified by particular tendencies that are causing them problems in their lives

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Issues of classification and disorders- What are the benefits and drawbacks to using: 1. a categorical system for classifying personality disorders? 2. a dimensional system for classifying personality disorders?

Battle of 1) clinical expertise vs. 2) empirical evidence: 1) Clinicians- who work w/ people w/ personality disorders tend to see certain categories of people and these categories make sense and see people that they can instantly classify as having narcissistic personality disorder - tend to hang together as characteristics 2) Empirical evidence: others coming out that a lot of the time that they aren't super reliable categories >people may qualify for a few different symptoms of many different personality disorders if qualify for 1 personality disorder, tend to qualify for another 1 b/c there is an overlap of characteristics of different personality disorders >>so, they ended up keeping many of categories but also producing a new dimensional system in which categorize people as having certain traits even if they couldn't put them in a certain category

Ch. 17 - Personality Disorders: Issues of classification and disorders- What is the debate over personality disorders that led to an additional way of classifying disorders in the DSM-5?

Personality studies patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion over period of time >These patterns cause cumulative effects of bad habits >>ex: eating cheeseburgers all the time ->going to add up = consistent behavior tendency >>ex: smoking

Ch. 17 - Personality and Health: Why is personality uniquely good at predicting health outcomes?

>On another level, it is difficult to specify the ways in which thought processes in one culture may differ from those in another, so research attempting to do this opens an exciting new frontier in psychology that has important and controversial implications >Need more research from a less ethnocentric point of view >>Rely on Western culture to generalize personality research, especially w/ increasing technology **pg. 492-493** **Implications: >Spanish = 1) Openness also included terms like gossipy or nosy, so low O meant close-minded or narrow-minded and only concerned w/ gossipy/nosy things 2) Temperance = emotional and behavioral - orderly/punctual - control (relaxed and traditional - this is usually something grouped w/ Openness = people in Spanish culture don't see being open-minded and artistic as opposite of being traditional/conventional but more as temperance idea) >>brings up idea of social connotations w/ conscientiousness b/c of interpersonal/collective culture 3) Pleasantness >people who pull pranks, shrewd, and rascally (not just extraversion) >>Spaniards attach positive emotional value to prankish values - interpersonal connections like charm 4) Negative Valence >>Moral dimension of how treat other people - do not see moral dimension of Big Five in US ->could see morality in agreeableness but low agreeableness does not mean you are immoral but just more likely to conflict w/ others and cause arguments >Chinese = 1) Unselfishness, Harmfulness, Gentle temper, and Dependence/fragility >Tsimane = 1) Less industrialized and more remote area of Brazil - organized around foraging and farming 2)Prosociality and Industriousness >>Prosociality = mix of A & E & being ingenious and original means that being more prosocial means being more creative >>Industriousness = C & energetic reflects idea that this quality in context of subsistence labor is important as well as reliability b/c of providing for families concept ->reflects ecological and socioecological characteristics common to small-scale societies -->>reduced choice in sexual partners and limited number of careers - limited amount of success w/ career options -->>>success means providing as well as being a leader to ensure benefit of such societies -->>Personal achievement is deemphasized (E & A hang together b/c if leading everyone, people that are most E & A are higher on Prosociality and these are characteristics of leaders that aren't present of leaders in the West - benevolent factors are better in small-scale societies = idea of being cooperative)

Emic approach - understand examples used in class and what they imply about those cultures= Understand examples used in class and what they imply about those cultures: Spanish "Big Seven," Chinese seven factors, Tsimane two factors

Cognitive-affective personality system (CAPS)

a model of personality that organizes five "person variables" that account for how a person might respond to a particular situation; the dynamic interplay among these five factors, together with the characteristics of the situation, accounts for individual differences between people, as well as differences in people's behavior across different situations; not much consistency in behavior that is determined by personality (can't predict how act based on personality) >not that personality doesn't exist - just not looking at it in enough detail based on Kelly's personal construct theory = phenomenological ideas we have when approach situations the most important aspect of the many systems of personality and cognition is their interaction >these cognitions and emotions interact in response to situational cues >>person-situation

Etic approach

approach of cross-cultural psychology; search for universal components - "imposed" >using same assessment of 1 country and imposing it on other cultures >use measures developed in 1 culture to assess differences in personality in other countries like the Big 5

Emic approach

approach of cultural psychology; search for unique aspects - "indigenous"; search for individual aspects >what arises from culture that is unique to that culture >what is important to them, how do characterize each other, and not only traits used to describe each other, but how they are related to well-being

Tightness-looseness

dimension on which cultures differ that refers to degree of pressure to follow detailed behavioral norms

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