Ch. 5: Written & Oral Communication

To answer their research questions, students should be

encouraged to be well organized, thoughtful, and creative when gathering and organizing information. Resources for finding answers to their research questions might include informational books, magazines, journal or newspaper articles, essays, primary or secondary sources, almanacs, encyclopedias, dictionaries, thesauri, databases, videotapes, and approved websites. Students can also gather research from interviews, experiments, surveys, personal experiences, and anecdotes. Students should be encouraged to use at least three different sources of information and record their information on data charts or data cards. Next, they summarize and copy key ideas onto note cards and search for ways to sequence the information in their rough drafts.

The English spelling system is alphabetic and is represented by

letter-sound relationships, letter patterns, and groups of letters that have particular meanings. Spelling patterns are created by combinations of consonants and vowels and include consonant blends, digraphs, and diphthongs. These phonetic patterns make single syllable words that follow spelling regularities and some irregularities. Single syllable words can be combined to make compound words or serve as base words. Prefixes and suffixes can be added to base words to create words with new meanings. (See Table 5.1) Some prefixes and suffixes are simply added to word parts to create a new word, e.g., re-cognize, ex-plode, or ex-plore.

Body

main part of the composition. It explains the subject in detail and directly addresses the purpose of the writing. The main points should be clearly identified and supported by details. The main ideas should be sequenced to create a logical flow. Accuracy is critical, as students should be able to ensure that the points they make are supported by reliable evidence. Details and descriptive sentences are written in such a way as to make the composition interesting

Stage 1: Prewriting

The getting-ready-to-write stage, prewriting, covers everything a writer does before starting a rough draft. 1. Begin with a purpose. The first question students answer is, "Why am I writing? What is my purpose?" Examples of functions or purposes for composition writing include narrative, expository, descriptive, or persuasive writing.

Nonverbal behaviors are

Eye contact or eye gazing Facial expressions Gestures, posture, body orientation, including the way we walk, stand, sit, and what we do with our shoulders, hands, arms and legs Proximity alludes to the space between presenters and audiences. People vary on how much space is appropriate; but teachers, for example, can pick up on nonverbal signs students may give out if they are standing too close. Tone of voice, which includes rhythm, pitch, and intensity

As students get older they will be ready to learn how spellings of words are influenced by their origins. Many English words are derived from Greek and Latin roots. Recognizing the derivations of words not only provides a clue to their meaning but also

assists students in learning how to change the spelling of a word to fit the new prefix or ending.

interpersonal communication

the exchange of thoughts, feelings, and beliefs between two or more people

informal language

the language of everyday speech, may use contractions and slang

spelling

using the correct arrangement of letters when writing a word.

Some writing examples:

-Narrative writing requires students to retell familiar stories, write sequels or new episodes for favorite characters, or compose original stories (Tompkins, 2008). Narrative writing may be entertaining or enlightening, fictitious or true. -Expository writing requires students to explain or share information in reports, posters, diagrams, or charts. -Descriptive writing requires students to create a vivid impression of a person, place, or event by painting a picture of it with words, creating a sensory image for readers. Descriptive writing can be used in all genres of writing, including stories and poetry. -Persuasive writing requires students to express an opinion, argue a point, or influence a belief. While a persuasive writing piece might present other viewpoints, it always supports the logic of an argument with evidence and is meant to sway the opinion of readers.

There are many possibilities for sharing students' written pieces, including

-Reading it aloud to the class or to other classes -Posting it on a bulletin board -Submitting it for publication in a class/school newspaper or magazine -Placing it on a blog or web site -Making it into a book for keeping in the classroom or school library -Contributing to a class anthology Offering it to a local newspaper -Sharing it with parents and siblings

other forms of revision:

-Substitutions: Students replace sentences to avoid redundancy or to clarify ideas that are unclear. -Deletions: Students may cut sentences or paragraphs to delete information that is unnecessary, such as details that lead the reader away from the main point of the story or discussion. -Moves: Students may reposition some sentences to better organize the sequence of the writing and improve its flow.

Identify the topic

.topics should be chosen by the presenter. Students who choose their own topic for a presentation will be more motivated to prepare it and will be more passionate in supporting their position. If the need for the presentation is content-specific, teachers can provide a list of suggested topics from which students can choose and thus ensure that the topics are not too broad or too narrow for students' research. After students narrow their topic choices, teachers can direct students to generate a list of questions they might have about a topic, which will help students come close to finalizing their speaking topic. Before settling on a specific presentation topic, students will want to acknowledge the needs of the audience (see below). Satisfying audience needs should help students further refine the topic, the questions they will answer in their presentation, and the best form of delivery.

In addition to conducting research, students should rehearse organizing their thoughts about their writing before they begin to write by engaging in one of the following activities:

1) Brainstorming: Brainstorming is an effective activity to generate many new ideas or solutions to problems. Brainstorming can be carried out in groups or by individuals. Students start by jotting down as many ideas on their topic as possible. They should not be afraid to sound silly, every idea should be recorded. The strange or irrelevant ideas can be eliminated.

Free writing

A writing activity where the focus is on flow of ideas without concern for language accuracy .

On the basis of this feedback, students make either or all of four types of revisions:

Additions: Students look for ways they can add missing information necessary to help readers understand what is written or improve word choice. They may replace words with synonyms to add interest or avoid redundancy. They may add sentences or paragraphs to vary the length of sentences or include information that creates smooth transitions from one shared idea to another.

A presentation outline should have three basic parts that mirror a written composition:

An introduction where the presenter uses an anecdote or other "hook" to pique the audience's interest. The introduction should also briefly tell what the speech will be about. The body that identifies key talking points with supported ideas. A conclusion that draws everything together. Speeches or other kinds of oral presentations begin by telling the audience what the presenter is going to talk about, then it talks about it, and finally it tells the audience what they have just heard.

Punctuation rules can be tricky, even for experienced writers. Here are some that elementary school teachers typically teach:

Apostrophe: To show possession, to take the place of missing letters in contractions, and to form the plurals of letters and numerals. Colon: After the greeting in a business letter, to introduce a list, or to introduce a direct quotation. Commas: For many purposes, including to separate three or more items in a list; separate adjectives that modify the same noun; between a city and a state; between the day and year in a date; after the greeting and closing of a friendly letter; after introductory words or mild interjections at the beginning of a sentence; to set off the name of the person you're speaking to; in front of a short, direct quotation in the middle of a sentence. Dash: To separate and stress elements in a sentence, after an interrupted or unfinished statement of thought, or to introduce a list of items. Ellipsis: Three dots in a row to replace words that have been left out. Exclamation point: After strong interjections, exclamatory sentences, and strong imperative sentences. Hyphen: To break a word between syllables at the end of a line, in two-part numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine, in spelled-out fractions, and in some compound nouns and adjectives. Period: At the end of declarative sentences and after most initials and abbreviations. Quotation marks: Before and after a direct quotation, in writing dialog, or to set off words or phrases used in a special way. Question marks: At the end of an interrogative sentence

Not all sources are considered reliable. Students should answer the following questions or use the following suggestions to ensure their sources are trustworthy.

Are the sources written by an author who is respected in their field of study? Are the author's points of view neutral or objective? Is the author advocating only one point of view? What types of sources will your audience value? Never use Internet sources unless the author can be validated or the site is affiliated with a reputable institution. Government sources, a respected university, a reliable media outlet, or a well-known nongovernment organization are reliable online sources. Do not cite online sites where anyone can add or change content, e.g., Wikipedia.

Modes of Communication

Communication occurs on three general levels: the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and academic levels. Intrapersonal communication is communicating with oneself. It encompasses such activities as thought processing, personal decision making, self-talk, listening, and determining self-concept. Interpersonal communication refers to communication that takes place between two or more persons who establish a communicative relationship. Forms of interpersonal communication include face-to-face or mediated conversations, interviews, and small-group discussions. Academic communication is formal classroom talk intended to inform or persuade.

Use of technology

Computer programs and hardware can be used effectively as a tool to help students create their stories, informational reports, and other kinds of writing. Technology can greatly simplify the work associated with each stage of the writing process, through the use of word processing programs, podcasts, blogs, social networking, Skype, PowerPoint, WebQuests, Smartboards, spreadsheet programs, drawing programs, clip art, digital cameras, or scanners. Teachers can direct students to use technology for creating or publishing their finished products.

other academic communication includes:

Discussing the plot of a literary work (e.g., Johnny Tremain, A Wrinkle in Time, Flotsam, or When You Reach Me) Engaging in predicting, inferring, questioning, summarizing, or evaluating Solving a math problem Working in a collaborative group (e.g., to engage in reciprocal teaching or another shared learning strategy) Analyzing persuasive techniques used in television commercials Summarizing a story, a science experiment, a movie, a television show, and so on Attending as the teacher uses explicit instruction to teach a skill or concept Determining the causes and effects of human events (e.g., homelessness, poverty, hunger, or war) Using the scientific method of inquiry

Core Content: Spelling, Capitalization, Punctuation, Grammar and Word Usage

For many students, speech and informal writing flow as a natural partnership. When it comes to formal writing and speaking, however, students often must be helped to learn the structure of language, the mechanics of expression, and appropriate language usage (Milner & Milner, 2008). The structure of language is grammar. The mechanics of expression reference spelling and punctuation. Language usage relates to Standard American English conventions accepted as correct. Grammar, spelling, punctuation, and the correct usage of language build a foundation for learning to write and speak well. Learning to write and speak well is at the foundation of effective communication. Students will learn some conventions of Standard American English through reading and speaking with people who are articulate. However, most students must be taught how to recognize and correctly use parts of speech, capitalization, and rules that govern punctuation usage.

grammar

Grammar, or parts of speech, if formally taught to elementary students in grades three through six

Some positive forms of positive body language demonstrated by teachers include

Intensifying your body movements somewhat when talking to the class in an effort to capture and hold the students' attention or to emphasize important points. Becoming overly dramatic, though, can distract from what the teacher is saying. Taking a few steps toward the child who is talking to you to indicate that you have a sincere interest in what is being said Smiling, winking, or nodding with appreciation when a child is speaking. Smiling can be an especially powerful nonverbal signal; it sends a message that the teacher is happy and optimistic. However, teachers should try not to smile until it exhausts them, as their students can get the impression the teacher is desperate to win their approval. Maintaining eye contact with a child who is speaking Moving around the room during a class discussion so that everyone feels involved Avoiding closed body language, such as standing behind a desk or giving the "self-hug" (when one arm is on a teacher's side and the other arm is clutching that elbow) Avoiding physical signals that can send mixed messages—for example, constantly checking the time as a child is talking or correcting paperwork while a group is presenting a dramatic skit

Common Student Errors: At the elementary level, teachers should familiarize themselves with the following common student errors.

Lack of subject/verb agreement: The pair of goats are eating grass. Pronoun agreement error: Everyone must take his own turn. Verb tense errors: My family and I just move to California; I have broke off our relationship. Run-on sentence or comma splice: My friend John is a good golfer, he's best at putting. Sentence fragments: Instead of going to school. Misuse of apostrophe: The dog is wagging it's tail. Comma error: Because, it is cold I will not go swimming today. Word usage error: affect-effect; than-then; their-there-they're; your-you're; to-two-too.

Teachers often ask questions or otherwise carefully plan for academic communication that promotes learning. During an academic conversation teachers assess whether students:

Look at their classmates and teacher as they talk with them. Call their classmates and teacher by their preferred names. Listen carefully to the comments of others; ask questions, seek clarification, and offer constructive feedback. Take turns. Share existing knowledge as the conversation unfolds. Support answers, arguments, and suggestions with sound reasons. Stay on task.

Some instances where academic communication could be employed in elementary school classrooms include

Making a data retrieval chart such as a Venn diagram or K-W-L chart Designing a thematic mural or bulletin board display Planning and completing a written or oral report Composing questions for an interview (e.g., career professional, a war veteran, school administrator, famous author or illustrator, or a parent)

Speaking functions might include

Narrations. Narrations involve storytelling, which can take forms such as the retelling of familiar stories; sequels or new episodes of stories that elaborate on favorite characters; or original stories. Narratives may be entertaining or enlightening, fictitious or true. Expository speaking. Expository speaking asks students to explain or share information. Persuasive speeches. Persuasive speeches ask students to express an opinion, argue a point, or influence a belief. Students would present other viewpoints and support the logic of their argument with credible evidence. Persuasive speeches are meant to sway the opinion of audiences.

Besides adding prefixes and suffixes, words can also be altered to create

Plural meanings, past tense verbs, or infinitives. Altering words to add endings may mean doubling a consonant, dropping an e or y, or otherwise changing the word ending to correctly spell the new word.

Capitalization: Some common capitalization rules that elementary school teachers typically teach include the following

Proper nouns such as the names of people, organizations, places and the official title of a person Initials The first word and the important words in titles of books, articles, films, plays, and musical works The first word of a sentence The first word of a quoted sentence The first line of a poem The pronoun I The first word of a salutation and closing of a letter or email The first letter of the days of the week, months of the year, and holidays The names of countries, continents, nationalities, races, languages, and religions North, South, East, and West when used as parts of the country, but not as compass directions

Core Content: Elements of Effective Writing and Speaking

Register, or social variation, is the level of formality used when speaking or writing formal language, familiar language, or slang. It deals with the kind of language a person uses in particular social settings. In order to communicate effectively, language has to be appropriate to the individuals speaking and hearing it, and it also must match particular occasions and situations. For example, students talking to one another in a social setting would not use the same style of language as when engaged in an academic classroom discussion. Students—and teachers—adjust their style of speaking, or register, to fit the setting. People learn to adjust their language, depending upon whom they are speaking with and the environment they are in.

Stage 3: Revising

Something from a fresh, critical perspective and to see if the language and tone are consistent. When students revise their work, they make "big picture" changes. Experienced writers know that when they are unsure about their developing ideas, it is helpful to show their writing to someone else. Students do this by meeting with two or more peers or in writing groups; quality seems to improve more after receiving several opinions rather than one. Students can take turns reading their rough drafts aloud while their classmates listen and respond—offering both compliments and suggestions for revision. Reading a composition aloud and struggling over some awkward sentences or wording often points out to the writer where a reader might stumble.

5. Outline the content

Students can use their data cards to plan their outline. Ordering the cards should determine a logical and sequential presentation. It should also identify gaps that need to be filled. For example, main points may need to be supported by more detail or persuasive evidence may need to be stronger. Persuasive presentations will also require presenting other points of view, so checking for that information will be important as well.

4. Gather and organize ideas:

Students have identified their topic, generated a list of research questions, and aligned them with the needs of their audience, it will be time to gather and organize ideas that will inform their oral presentation. The purpose of gathering information is to be sure that the ideas presented can be supported with facts. Similar resources can be used for writing research (informational books, magazines, newspapers, encyclopedias, videotapes, DVDs, and approved websites) but resources should also include firsthand evidence from interviews with real people to gather anecdotes or other personal or interesting information. While they gather source information, emphasize to students the need to align each fact they gather to the specific source and to choose their sources wisely.

Planning for Oral Presentations

The planning for an oral presentation includes similar steps to planning for writing. In planning for a speech or other kind of oral presentation presenters engage in the following steps: 1) Begin with a purpose. Students must have a clear purpose (function) for the presentation or speech. The first question students must answer is "What do I want to say? What is my purpose for this presentation?"

Listed are eight grammatical classifications elementary school teachers typically teach.

Verb: A word that shows action (run, jump) or state of being (is, are, was, were). Adverb: Modifies verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Adverbs usually end with -ly (gladly, slowly). Noun: A word that names a person, place or thing—child, San Francisco, hammer. Some sources divide nouns into 2 categories—proper nouns and common nouns. Proper nouns are nouns that begin with a capital letter because it is the name of a specific or particular person, place, or thing: San Francisco, for example. Child and hammer are considered common nouns. Pronoun: A word that can be used in place of a noun to prevent repetition of the same nouns (I, you, she). Adjective: A word that modifies or gives more information about a noun or pronoun. Adjectives usually precede the word they are modifying (yellow scarf, tall building). Preposition: A word that shows relationships among nouns, pronouns, and phrases to other words in a sentence—direction, place, time, cause, manner, and amount (to, under, by). Conjunction: A word that connects other words or phrases (and, or, but). Interjection: A word that conveys emotion (Oh! Wow! Ouch!).

In an oral presentation, considering the audience is a critical factor for success. Here are some questions students should consider to align the purpose of the presentation with the needs of the audience. Ask students to answer the questions that fit the kind of presentation they are intending to do:

Who will be listening to this oral presentation? Will my audience be interested in the topic or story? If not, how can I generate interest in the topic? What understanding does my audience already have about this topic? What will my audience gain from my work? What evidence do I need to support what I say? How can I ensure that the evidence is creditable to my audience?

3. Consider the audience

Will my story be posted on a bulletin board for everyone to read? Will my oral report about insects be presented to the whole class? Will my letter to my favorite author get a response? Here are some questions that help connect the function of the writing to the audience who will read it: -Who will be reading (listening to) this? -Will my audience be interested in the topic? -If not, how can I generate interest in the topic? -What understanding does my audience already have about this topic? -What will my audience gain from my work?

written communication

any communication that must be read

Identify and Narrow the topic

come from the content currently being studied or from topics of personal interest. Aligned with the purpose of the composition or speech, students should have some control over the topic they are to write about. Students who are allowed to choose their writing topic will be more motivated to engage in the preparation of it. Once a topic or potential topic is chosen, students should first explore the topic to see what resources will be available to support the writing of it. Sometimes this search for resources may reveal that the topic needs to be covered more narrowly or more broadly to cover it well. Teachers will need to guide students in this decision.

verbal communication

communication that uses written or spoken words

nonverbal communication

communication using body movements, gestures, and facial expressions rather than speech

Introduction

designed to interest readers and motivate them to continue reading. Students could capture the interest of their audience with a puzzling question, a dramatic or comedic episode, or a personal narrative that relates to their topic.

Academic communication

ending messages intended to share concepts, skills, or knowledge. Also called instructional (or efferent) communication, academic communication is distinguished from interpersonal communication in that academic communication is focused on instructional content while interpersonal communication is generally more informal and spontaneous. Academic communication is carried out for two major purposes. First, it is used in various forms to explore and think about content. Second, it gives students opportunities to report; they learn to present ideas in front of others

While drafting students do not yet need to think about word-count, grammar, spelling, punctuation, and other mechanical errors. Pointing out these errors during this stage of the process sends a

false message that mechanical correctness is more important than content. The body of the written piece (or presentation) should include three or four main points, supported by details; the conclusion should help the audience remember the main idea. Keeping several key points in mind while engaged in the drafting stage will benefit students. Students organize the composition or speech in three basic parts: an introduction, body, and conclusion.

5. Gather and organize sources

final responsibility during the prewriting stage is gathering and organizing ideas for writing, often called rehearsal. As the students become engaged in examining their topic, research questions will emerge. These questions serve as the structure for data collection. If for example, students were engaged in a "Very Cool Bugs" study they might research questions such as: "What makes an insect an insect?" "Do insects have bones?" "How do insects see, breathe, and hear?" and "What are the biggest/smallest insects?"

Stage 5: Publishing

final stage of the writing process is publishing the written piece. Publishing can mean having students create illustrations or other visuals (such as a cover), a table of contents, and a list of references, if applicable. After publishing, students can communicate with genuine audiences to share their writing in meaningful ways.

4. Consider the form

form the writing will take is often dictated by the purpose of the writing. While the writing function furnishes the purpose, aim, or goal of the student, the form is a means of achieving that purpose. Students have a range of forms to express their thoughts, feelings, and understandings for a variety of purposes and audiences, including stories, letters, plays, fantasy, fiction, histories, autobiographies, biographies, songs, notes, messages, logs, journals, diaries (real or imaginary), dialogues, reports, presentations, requests, memos, summaries, reviews, brochures, pamphlets, instructions, editorials, and many others.

Every effort should be made to discourage students from copying

information directly from sources as they gather data to answer their questions. Students must know that it is wrong to duplicate someone else's words and ideas without giving credit; they are not too young to understand what plagiarism is and why it is wrong.

The Writing Process

order of steps in creating a piece of writing: prewriting, writing, revising, editing, publishing

Clustering

organizing items into related groups during recall from long-term memory

Conclusion

provide a summary, resolution, call to action, or opinion. Students should understand that the last thing they say is as important as the first.

Stage 4: Editing

putting the written piece into its final form. Rather than focusing on content, a writer or presenter reviews the composition line by line to ensure that it conforms to commonly accepted conventions of standard English. Proofreading written pieces to correct as many errors as possible is a part of the editing process that can be done by individual students, with the assistance of peer editors, or with the help of a teacher. Changes are easy to make with the aid of a dictionary, thesaurus, or teacher guidance. Teachers often use the editing phase to teach mini-lessons related to grammar, punctuation, and spelling. As with all the stages of the writing process, the best way to teach writing mechanics is by modeling them. A checklist of items or a rubric is useful to students as they look for errors in spelling, grammar, punctuation, or capitalization

The process of preparing for writing or speaking involves

several stages. These stages guide students through an organized set of thought processes designed to produce a well-developed, thoughtful product. Although the stages are numbered, they do not represent a rigid, one-way approach to writing but rather a set of recursive procedures.

Stage 2: Drafting

students are ready to start on what is variously labeled as the first draft, rough draft, or rough copy of their composition. At this stage, students are encouraged to focus simply on getting their ideas on paper; they do not yet need to think about word-count, grammar, spelling, punctuation, and other mechanical errors.

When students are writing their first drafts

students may find that they need more information. They may also change some of their original ideas or the way they organize their ideas. Students may also modify earlier decisions about function, audience, and form. All this is fine; these changes will help the students communicate more effectively. Students may need to write several drafts, ensuring that their drafts eventually get to the revising stage.

Situational Switching

the ability to change register to match the context of the people with whom you are speaking

6. Support with Presentation Aids

the presenter will want to consider adding presentation aids that will add audience appeal and support his or her points. The first task is to review the outline and see what points would benefit from using a presentation aid. Choices for presentation aids should be made from two standpoints: 1. what would the audience value be, and 2. where will the presentation be made? The site of the presentation will need to support the use of aids that require electricity or less or more light. Presentation aids might include photographs, illustrations, posters, models, audio or video clips cued to start at the appropriate location of the needed clip, or handouts. Presentation aids should be pared down and easy for the audience to view, listen to, or read as appropriate.

rehearsal

the process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it

intrapersonal communication

the process of understanding information within oneself

formal language

the standard language of written communication, formal speeches, and presentations; may not use contractions or slang

Preparing Written Compositions and Oral Presentations

the time students enter middle school grades, most of them should be able to deliver coherent written and oral presentations that convey ideas clearly and relate to the background and interests of their audience. A critical role for elementary teachers is to demonstrate, model, and set up opportunities for students to develop good writing and oral presentation skills over time as they move through their primary and elementary grades.

punctuation

the use of marks such as commas and periods in writing

Ask for feedback

to see if you are being clear and if they understand