Ch. 7 - Key Terms

Annapolis Convention -> Constitutional Convention

- The Annapolis Convention was called as the original constitutional convention which would meet to revise the Articles of Confederation. However, on the date of the opening of the Annapolis Convention, there were not enough delegates from enough colonies (only 5 colonies were represented), thus not having enough, they disbanded and asked for Congress to make another call at a later date. After the Annapolis Convention broke up/never got started, several more incidents occurred which showed the complete inefficacy of the AoC and a new Convention was called for in Philadelphia, which history knows as the Constitutional Convention. - The fifty-five men who gathered for the private Constitutional Convention included some of the most prominent Americans, and thus would leave a huge impact on liberty. John Adams described it as a gathering of men of "ability, weight, experience, & wealth." Their shared social status and political experiences bolstered their common belief in the need to strengthen national authority and curb what one called "excessive democracy."

Naturalization Act of 1790

- The Constitution empowered Congress to create a uniform system by which immigrants became citizens, and the Naturalization Act of 1790 offered the 1st legislative definition of American nationality. With no debate, Congress restricted the process of becoming a citizen from abroad to "free white persons." virtually the only white persons in the entire world ineligible to claim American citizenship were those unwilling to renounce hereditary titles of nobility, as required in an act of 1795. - And yet, the word "white" in the Naturalization Act excluded a large majority of the world's population from emigrating to the "asylum for mankind", including Blacks.

Letters from an American Farmer

- The large majority of blacks, of course, were slaves, and slavery rendered them all but invisible to those imagining the American community. Slaves were "not ... constituent members of society," & the language of liberty did not apply to them. One of the era's most widely read books, Letters from an American Farmer, published in France in 1782 by Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur: - Strikingly illustrated this process of exclusion. - Popularized the idea, of the United States as a melting pot where "individuals of all different nations are melted into a new one." - Decided the average American is either a European, or the descendant of a European. This at a time when fully 1/5 of the population (the highest proportion in US history) consisted of Africans/ their descendants.

Shays's Rebellion

*The backcountry debt ridden farmers revolted because land was taken from them by state leaders since they can't afford to pay taxes after war due to recession. Were veterans felt this stripped all they fought for during the war. The federal gov. didn't have power under articles of confederation to stop this. Showed need for a new constitution.* - Massachusetts had firmly resisted pressure to issue paper money or in other ways assist needy debtors causing the participants to revolt in the name of Liberty, similar to the revolution. But, they received no sympathy from Governor James Bowdoin who sent an army which arrested 1000's of protestors. - New need for uniform economic policies and protection of property owners from infringements on their rights by local majorities.

Bill of Rights

- Madison was so convinced that the balances of the Constitution would protect liberty that he believed a Bill of Rights "redundant or pointless." Amendments restraining federal power, he believed, would have no effect on the danger to liberty posed by unchecked majorities in the states, and no list of rights could ever anticipate the numerous ways that Congress might operate in the future. - In order to "conciliate the minds of the people," as Madison put it, he presented to Congress a series of amendments that became the basis of the Bill of Rights, which was ratified by the states in 1791. - In a sense, the Bill of Rights offered a definition of the "unalienable rights" Jefferson had mentioned in the D. of I.—rights inherent in the human condition.

Articles of Confederation

- The 1st written constitution of the United States was the Articles of Confederation, drafted by Congress in 1777 & ratified by the states four years later. - The Articles sought to balance the need for national coordination of the War of Independence with widespread fear that centralized political power posed a danger to liberty but it resembled less a blueprint for a common government than a treaty for mutual defense. - States retained their individual "sovereignty, freedom, and independence." - The national government consisted of a one-house Congress, in which each state, no matter how large or populous, cast a single vote, and 9 states were needed to vote on a single topic for it to pass. *- The A of C had many weaknesses. Congress had no real financial resources as it couldn't tax so it could't pay off debt. The states were more powerful than the federal government.* - It also established national control over land to the west of the thirteen states and devising rules for its settlement.

Federalism

= Sep of powers. Federalism refers to the relationship between the national government and the states. The Constitution significantly strengthened national authority: - The President enforced the law & commanded the military. - Congress levied taxes, borrowed money, regulated commerce, declared war, dealt with foreign nations/ Indians, & promoted the general welfare. - Changes were made to prevent states from infringing on property rights: - States were barred from issuing paper money, interfering with interstate commerce, & levying their own import/ export duties. - On the other hand, most day-to-day affairs of government, from education to law enforcement, remained in the hands of the states.

Land Ordinances

A series of measures approved by Congress during the 1780s, known as the Land Ordinances, defined how western land would be marketed & settled. - The first (1784) established stages of self-government for the West. The region would be divided into districts initially governed by Congress and eventually admitted to the Union as member states. - The second (1785) regulated land sales in the region north of the Ohio River, which came to be known as the Old Northwest. Land would be surveyed by the government and then sold in "sections" of a square mile(640 acres) at $1 per acre (minimum order of $640 = EXPENSIVE). 1 Acre set for school Made congress revenue. In 1787, Congress decided to sell off large tracts to private groups. Thus, national land policy benefited private land companies and large buyers more than individual settlers, who would resell it for more money to smaller buyers.

Alexander Hamilton

Alexander Hamilton wanted a powerful "energetic" government in world affairs and "a proper degree of authority" to protect liberty and came to believe during the 1780s that Americans were squandering the fruits of independence and that the country's future greatness depended on enhancing national authority. He was a federalist.

Indians

American leaders agreed that the West should not be left in Indian hands and hoped to encourage the westward expansion of white settlement, which implied one of 3 things: the removal of the Indian population to lands even farther west, their total disappearance, or their incorporation into white "civilization" with the expectation that they might one day become part of American society, however most people except TJ saw this as not possible.

Benjamin Banneker

Benjamin Banneker, a free African-American from Maryland who had taught himself the principles of mathematics, sent Jefferson a copy of an astronomical almanac he had published, along with a plea for the abolition of slavery. However, Jefferson suggested that a white person must have helped Banneker with his calculations.

Federalist Papers

Each state held an election for delegates to a special ratifying convention. A fierce public battle ensued, producing hundreds of pamphlets and newspaper articles and spirited campaigns to elect delegates for the Constitutions ratification. - To generate support, Hamilton, Madison, and Jay composed a series of 85 essays that appeared in newspapers under the pen name Publius and were gathered as a book, The Federalist (meaning pro-strong central gov.), in 1788. - Again and again, Hamilton and Madison repeated that rather than posing a danger to Americans' liberties, the Constitution in fact protected them. They insisted gov. was an expression of freedom, not its enemy. Any government could become oppressive, but with its checks and balances and division of power, the Constitution made political tyranny almost impossible.

Treaty of Greenville

In 1794, 3,000 American troops under Anthony Wayne defeated Little Turtle's forces at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. This led directly to the Treaty of Greenville of 1795, in which twelve Indian tribes ceded most of Ohio and Indiana to the federal government. The treaty also established the "annuity" system—yearly grants of federal money to Indian tribes that institutionalized continuing government influence in tribal affairs and gave outsiders considerable control over Indian life.

"Extend the Sphere"

James Madison - Madison felt government must be based on the will of the people, yet the people had shown themselves susceptible to dangerous enthusiasms. Most worrisome, they had threatened property rights, whose protection was the "first object of government." - The answer, Madison explained, lay not simply in the way power is balanced, but in the nation's size and diversity. The very size of the US was a source of stability, not, as many feared, weakness. - "Extend the sphere," he wrote. In a nation as large as the United States, so many distinct interests—economic, regional, and political—would arise, that no single one would ever be able to take over the government & oppress the rest. - Every majority would be a coalition of minorities, and thus "the rights of individuals" would be secure, & the gov's power would be naturally balanced. - In arguing this, they reinforced the tradition that saw continuous westward expansion as essential to freedom.

James Madison

James Madison desired stronger national gov. & came to believe during the 1780s that Americans were squandering the fruits of independence and that the country's future greatness depended on enhancing national authority. He was a federalist.

Congress

Large states wanted population based representation while smaller states wanted a fixed amount In the end, a compromise was reached—a two-house Congress consisting of a Senate in which each state had two members, and a House of Representatives apportioned according to population. The congress was the legislative branch of government and did things like make laws and amendments to the Constitution.

Little Turtle

Leader of the Miami Confederacy.

Miami Confederacy

Open warfare continued in the Ohio Valley. In 1791, Little Turtle, leader of the Miami Confederacy, inflicted a humiliating defeat on American forces. With 630 dead, this was the costliest loss ever suffered by the United States Army at the hands of Indians.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of ratification-feared the constitution shifted the balance between liberty & power too far in the direction of the latter. - They included state politicians fearful of seeing their influence diminish and small farmers, many of whom supported the state debtor-relief measures of the 1780s that the Constitution's supporters denied. - Anti-Federalists repeatedly predicted that the new government would fall under the sway of merchants, creditors, & others harmful to ordinary Americans. - Popular self-government, they claimed, flourished best in small communities, where rulers and ruled interacted daily, not large and extensive areas. - America's happiness, they insisted, arises from the freedom of our institutions, not a limited gov. - Anti-Federalists also pointed to the Constitution's lack of a Bill of Rights, which left unprotected rights such as trial by jury & freedom of speech and the press. -Anti-Federalism drew its support from small farmers in more isolated rural areas such as the Hudson Valley of New York, western Massachusetts, and the southern back-country, however only RI and NC voted against it.

Fugitive Slave Clause

The fugitive slave clause accorded slave laws "extraterritoriality"—that is, the condition of bondage remained attached to a person even if he or she escaped to a state where slavery had been abolished. The new policing of slavery, removed all "free air" in America, unlike in Britain.

Checks and Balances

The Constitution provides only the briefest outline of the new structure of government and embodies two basic political principles—federalism (separation of powers) & the system of "checks and balances" b/w the branches of the national government (separation of powers). -The "separation of powers," or the system of "checks and balances," refers to the way the Constitution seeks to prevent any branch of the national gov. from dominating the other two by giving each power over each other. < — Ex. Congress enacts laws, but the president can veto them, and a two-thirds majority is required to pass legislation over his objection.

Seperation of Powers

The Constitution provides only the briefest outline of the new structure of government and embodies two basic political principles—federalism (separation of powers) & the system of "checks and balances" b/w the branches of the national government (separation of powers). -The "separation of powers," or the system of "checks and balances," refers to the way the Constitution seeks to prevent any branch of the national gov. from dominating the other two by giving each power over each other. < — Ex. Congress enacts laws, but the president can veto them, and a two-thirds majority is required to pass legislation over his objection.

Northwest Ordinance

The Northwest Ordinance established a government for the Northwest Territory, outlined the process for admitting a new state to the Union, and guaranteed that newly created states would be equal to the original thirteen states. Considered one of the most important legislative acts of the Confederation Congress, the Northwest Ordinance also protected civil liberties and outlawed slavery in the new territories.

National Identity

The Revolution created not only a new nation but also a new collective body, the American people, whose members were to enjoy freedom as citizens in a new political community. Since government in the United States rested on the will of the people, it was all the more important to identify who the people were. The "people" of the United States DID NOT include all those living within the nation's borders. The Constitution identifies three populations inhabiting the United States: Indians, treated as members of independent tribes (not Americans); "other persons"—that is, slaves; and the "people." Only the third were entitled to American freedom. Traditionally, there are 2 types of nationalism present in the US: - "Civic nationalism" envisions a community open to all those devoted to its political institutions and social values. - "Ethnic nationalism" is based on a shared ethnic heritage, language, and culture.

Three-Fifths Clause

The three-fifths clause allowed the white South to exercise far greater power in national affairs than the size of its free population warranted, increasing the # of southern votes in the House of Representatives to include 3/5 of the slave pop.

Federalists

Wanted constitutional ratification: Felt rather than posing a danger to Americans' liberties, the Constitution in fact protected them. They insisted gov. was an expression of freedom, not its enemy. Any government could become oppressive, but with its checks and balances and division of power, the Constitution made political tyranny almost impossible. In general, pro-Constitution sentiment flourished in the nation's cities and in rural areas closely tied to the commercial marketplace. They desired a gov. that would use its "energy and power" to revive the depressed economy.

Thomas Jefferson

White Americans increasingly viewed blacks as permanently deficient in the qualities that made freedom possible—the capacity for self-control, reason, and devotion to the larger community. - In Notes on the State of Virginia, TJ claimed blacks lacked these characteristics, partly due to natural incapacity and partly because the bitter experience of slavery had rendered them disloyal to the nation, but also believed that individuals' abilities and achievements are shaped by social conditions inclined him to hope that no group was fixed permanently in a status of inferiority. -Jefferson, wanted a homogeneous citizenry with common experiences, values, and inborn abilities. Thus, black Americans should eventually enjoy the natural rights enumerated in the D of I, but in Africa or the Caribbean, not in the United States. He foresaw Indians merging with whites into a single people, but he was horrified by the idea of miscegenation between blacks and whites. - He felt blacks were unfit for economic independence & political self-gov.