Ch. 7 Motivation Concepts

In the context of social learning, explain the four processes that determine a model's influence on an individual.

1. Attentional processes: People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical features. We tend to be most influenced by models that are attractive, repeatedly available, important to us, or similar to us in our estimation. 2. Retention processes: A model's influence depends on how well the individual remembers the model's action after the model is no longer readily available. 3. Motor reproduction processes: After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, watching must be converted to doing. This process demonstrates that the individual can perform the modeled activities. 4. Reinforcement processes: Individuals are motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided. Positively reinforced behaviors are given more attention, learned better, and performed more often.

Explain how a manager motivates employees with reference to Herzberg's two-factor theory.

According to Herzberg, the factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. Therefore, managers who seek to eliminate factors that can create job dissatisfaction may bring about peace, but not necessarily motivation. They will be placating, rather than motivating, their workers. As a result, Herzberg characterized conditions such as quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical working conditions, relationships with others, and job security as hygiene factors. When they're adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; neither will they be satisfied. If we want to motivate people on their jobs, Herzberg suggested emphasizing factors associated with the work itself or with outcomes directly derived from it, such as promotional opportunities, personal growth opportunities, recognition, responsibility, and achievement. These are the characteristics people find intrinsically rewarding.

With reference to the expectancy theory, which of the following examples indicates a weak rewards-personal goals relationship?

An employee works hard in order to be relocated to the Paris office but instead is transferred to Beijing.

According to the equity theory, what are the choices made by employees who perceive inequity?

Based on equity theory, employees who perceive inequity will make one of six choices: 1. Change inputs (exert less effort if underpaid, or more if overpaid) 2. Change outcomes (individuals paid on a piece-rate basis can increase their pay by producing a higher quantity of units of lower quality) 3. Distort perceptions of self ("I used to think I worked at a moderate pace, but now I realize I work a lot harder than everyone else.") 4. Distort perceptions of others ("Mike's job isn't as desirable as I thought.") 5. Choose a different referent ("I may not make as much as my brother-in-law, but I'm doing a lot better than my dad did when he was my age.") 6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Discuss distributive justice, procedural justice, and interpersonal justice.

Distributive justice indicates the employee's perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. Procedural justice indicates the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. Interactional justice indicates an individual's perception of the degree to which he or she is treated with dignity, concern, and respect. Of these three forms of justice, distributive justice is most strongly related to organizational commitment and satisfaction with outcomes such as pay. Procedural justice relates most strongly to job satisfaction, employee trust, withdrawal from the organization, job performance, and citizenship behaviors. There is less evidence about interpersonal justice.

What are the three relationships in Vroom's expectancy theory?

Expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. The theory focuses on three relationships: a) The effort-performance relationship is the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance. b) The performance-reward relationship is the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. c) The rewards-personal goals relationship is the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual's personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual.

Which of the following statements is true regarding the cognitive evaluation theory?

Extrinsic rewards tend to reduce intrinsic interest in a task.

According to Herzberg, the opposite of "satisfaction" is "dissatisfaction."

FALSE

According to Maslow, lower-order needs are satisfied internally while higher-order needs are satisfied externally.

FALSE

Goal-setting theory strongly advocates participation in decision making, whereas MBO demonstrates that managers' assigned goals are usually just as effective.

FALSE

Goal-setting theory takes a behavioristic approach, whereas reinforcement theory takes a cognitive approach.

FALSE

McClelland's theory of needs proposes that the factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction.

FALSE

The Pygmalion effect is not a form of self-fulfilling prophecy in which believing something can make it true.

FALSE

Under Theory Y, managers believe that employees inherently dislike work and must therefore be directed or even coerced into performing it.

FALSE

Underpayment and overpayment, according to equity theory, tend to produce similar reactions to correct the inequities.

FALSE

Workers around the world prefer rewards based on seniority over rewards based on performance and skills.

FALSE

Why are people motivated by challenging goals?

First, challenging goals get people's attention and thus tend to help them focus. Second, difficult goals energize workers because they have to work harder to attain them. Third, when goals are difficult, people persist in trying to attain them. Finally, difficult goals lead employees to discover strategies that help them perform their jobs or tasks more effectively. If they have to struggle to solve a difficult problem, people often think of a better way to go about it.

Explain, in terms of McClelland's theory of needs, the relationship between the need for achievement and job performance.

First, when jobs have a high degree of personal responsibility and feedback and an intermediate degree of risk, high achievers are strongly motivated. For example, they are successful in entrepreneurial activities such as running their own businesses and in managing self-contained units within large organizations. Second, a high need to achieve does not necessarily make someone a good manager, especially in large organizations. People with a high achievement need are interested in how well they do personally, and not in influencing others to do well. High-nAch salespeople do not necessarily make good sales managers, and the good general manager in a large organization does not typically have a high need to achieve. Third, needs for affiliation and power tend to be closely related to managerial success. The best managers are high in their need for power and low in their need for affiliation. In fact, a high power motive may be a requirement for managerial effectiveness.

The Pygmalion effect is also called the ________ effect.

Galatea

Jim is a salaried employee whose job is to develop content for online Web sites. He discovers that he is paid substantially more than his colleagues even though their jobs and levels of performance are very similar. According to the equity theory, what impact is this discovery most likely to have on his behavior and performance?

He will increase his productivity and/or the overall quality of his work.

Explain how the different relationships in expectancy theory are related to distributive justice and procedural justice in equity theory.

Historically, equity theory focused on distributive justice, the employee's perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals and who received them. Equity also considers procedural justice, the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. Expectancy theory focuses on three relationships 1. Effort-performance relationship: The probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance. 2. Performance-reward relationship: The degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. 3. Rewards-personal goals relationship: The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual's personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual. The relationships in expectancy theory are similar to distributive and procedural justice in that they both rely on a fair and objective appraisal. If the appraisal isn't fair in the effort-performance relationship, the employee lacks the motivation to work hard. This is because regardless of the person's level of motivation, the procedure of appraisal is prejudiced.

Why do people who perceive themselves as victims of interactional injustice often blame their immediate supervisor rather than the organization at large?

Interpersonal justice or injustice is intimately tied to the conveyer of the information.

Explain the similarities between Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory and McClelland's theory of needs.

It can be noted that the need for achievement in McClelland's theory is very similar to the self-actualization needs in Maslow's. Both deal with the drive to become what we are capable of becoming, which includes growth, achieving our potential, and self-fulfillment. The need for power in McClelland's theory is similar in many aspects to esteem needs in Maslow's theory. The need for affiliation is similar to the social needs in Maslow's theory.

What is the limitation of reinforcement theory in explaining changes in behavior?

It does not recognize the effect of cognitive variables.

You manage a department of five employees. You have identified that Joe has a high need for achievement, Mary has a high need for power, and Tim has a high need for affiliation. Sarah scored high on the need for power and low on the need for affiliation. Doug scored low on both need for power and need for affiliation. Which of these five employees is most likely to be suitable for a new assignment that involves a high degree of personal responsibility and feedback?

Joe

Megan graduated from college three years ago and has been working at Sterba Inc. ever since. A conscientious employee, she has consistently received good performance evaluations. She recently found out that a younger colleague, who was just recruited to her team, is drawing a higher salary than she is for doing the same type of work. Following this discovery, Megan starts coming to work late and her productivity begins to suffer. Which of the following is most similar to the scenario mentioned above based on the equity theory?

Lisa starts working longer hours after learning that her co-workers earn less than she does for the same work.

Explain what an MBO program is and discuss the common elements of MBO programs and goal-setting theory.

Management by objectives (MBO) is a program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress. The organization's overall objectives are translated into specific objectives for each level (divisional, departmental, individual). But because lower-unit managers jointly participate in setting their own goals, MBO works from the bottom up as well as from the top down. The result is a hierarchy that links objectives at one level to those at the next. And for the individual employee, MBO provides specific personal performance objectives. Four ingredients are common to MBO programs: goal specificity, participation in decision making (including the setting of goals or objectives), an explicit time period, and performance feedback. Many elements in MBO programs match propositions of goal-setting theory. For example, having an explicit time period to accomplish objectives matches goal-setting theory's emphasis on goal specificity. Similarly, feedback about goal progress is a critical element of goal-setting theory. The only area of possible disagreement between MBO and goal-setting theory is participation: MBO strongly advocates it, whereas goal-setting theory demonstrates that managers' assigned goals are usually just as effective.

Briefly explain Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs hypothesized that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs. a) The physiological needs include hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs. b) Safety includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm. c) Social includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. d) Esteem includes internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement and external factors such as status, recognition, and attention. e) Self-actualization is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming and it includes growth, achieving one's potential, and self-fulfillment. As each of these needs becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. So, according to Maslow, if you want to motivate someone, you need to understand what level of the hierarchy that person is currently on and focus on satisfying those needs at or above that level.

________ is defined as the processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

Motivation

Describe the three key elements in the definition of motivation.

Motivation is defined as the processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. The three key elements in our definition are intensity, direction, and persistence. Intensity describes how hard a person tries. This is the element most of us focus on when we talk about motivation. However, high intensity is unlikely to lead to favorable job performance outcomes unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization. Therefore, we consider the quality of effort as well as its intensity. Effort directed toward, and consistent with, the organization's goals is the kind of effort we should be seeking. Finally, motivation has a persistence dimension. This measures how long a person can maintain effort. Motivated individuals stay with a task long enough to achieve their goal.

________ argues that people learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they don't want.

Operant conditioning theory

Which of the following statements is true regarding goal-setting theory?

People do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals.

Which of the following statements is true according to McClelland's theory of needs?

People with a high need for power and a low need for affiliation often make the best managers.

The best way for a manager to use verbal persuasion is through the ________, a form of self-fulfilling prophecy in which believing something can make it true.

Pygmalion effect

Which of these five employees is most suitable for handling your responsibilities when you are on a vacation?

Sarah

________ refers to an individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.

Self-efficacy

What is self-efficacy?

Self-efficacy (also known as social cognitive theory or social learning theory) refers to an individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed. So, in difficult situations, people with low self-efficacy are more likely to lessen their effort or give up altogether, while those with high self-efficacy will try harder to master the challenge. Self-efficacy can create a positive spiral in which those with high efficacy become more engaged in their tasks and then, in turn, increase performance, which increases efficacy further. Changes in self-efficacy over time are related to changes in creative performance as well. Individuals high in self-efficacy also seem to respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation, while those low in self-efficacy are likely to lessen their effort after negative feedback.

Based on the equity theory, which of the following, if true, would strengthen the argument that Megan is trying to gain a sense of equity by distorting her perception of herself?

She believes that she is less capable than her colleague.

Helen, a high school teacher, wants her students to actively participate more in class. She has decided to use reinforcement theory to get the required results. Which of the following methods is she most likely to use?

She is going to give students an extra mark each time that they contribute.

Based on the equity theory, which of the following, if true, would strengthen the argument that Megan is trying to gain a sense of equity by changing her inputs?

She takes long breaks from work and shirks her responsibilities.

If Alberta is categorized as a Theory X manager, which of the following behaviors is she most likely to exhibit?

She will strictly control all the details of any project she is managing.

According to McClelland's theory of needs, when jobs have a high degree of personal responsibility and feedback and an intermediate degree of risk, high achievers are strongly motivated.

TRUE

According to goal-setting theory, a specific goal will produce a higher level of output than a generalized goal.

TRUE

An overly high level of engagement can lead to a loss of perspective and, ultimately, burnout.

TRUE

Expectancy theory predicts employees will exert a high level of effort if they perceive a strong relationship between effort and performance, performance and rewards, and rewards and satisfaction of personal goals.

TRUE

Feedback influences self-efficacy.

TRUE

Interpersonal justice refers to an individual's perception of the degree to which he or she is treated with dignity, concern, and respect.

TRUE

Motivation is defined as the processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

TRUE

Organizations influence their employees to volunteer.

TRUE

People who pursue goals for intrinsic reasons are more likely to attain their goals and are happy even if they do not.

TRUE

Practicing managers and scholars have become interested in facilitating job engagement, believing factors deeper than liking a job or finding it interesting drives performance.

TRUE

Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.

TRUE

What are the four ways of increasing self-efficacy as proposed by Albert Bandura?

The researcher who developed self-efficacy theory, Albert Bandura, proposed four ways self-efficacy can be increased: 1. Enactive mastery 2. Vicarious modeling 3. Verbal persuasion 4. Arousal According to Bandura, the most important source of increasing self-efficacy is enactive mastery—that is, gaining relevant experience with the task or job. The second source is vicarious modeling—or becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task. The third source is verbal persuasion—becoming more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful. Finally, Bandura argued that arousal increases self-efficacy. Arousal leads to an energized state, which drives a person to complete a task. The person gets "psyched up" and performs better.

What are the four referent comparisons that add to the complexity of equity theory?

There are four referent comparisons: 1. Self-inside: An employee's experiences in a different position inside the employee's current organization 2. Self-outside: An employee's experiences in a situation or position outside the employee's current organization 3. Other-inside: Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee's organization 4. Other-outside: Another individual or group of individuals outside the employee's organization

Why is Maslow's theory criticized?

There is little evidence that needs are structured or operate in the way it describes.

Compare and contrast a Theory X manager and a Theory Y manager.

Under Theory X, managers believe employees inherently dislike work and must therefore be directed or even coerced into performing it. Under Theory Y, in contrast, managers assume employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play, and therefore the average person can learn to accept, and even seek, responsibility. Theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate individuals. McGregor himself believed that Theory Y assumptions were more valid than Theory X. Therefore, he proposed such ideas as participative decision making, responsible and challenging jobs, and good group relations to maximize an employee's job motivation.

Rachel's parents used to pay her an allowance every week to feed the cats and to do a few other chores around the house. However, once her mother lost her job, her parents stopped giving her an allowance. Although Rachel quit making her bed every morning, she still continued to feed the cats. Which of the following best explains why Rachel continues to feed the cats?

Without the extrinsic reward, the execution of the task relies on internal motivation.

McClelland's theory is based on which of the following needs?

achievement, power, and affiliation

Self-inside, one of the four referent comparisons in the equity theory, refers to ________.

an employee's experiences in a different position inside the employee's current organization

According to the equity theory, there are four referent comparisons. The referent comparison known as other-inside refers to ________.

another individual or group of individuals inside the employee's organization

Other-outside is a referent comparison that refers to ________.

another individual or group of individuals outside the employee's organization

With reference to the four sources of self-efficacy as proposed by Albert Bandura, verbal persuasion involves becoming more confident ________.

because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful

The concept of operant conditioning is a part of the broader concept of ________, which argues that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.

behaviorism

Self-determination theory proposes that in addition to being driven by a need for autonomy, people seek ways to achieve ________.

competence and positive connections

Jackie thinks that she is paid a lot less than other employees in her division and feels extremely resentful. She starts taking long breaks and generally wastes time. Her actions resulted from a perceived lack of ________ justice.

distributive

According to Albert Bandura, the most important source of increasing self-efficacy is ________.

enactive mastery

Which of the following sources of increasing self-efficacy involves gaining relevant experience with a particular task or job?

enactive mastery

The proponents of reinforcement theory view behavior as ________.

environmentally caused

Karen graduated from college four years ago and has been working at Betaphy Inc. ever since. She has consistently received good performance evaluations for the quality of her work. She recently found out that her company hired a fresh college graduate with no experience at a salary higher than hers. Which of the following theories will Karen most likely use to evaluate this situation?

equity

Which of the following theories discusses three relationships: effort-performance relationship, performance-reward relationship, and rewards-personal goals relationship?

expectancy theory

To get the best results while using reinforcement theory, rewards should be ________.

given immediately following the desired behavior

According to Herzberg, when ________ are adequate, people won't be dissatisfied, but they will also not be satisfied.

hygiene factors

The ________ element of motivation describes how hard a person tries.

intensity

The investment of an employee's physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance is called ________.

job engagement

Unlike in the case of goal-setting theory, MBO strongly advocates ________.

jointly set goals

According to Douglas McGregor's Theory Y, a manager assumes that employees ________.

learn to accept responsibility

According to social learning theory, which of the following processes demonstrates whether an individual is capable of performing the modeled activities?

motor reproduction process

In equity theory, individuals assess the ________.

outcome-input ratio

Logan is an employee who processes health insurance forms. Initially he was criticized by his supervisor for sloppy work, but thereafter he improved considerably. Now he consistently processes his forms without errors and even does more than his fair share of work. However, Logan's supervisor has not responded to the extra effort he has put in, giving him no praise or monetary benefits. This leads Logan to believe that his supervisor is biased against him. According to the expectancy theory, in this situation, there is a problem in the ________ relationship.

performance-reward

Oscar is looking for a new job. He used to be the company's top sales representative and was eagerly expecting to be promoted. However, one of the regional manager's friends was promoted to district manager instead. According to the expectancy theory, Oscar's dissatisfaction with his current job stems from a breakdown in the ________ relationship.

performance-reward

The ________ dimension of motivation measures how long a person can maintain effort.

persistence

MBO provides individual employees with ________.

personal performance objectives

The church you go to every Sunday is made up of people who have very different lifestyles and are at different stages in their life. Joanna is a 23-year-old single parent who works for minimum wage and shifts from motel to motel for accommodation. Josephine is a single, 45-year-old woman who earns a decent salary and has few interests and friends outside her office. Jonathan is 60 years old, extremely wealthy, has a loving family, and enjoys his work. You have decided to apply Maslow's hierarchy of needs to determine what motivates each of these individuals. Which of the following needs would most likely motivate Joanna?

physiological

Which level of Maslow's hierarchy of needs deals with satisfying one's hunger, thirst, and other bodily needs?

physiological

Edith believes that the methods for determining salary hikes and bonuses in her company are extremely unfair. In this case, Edith perceives a lack of ________ justice.

procedural

Which of the following types of justice relates most strongly to job satisfaction, employee trust, withdrawal from the organization, job performance, and citizenship behaviors?

procedural justice

According to the two-factor theory proposed by Herzberg, which of the following is considered a hygiene factor?

quality of supervision

Which of the following is a motivational factor according to Herzberg's two-factor theory?

recognition

A(n) ________ is any consequence immediately following a response that increases the probability that the behavior will be repeated.

reinforcer

George is trying to teach his two-year old son to gently caress their cat. George softly strokes the animal and every time his son does the same, he rewards him with kind words like "good job!" The child is very attentive during the process and claps his hands when his father praises him. However, as soon as George leaves, the boy lunges for the cat and grabs it by the tail. Which process of social-learning theory is failing?

retention processes

If a manager incorrectly assumes that all employees want the same thing, then according to the expectancy theory, it is most likely to result in a weak ________ relationship.

rewards-personal goals

Mark is an excellent technical writer. He has never missed a deadline and all his projects are of superior quality. He now wants to telecommute two days a week, so that he can spend more time with his family. He feels that he has proven his reliability. However, his boss is unable to comply with his request and gives him a substantial raise instead. According to the expectancy theory, Mark's disappointment demonstrates a breakdown in the ________ relationship.

rewards-personal goals

According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which of the following is a lower-order need?

safety

If we consider Maslow's hierarchy of needs in the context of Japan, Greece, and Mexico, where uncertainty-avoidance characteristics are strong, then ________ needs would be on top of the hierarchy.

security

Which of the following needs in Maslow's hierarchy refers to the drive to become what one is capable of becoming?

self-actualization

Which of the following needs would most motivate Jonathan?

self-actualization

The concept of ________ considers how strongly people's reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values.

self-concordance

Which of the following theories proposes that people prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine motivation?

self-determination theory

The ________ theory is also known as the social cognitive theory or the social learning theory.

self-efficacy

Which of following needs, as detailed by Maslow's hierarchy of needs, best corresponds to McClelland's need for affiliation?

social

Which of the following needs would most likely motivate Josephine?

social

MBO emphasizes goals that are ________.

tangible, verifiable, and measurable

According to goal-setting theory, goals are more likely to have a stronger impact on performance when ________.

tasks are independent rather than interdependent

According to the two-factor theory, ________.

the aspects that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction

According to the expectancy theory, the performance-reward relationship is the degree to which ________.

the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to desired outcomes

Erika wants to become the head of the HR department. Although the role comes with a generous salary hike and will put her in charge of several subordinates, she is mainly pursuing this position because she believes she can do the job better than anyone else and wants people to know this. According to McClelland's theory of needs, which of the following needs is Erika primarily driven by in this case?

the need for achievement

The ________ theory is also called motivation-hygiene theory.

two-factor

Which of the following theories proposes the idea of a dual continuum?

two-factor theory

Which of the following ways of increasing self-efficacy is generally used by motivational speakers?

verbal persuasion

One of the sources of self-efficacy is ________, becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task.

vicarious modeling