Ch. 9 Lenkeit Gender & Sexuality

Gender role differences

-Enculturation instills different expectations and behaviors for men/women. (p.194)Outdated view: Women were assumed to be genetically programmed to be dependent, nurturing, gentle, and passive; Men were programmed to be independent, tough, and aggressive. -Kinship: kinship rules of descent and their associated residence patterns affect gender as it is perceived and constructed by a society. -Economic resources -Division of labor (systems of production & ownership of property) -Control over scarce resources= determined by gender roles & is related to status and power in societies

The Fa'afafine of Samoa

-Third gender category -Considered better at domestic skills (cooking, cleaning etc) than other men/women of their culture because they have more muscle and it is their sole role -society sanctions their existence: family decides for them to be raised as a Fa'afafine at a young age- how they dress/talk -permissible for them to have sex with biological males and are considered straight -gay marriage is illegal - some don't have surgery -widely accepted in their society: most families have at least 1 or 2 in the family, some even 7

How does ideology affect gender & sexuality?

-attitudes toward sexuality are based on our cultural values, which in turn are based on ideology and tradition -humans learn about what is sexually stimulating by watching, listening, and imitating those around them as they grow up -some societies are permissive about sexuality and premarital sex, others are not. -Attitudes depend on cultural constructs of sexuality In contemporary North American culture- homosexuality = more accepted than it used to; homosexual relationships + orientation used to be confined to secrecy

What is the difference between sex and gender?

gender is based on social distinctions, sex is based on biological distinctions

patrilineal descent

wealth is inherited through the male line (whether in the form of cattle, land, or other)

two-spirit

"Two-spirit" people are individuals who do not comfortably conform to the gender roles and gender ideology normally associated with their biologic sex. (Native American communities) Example: A two-spirited Zuni man would do the work and wear clothing normally associated with females, having shown a preference for female-identified activities and symbols at an early age. In some, but not all cases, they would eventually marry a man. inspired by dreams of selection by spirits, individual psychologies, biological characteristics, and negative aspects of male roles (e.g., warfare).

What is their role in Indian Culture?

-One of the hijra's societal roles is to participate in a ritual performance on the occasion of the birth of a son to a family: -they bless the child & provide entertainment, inspects the baby's genitals, confirms its sex, and blesses it for having the ability to procreate and thus continue the family line -Also perform @ marriages -Hijras often perform as prostitutes -They depend on charity (alms) and earnings from performing rituals to survive -They can bestow both blessings and curses -Hijras are supposed to lead a life of self-discipline and abstinence. (e.g renouncing their families & sexual desires)

factors that determine our assigned sex

-begin as early as fertilization A sperm has either an X or Y chromosome in it. All eggs have an X chromosome. When a sperm fertilizes an egg its X or Y chromosome combines with the X chromosome of the egg. -A person with XX chromosomes usually has female sex and reproductive organs, and is therefore usually assigned biologically female. -A person with XY chromosomes usually has male sex and reproductive organs, and is therefore usually assigned biologically male. (even biological sex is not a simple black and white issue)

Gender identity

-feelings/interpretations about gender identity begin forming as early as age 2 or 3. -Clothing, appearance, and behaviors = some ways gender identity is expressed

Factors that affect gender roles

-kinship, economics, and ideology -In some societies, gender roles affect who controls valued resources, which in turn determines who has status and power.

gender

-refers to the culturally constructed roles, behaviors, expressions and identities of girls, women, boys, men, and gender diverse people. - influences how people perceive themselves and each other, how they act and interact, and the distribution of power and resources in society. - is not binary, nor is it static; gender exists on a continuum & can change over time -Ideas about how men and women are expected to behave, dress, and communicate all contribute to gender. Gender is also a social and legal status as girls and boys, men, and women

True/False: Each Native American group had the same understanding of gender and sexuality. Explain your answer.

False The

gender

Gender is set of expectations, standards, and characteristics about how men and women are supposed to act in a given culture.

Gender

Gender refers to the socially & culturally prescribed and perceived ways that males and females are expected to behave. = the culturally assigned role given to individuals identified as male, female, or other -In society refers to the behavioral, psychological, and sociocultural aspects of being female or male -The sociocultural construct of masculine and feminine roles and the qualities assigned to these roles. -Gender related issues= interwoven into all aspects of our existence from birth onward. Gender is interwoven into the total context of culture.

How does ideology affect gender?

Ideologies prescribe a culture's values A culture's value system is founded in its belief system, which contributes in major ways to the enculturation of gender role expectations. -Ideology of sex/gender affects the behavioral conditioning of men/women in the enculturation process -ideologies can even affect how a culture interprets/explain the origins males and females in their society (e.g the Yanomamo)

Maculinity

Masc.- association of strength, aggression, initiative, and leadership with the idea of being masculine. In many patriarchal cultures feminine traits are often looked down upon and seen as shameful or embarrassing when males embody them (e.g clothing, physical appearance, emotional reactions (especially for sadness and fear, which is widely perceived to be a feminine trait by some cultures))

patrilineal societies with patrilocal residence rules

Men enjoy high status: the male gender owns the property and makes decisions for the group

What does the term "two-spirit" mean?

Refers to another gender role that's common among most -if not all- first peoples of Turtle island (North America)

What is a Hijra?

The Hijra: -A religious community of individuals who are culturally defined as neither man nor woman (born as males) -Men who become Hijras are in between sexes -They undergo voluntary ritual surgeries of emasculation that transform them into a third sex and gender category -They dress, speak, behave, and take occupations of women, including the taking of husbands. -They do not sexually function as males during intercourse and reproduction -View themselves as objects of men's sexual desires and have only male sex partners -Distinct from the traditional Indian female gender because they are aggressive in their sexual demeanor and use coarse speech & are unable to have children. -The Hijras are neither men nor women as defined by Indian society (in which marriage + reproduction are highly valued).

Sex

The biological aspect of being female, male, or other, assigned at birth based on external genitalia. Sex= biological designation: whether an individual has two sex chromosomes that are either alike in shape and size (XX-female), or dissimilar (XY-male)

To what extent does our culture shape our behavior as a man or woman (nurture), and what does biology contribute (nature)? How are gender roles defined in other cultures?

The enculturation of gender roles starts at an early age in all societies. Western societies assume two gender roles: male/female. In contrast, other societies often accept 3/4 genders.

transgenerational homosexuality

The pattern of an older man with a younger man

What was the problem with naming and how was it solved?

The problem of naming= The term "two-spirit" was a potential solution to this problem - making diff. sexual and gender identities that fall under the two spirit identity legible across native and non-native cultures

Sex and Gender p.198

The selective pressures that would produce greater sexual selection in our own species have been reduced because humans have used cultural adaptations as their primary adaptive mechanism for more than a million years.

How do traditional gender roles relate to the cultural acceptance of third genders in Samoa?

Work roles are distinctly defined by gender -Domestic tasks= Womens work - females are assigned roles in the domestic realm/household chores much like the Fa'afafine

sex

a label that you're given at birth based on medical factors, including your hormones, chromosomes, and genitals.

Why are Fa'afafine appreciated within a traditional extended family in Samoa?

because they play a useful role in helping with household labor

sex

biological or assigned sex is about biology, anatomy, and chromosomes.

What are gender roles?

culturally prescribed expectations about what is appropriate behavior for each gender -the role (task and behavior) of an individual within a society, assigned by a culture to each sex the prescribed ways that individuals identified as males, females, or others are expected to behave in a society (most recognize 2 genders, some 3, others 4)

Sex discrimination

occurs when a person is treated unequally due to their sex, the biological factor of being female or male

Gender discrimination

occurs when a person is treated unfavorably due to social behavior such as the non-conformity to gender roles (which may be related to someone's sexual orientation).

gender roles

set of societal norms dictating what types of behaviors are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on their actual or perceived sex.

What is Sexual Dimorphism?

the biological and behavioral differences between males and females (e.g pelvis structure, skull shape) -Such details have been used to identify and confirm the sex of skeletal remains, but these clues can be misleading if the gender role behaviors of that culture do not conform to the stereotype expectations.

How were two-spirit individuals treated in their native communities?

they were accepted and had a proper place