CHAP 14: EMOTIONS AS MOTIVES

Hedonic treadmill (defined)

-events that increase or decrease happiness only have a temporary effect -ppl return to their set point level of happiness bc they habituate to changes in their life circumstances

Innateness of facial expression of emotion

-facial ecpressions are easy to induce -they serve as a universal language that enriches human interaction -facial expressions are largely innate; they occur very early in life, in deaf and blind children, and are the same in all cultures

Emotions motivate facial expressions

-facial expressions associated with emotion are in synchrony with accompanying thoughts and the behavioral goals of emotions -facial expressions and emotional feelings (affect) are both components of emotions

Weiss et al. (2008) study

-found that identical twins were more alike than fraternal twins in subjective well-being

Escape from unwanted attention

(also notes that blushing is often accompanied by the lowering of one's head and averting one's gaze): designed to escape or deflect the scrutiny of others and thereby make those individuals less salient or noticeable

Novelty of stimuli as an appraisal dimension (Ellsworth, 1994)

-Ellsworth feels that uncertain positive situations produce curiosity, interest, and hope, while uncertain negative situations produce anxiety and fear -found some evidence that situations of low certainty evoked fear, while highly uncertain situations, especially when involving others, evoked surprise

Homeostasis (return to) level of happiness

-a person's habitual level of happiness is not zero but is actually a bit higher; most ppl are at least a little bit happy; this is supported by the happiness norms provided with the Subjective Happiness Scale -a return to set point happiness may not always occur; some negative life events have lasting impacts so that ppl do not return to their set points

Response coherency postulate (defined and assumptions of)

-a working assumption regarding the function of emotions -they assume there is a master program that coordinates the many different channels along which emotions operate; this coordination is necessary in order to effectively deal with the environmental demands that people encounter -during an emotional experience, the various channels must interact in a unified manner in order to achieve the aim of the emotion; disunity among the channels would result in chaos and the aim of the emotion would not be met

Cognitive signaler (defined)

-an emotional feeling influences a person's future cognitive appraisal -emotion can bias the appraisal of a situation

Amygdala (defined)

-an important component of the limbic system -an almond-shaped region that plays a crucial role in evaluation emotion events -this structure receives visual, auditory, taste, and smell info and uses it to make a quick and rough eval of the stimulus change for its relevance to a person's well-being -the amygdala and the cortex are involved in the processing of emotion stimuli, especially fear-relevant stimuli; visual and auditory info about an emotion-inducing situation is received by the amygdala for crude and rapid appraisal, with additional info going to the visual and auditory cortex for more elaborate appraisal

Two reasons why people blush (according to behavioral ecology hypothesis)

-appeasement -escape from unwanted attention

Emotion recognition (defined and how done)

-asked ppl in different countries to identify the emotion portrayed by various facial expressions -according to Izard, "the general assumption underlying these EMOTION RECOGNITION studies were as follows: there exist discrete fundamental emotions common to all mankind; and each of these emotions has a characteristic expression or pattern which conveys particular meaning or info for the expresser and the perceiver" -slides of facial expressions are shown on a screen, and you identify the emotion it portrays from a list containing these options: happiness, disgust, surprise, anger, sadness, and fear; if facial expressions are universal, then participants the world over should agree on what emotions are represented

Shaver et al. (1987) study

-attempted to identify various elicitors of different emotions; respondents in the study were asked to think of incidents during which they experienced emotions; they were to describe in detail the events that led them to experience the emotion; experiencing a pos stimulus or event evokes job; losing a pos incentive or experiencing a negative outcome evokes sadness

Two effects of emotion according to Descartes

-believed that the effect of an emotion first was to instill the goal of the emotion into a person's consciousness; the second effect was to prepare the mind and body to achieve that goal -implies that fear wills a person to flee toward safety and anger wills a person to fight in order to redress an insult

Blushing and implications for behavioral ecology hypothesis

-blushing may not qualify as a facial expression but it has interesting implications for the BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY HYPO; it is the one facial signal that is involuntary—it cannot be faked. blushing is localized in the face and results from increased blood flow

Thompson (1941) study

-compared smiling, laughing, and crying in seeing children with these expressions in children who were totally blind from birth or shortly thereafter; the 7-week old to 13-week-old children were observed while playing, fighting and arguing, doing schoolwork, listening to music, and being instructed in games and drawing. concluded that maturation was responsible for the development of facial expressions in blind children, since there was no obvious way they could have learned these expressions; discovered that learning helped stylize facial expressions of seeing children compared to blind and deaf children

Rinn (1991) finding

-concluded that blind individuals do not develop suitable control over their facial muscles bc they lack practice and do not benefit from feedback

Duckworth et al. (2002) study

-created novel drawings that served as neg and pos stimuli; drawings considered neg were more chaotic while those considered pos were more uniform; 5 neg and 5 pos drawings were presented on a computer screen one at a time to participants; on seeing a drawing, participants had to either push a lever away (avoidance) or pull a lever toward them (approach) as quickly as possible -a push-avoidance response should be faster to a neg than to a pos drawing, since avoidance tendencies are associated w neg stimuli; a pull-approach response should be faster to a pos than to a neg drawing -avoidance responses were faster to neg drawings then to pos ones, and approach responses were faster to pos drawings than to neg ones; these results imply that action readiness is automatically attached to the stimulus valence and occurs very early in the unfolding of emotion

Ekman and Friesen (1971) study of South Fore people

-did an emotion recognition study with the South Fore ppl living in New Guinea; South Fore participants were read a story in their own language depicting an emotion and then were asked to identify a picture of a facial expression matching that emotion -results showed that participants could match the facial expression with the emotion description -found that South Fore children also showed similar emotion recognition ability -took photos of the South Fore ppl portraying facial expressions of various emotions and showed them to American college students; the students could accurately identify the emotion portrayed by the faces of the South Fore

Expression-feeling link

-different facial expressions are linked with different emotional feelings -as the intensity of the emotional feelings increases, the linked facial expressions become more vivid

Motive for action

-emotion that have either evolved or were learned in order to achieve the goal of the emotion -the person is in a state of ACTION READINESS

Separation of emotion and cognition

-emotions can occur automatically or result from appraisal that was primitive and below the level of awareness -elaborate cognitive processing is not necessary for emotion -emotional feelings seemingly can occur without any cognitive processing or from processing of which the person is not aware -repeated stimulus exposures below the level of cognitive awareness are also capable of elevating a person's mood and liking of those stimuli -appraisal is possible without cognitive awareness; during this process, appraisal for negative valence occurs prior to appraisal for positive valence

Situational definitions of emotion

-emphasizes the actual stimulus and its context as the major determiners of emotion -emotions are specified by the conditions that produce them

Ekman et al. (1980b) study

-had 5, 9, and 13 year old children intentionally move the facial muscles appropriate for displaying anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness; the researchers discovered that the ability to make this facial movements increased with age; blind children however did not become better at posing as they got older, the became less adept

Lerner et al. (2003) study (see Figure 14.5 on page 358)

-had 973 respondents reply to email messages that were designed to induce either fear or anger; following the inducement, participants were asked to evaluated the likelihood of future risks, such as another terrorist attack on the US or on themselves. risk estimates depended on the emotion that had been induced; angered respondents rated the likelihood of these risks to be lower than frightened respondents did -the respondents were also asked to rate their level of support for the following 2 govt policies: 1. deport foreigners in the US who lack valid visas or 2. strengthen ties with countries in the Muslim world; results show that when angered, respondents were more likely to retaliate; however, when afraid, respondents were more likely to be conciliatory -feelings of anger that resulted from the actually 9/11 terrorist attacks also resulted in greater endorsement of the policy to deport foreigners and less endorsement of strengthening ties with the Muslim world

Galati et al. (1997) study (see Figure 14.3 on page 349)

-had individuals blind from birth and normally sighted individuals portray neutral, surprise, anger, joy, disgust, sadness, and fear expressions; a different group of sighted individuals was then asked to identify what emotional expression was being conveyed -results show it was easiest for judges to identify the expression of joy; they had more difficulty identifying the expressions of surprise, anger, disgust, and a neutral expression of blind individuals compared to those of sighted individuals -in a later study, w children younger than 4 years, different facial intensities btwn pos and neg emotions were also clearer in normally sighted children than in blind children

Scherer (1997) study (see Table 14.2 on page 344)

-had respondents from 37 different countries answer questions. the results indicate that there seems to be high agreement around the world on what appraisal dimensions are responsible for evoking emotions

Monahan et al. (2000) study (see Figure 14.2 on page 342)

-in one condition 25 different idiographs are presented one time each, while in the other condition 5 different idiographs are shown 5 times each; immediately afterwards, you are asked to provide 3 different introspective reports on the extent of your positive mood (facial expressions, indicating mood on a scale from sad to happy, indicating mood on a scale form depressed to upbeat) -5 repeated exposures of the same idiograph elevated positive mood more than did a single exposure -in a follow up experiment, you are shown again, below awareness, the idiographs; afterwards, rate each idiograph for how much you liked it -the results replicated those of the fist experiment; the ratings showed that the idiographs exposed 5 times were liked more than those exposed just once -one interpretation of these results is based on the idea that the repeatedly exposed idiographs are associated with the absence of aversive events; repeated exposures signify the absence of negative features, and thus avoidance tendencies diminish; approach tendencies remain and become associated with the stimulus that had been presented below awareness; the result is increased positive affect in response to the original stimuli and the situation

Facial expression in early life

-infants show facial expressions of emotion within the first few months of life

Lyubormirsky et al. (2005) study

-liken the HEDONIC TREADMILL to walking up a down-escalator; walking up resembles trying to improve life's circumstances in order to increase happiness while the descent of the escalator shows that ppl return to their set point level

Fridlund (1991) study

-measured the facial expressions and emotional experiences of his participants while they were in the presence of a real or imaginary person; during the experiment, participants viewed videos of cute babies, a playing dog, a sea otter, or the routine of a stand-up comedian while alone, with an imaginary friend, or with a real friend; during viewing, participants zygomaticus muscles were recorded, which is the one responsible for smiling; participants also rated their degree of happiness after viewing the video. according to the READOUT HYPO, smile muscle activity should correspond w happiness radings such that greater smile activity is associated with greater happiness ratings. according to the BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY HYPO, smile activity should correlate with the sociality of the condition and not necessarily the happiness rating. results supported the BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY HYPO—smile muscle activity varied according to the degree of sociality, while happiness ratings did not; smile muscle activity was greatest when participants viewed the videos with a real friend, next when with an imaginary friend, and least when alone; happiness ratings did not vary with the sociality of the conditions. feels that facial expressions are possible in isolation when a person responds to the mental image of another individual; these expressions are not in response to feelings of happiness, since those ratings were not different across the four conditions

Affective experience produces the facial expression

-neural activity in the brain responsible for the subjective feeling is also responsible for movement of the facial muscles

Fulcher (1942) study

-photographed seeing children and blind children while they posed with a happy, sad, angry, or afraid expression; then rated how close the child's pose matched the expression judged to be appropriate for that particular emotion; ratings showed that facial poses of seeing children were judged to be more adequate than the poses of blind children; the poses of blind children became less precise as they got older, while those of the seeing children became more refined

Broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 1998)

-positive emotions are able to enlarge the availability of thought-action links and to broaden a person's scope of attention

Yik and Russell (1999) study

-presented photos of facial expressions that displayed surprise, happiness, disgust, sadness, anger, fear, and contempt; the participants were required to match the faces with a list of social messages. results showed that all groups (Canadian, Hong Kong Chinese, and Japanese) were able to identify a face with its corresponding social message and also with the emotion a face displayed

Izard et al. (1995) study

-recorded the expressions made by 2.5 to 9 month old infants during pleasant or midly stressful interactions with their mothers; during these interactions a month showed interested and joy while playing with her infant, or she showed a sad, angry, or still expression -infants at 2.5 months were already sensitive to their mothers; they exhibited facial expressions of interest, joy, sadness, and anger; also, the infants' expressions also depended on their mothers emotional expressions; infants generally showed a much greater frequency of positive expressions in reaction to their mothers positive expressions -an infant's smile contributes to the development of attachment and social bonding -interpret the infants disposition to smile in response to most of their mothers expressions as an adaptive behavior pattern, bc the smiling infant positively influences the caregiver -the amount of facial area involved in an infant's smile depends on the level of involvement with their mother; infants smiles were weakest when the mother neither smiled nor gazed at her infant; however, when the mother did smile and gaze at her infant, the infant's return smile involved more facial area

Dijksterhuis and Aarts (2003) study

-required participants to categorize words as possessing either a positive or negative valence; the researchers showed participants 15 pos words and 15 neg words w exposure speed so fast that participants were unable to identify the words, and many reported they had seen nothing flash on the screen -positive words were categorized no better than chance, while negative stimuli were categorized more accurately than change -these results indicate that appraisal of negatively valenced stimuli take precedence over positively valenced ones; each word evoked an affective reaction but this reaction occurs sooner to neg stimuli than to pos ones

Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) study

-showed their participants video clips that evoked one of two positive emotions and one of two negative emotions; a neutral video served as a baseline condition against which to compare the effects of the positive and negative emotions; following the video, participants were asked to feel the emotion evoked by the video and to strongly imagine being in a situation in which such an emotion would occur; then participants were given the instruction, "given this feeling please list all the things you would like to do right now" -participants generated more thought-action responses in the 2 positive-emotion conditions and generated fewer in the 2 negative-emotion conditions in comparison to the neutral condition -positive emotions broaden and negative emotions narrow the range of thought-action urges

Eible-Eibesfeldt (1973) study

-studied facial expressions in 6 deaf and blind children; observed these children smiling, laughing, crying in distress and anger, frowning, pouting, and showing surprise -SABINE was born with no eyesight and was totally deaf, yet she exhibited expressions in much the same manner as a hearing and seeing child. concluded that learning refines facial expressions—"the deaf-and-blind often lack the minute gradation of an expression. An expression suddenly appears, and equally suddenly wanes without warning leaving a completely blank face"

Two hypotheses on the function of facial expression

-the READOUT HYPO -the BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY HYPO

Affective experiences and expressions simply correlate with one another (they jointly occur but are not causally related)

-the affective experience and expression simply correlate with each other; one does not cause the other, but both are in response to an emotion stimulus -as the emotion stimulus becomes more intense, the affective experience and expression do also -both affective experiences and facial reactions jointly occur in reaction to the emotion-inducing event

Role of amygdala in stimulus appraisal

-the amygdala rapidly shows us that something is amiss or discrepant and can be life threatening; the amygdala errs on the side of danger; it assumes the stimulus is potentially harmful and executes orders for a flight-or-fight response ; the failure to make a fight-or-flight response is more detrimental to the person than it is to make this response even if not needed; thus the amygdala is responsible for inducing fast action in a situation appraised as potentially dangerous

Three factors that determine people's habitual level of unhappiness or happiness

-the happiness set point is genetically determined -happiness has been linked to some of the big 5 personality traits -ppl always seem to return to their set point level of happiness

Action readiness

-the impulse or urge to behave in a particular manner -some action tendencies in response to emotion are innate; other action tendencies result from learning and occur only after some deliberation

Event-appraisal-emotion sequence

-the process begins with the occurrence of an emotion-inducing stimulus and ends with the unfolding of the various components of emotion -during the pre-aware phase, there occurs a rough nonconscious appraisal of the negative and pos aspects of the situation; during this interval, the rough appraisal process is biased to detect neg features prior to any pos ones -a few milliseconds later, the situation is appraised cognitively and more extensively, with awareness occurring along emotion-relevant dimensions; this phase includes info obtained during the pre-aware appraisal process; during the awareness phase a person appraises a situation in a manner consistent with her attitudes, personality, needs, and goals; this process is quite flexible, so there may be no close correspondence btwn the actual stimulus and the appraised stimulus—2 ppl who are in the same actual situation may appraise it quite differently -the outcomes of both appraisal processes elicit the unfolding of emotion

Personality

-the traits of neuroticism, extraversion, and agreeableness are definitely associated with happiness; the happiest students were those ranked low in neuroticism, high in extraversion, and high in agreeableness -well-being correlated positively with extraversion and negatively with neuroticism

Bornstein et al. (1987) study

-used photos of ppl as stimuli; these photos were exposed at intervals below or above the level of conscious recognition; afterward, participants were presented pairs of photos, one new and one old; they were asked to select the previously exposed photo as well as the one they preferred -results show that exposed photos were preferred more than unexposed photos no matter whether their exposure was below or above the level of conscious recognition -humans can develop a like or dislike for a stimulus even if they are not aware of being exposed to it

Mowrer (1960) study (see Table 14.1 on page 339)

-used the SITUATIONAL DEFINITION approach in describing an animal's reaction to the gain and loss of positive or negative incentives -if a stimulus predicted the delivery of food, then a hungry animal would experience the emotion of hope; however if a stimulus predicts the delivery of food but food does not arrive, then an animal experiences disappointment

Appraisal dimensions

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Appraisal of the emotion event

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Appraisal without awareness

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Characteristics of the emotion situation

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Diener et al. (2006) study

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Different emotions have different goals (see Table 14.5 on page 356)

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Emotion-eliciting situations

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Emotions as motives for cognitive activity

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Expression-feeling link (defined; Izard, 1994)

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Facial expression in deaf and blind children

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Function of facial expression

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Genetics

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Know and understand the timeline and the 4 phases

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LeDoux findings

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Learning and fine-tuning of expression

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People behave in order to attain pleasant affect

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Positive emotions expand thoughts

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Priority of negative stimulus appraisal

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Processing of emotion stimuli

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Responsibility as an appraisal dimension

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Table 14.3 on page 351

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Two views on expression-feeling link

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Unfolding of the stimulus-appraisal-emotion sequence (see Figure 14.1 on page 338)

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Universality of facial expression of emotion

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Four common assumptions of theories concerned with the appraisal of emotion-inducing events (Roseman and Smith, 2001)

1. different appraisals od the same event produce different emotions 2. the same appraisal of different events produces the same emotion 3. the outcome of the appraisal process elicits the involuntary unfolding of emotion 4. appraisal can occur above and also below an individual's cognitive awareness

Seven arguments Zajonc (1980) makes why emotion can occur without cognition

1. feelings can occur prior to cognition 2. emotional responses are universal and occur in most species of animals and in humans 3. emotional reactions may accompany cognitive judgments regardless of whether a person wants this to occur or not 4. when affective reactions occur, it is difficult to reverse them 5. affective judgments about likes and dislikes refer to an individual's feelings and not to properties of actual stimuli 6. it is difficult for ppl to state the reason for a particular affective judgment—they know what they like or dislike even if they cannot state the reason or it—stimulus features that induce various components of emotion are often vague, global, and not used in making cognitive judgments 7. affect or feelings are difficult to put into words; instead, humans communicate their emotions to others via facial expressions and to themselves with the sensations their affective experiences produce

Efference hypothesis

EFFERENCE HYPO -this activated brain circuit sends info to the facial muscles, which generate the expression that is synonymous with the emotion—an activated fear circuit stimulates facial muscles that produce the expression of fear, while a disgust circuit stimuluates looks of disgust

Readout hypothesis (defined)

a facial expression conveys an individual's emotional feeling to another individual; a facial expression is like a dial that registers the emotional feelings, much like the tachometer of a car registers the # of revolutions per minute of the engine; this relationship is the expression-feeling link

Marsh et al. (2005) study (see Figure 14.4 on page 353)

a fear expression resembles a babyish face while an anger expression resembles a matures face; babyish faces trigger one type of behavior and mature faces another -had participants examine photos of male and female faces that portrayed either fear or anger in order to determine if such faces had baby or mature features; the photos were rated with a 7-point scale on a variety of features -results showed that fear expressions were rated more babyish, with larger eyes and greater submissiveness; ratings of other features showed that fear compared to anger expression was also judged more dependent, feminine, honest, naïve, and youthful -researchers concluded that something about the way the anger expression changes the facial features may make the face appear more mature and the same may be true for the fear expressions and babyishness; the emotion of fear implies submissiveness and so is associated with a babyish face indicative of submission; the emotion of anger however implies dominance and so is associated with a mature face that signals dominance

Undoing hypothesis (defined; Fredrickson et al., 2000)

a positive emotion undoes the effect of a negative emotion

Subjective well-being

a private experience that an individual strives to bring into consciousness while its opposite or unhappiness is the feeling to be driven out of consciousness

Subjective Happiness Scale (Lyubomirsky and Lepper, 1999; see Table 14.6 on page 360)

an operational definition of happiness; it is the procedure used to measure how happy a person is currently -scales that measure happiness are important bc they can be used to show what factors determine one's level of happiness and how happiness relates to various behaviors

Display Rule Assessment Inventory (Matsumoto et al., 2005; see Table 14.4 on page 354)

developed to measure the extent that ppl feel they should alter their facial expressions in the presence of family members, close friends, colleagues, and strangers in various situations. describes 6 diff facial management techniques: AMPLIFY, NOT INHIBIT, DEAMPLIFY, QUALIFY, NEUTRALIZE, MASK. with the "not inhibit" procedure, individuals display facial expressions that match their emotional feelings; the other procedures however are used by the individuals to alter their facial expressions independent of their emotional feelings

Appraisal tendency hypothesis (Lerner and Keltner, 2000)

each emotion has a unique influence on ppl's judgment. the unique feel of an emotion also can affect a person's judgment about unrelated events

The motivating function of emotions

emotions motivate behavior toward some designated end, which is the goal or aim of the emotion. as part of achieving their goal, emotions also motivate cognitive activity; the distinctive nature of an emotional feeling informs an individual how a situation was appraised

Ekman (1973) study

employed participants from 5 diff countries: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Japan & US; they were shown several photos representing a specific emotion; there was high agreement among members of the diff countries in recognizing what emotions each facial expression represented; the greatest agreement was in the identification of happiness, with the least agreement being in the identification of anger and fear

Individual baseline level of emotional valence (resembling a set point)

every individual is assumed to have a baseline level of emotional valence, which resembles a set point; it is the level of unhappiness or happiness to which ppl consistently return—that is, their set point level of happiness

Behavioral ecology hypothesis

facial expressions are issued to serve one's social motives in a particular situation and need not be linked to emotional feelings; "if we exhibit social inclinations and we are emotional, our faces signal the former and not the latter"

DISPLAY RULES

govern the expressions that individuals must exhibit in public and need not be linked to emotional feelings-are cognitive representations of social conventions about emotional displays

Halberstadt et al. (1995) study

had participants listen to happy or sad music; while listening to the music at low volume, participants also heard a word, either bridal/bridle or banned/band. participants who listened to sad music reported hearing significantly more sad words than did participants who listened to happy music; the type of music did not affect the hearing of happy words. the happy or sad music may simply have put participants in pos or neg moods; thus, rather than the specific emotion, it is a person's general mood that influences appraisal and judgment

Fredrickson et al, (2000) study

induced anxiety in their participants by putting them under time pressure to prepare a speech on why they are good friends; following this task, diff groups were shown a neutral film clip or one designed either to induce amusement or contentment. the time it took cardiovascular activity to return to normal established the effectiveness of each film in reducing anxiety; both the amusement and contentment films reduced anxiety more quickly than the neutral film -concluded that whereas negative emotions increase cardiovascular activity in preparation for emergency responses, positive emotions undo these effects—that is they reduce preparedness of the emergency response

Lerner and Keltner (2001) findings

induced feelings of anger or fear in their participants by having them describe events that made them most angry or most fearful; next, participants rated hypothetical situations for the extent they would feel in control and for the extent such situations were predictable; even though both anger and fear are negative emotions, they affected the ratings differently; angered participants rated themselves as having more personal control and felt the situations were more predictable than fearful participants did

Izard and Malatesta (1987) study

infant facial expressions are true to the subjective emotion the infant is experiencing; these expressions are important bc they influence the infant's caregiver

Positive emotions terminate negative emotions

one function of positive emotions, according to Levenson, might be to restore the person to a state of physiological calmness, which would happen more rapidly than if negative emotions ran their course

Motivational nature of positive emotions

pleasant emotions serve as positive reinforcers since they maintain the behavior that produced them; pleasant emotions also act like positive incentives since individuals strive to attain those experiences

Aim of positive emotions

positive emotions do not often instigate instrumental behavior; no action readiness, adjustment, or correction is required, since there are no emergencies to meet or unpleasant negative feelings to alleviate; instead, behavior occurs to arouse a positive emotion rather than to alleviate an emotion

Limbic system (defined)

processing occurs in various areas of the brain, with the limbic system playing a crucial role; this system is a bundle of fiber tracts that form a ring (limbus) around the brain stem

Lykken and Tellegen (1996) study

report that identical twins are more alike than fraternal twins in well-being or happiness even when identical twins have been raised by different families; these consistencies remain in effect even when measured 10 years apart

Izard (1971) study

showed pictures of facial expressions representing 8 basic emotions to ppl from the US, Europe, Greece, Japan and Africa; he also found high agreement among diff cultures in identifying these expressions; a person's accuracy in identifying a facial expression of emotion in another person however depends on the group membership of each; according to the in-group advantage, an individual is more accurate at recognizing the facial expression of a member from her own cultural group than from a diff cultural group; this finding suggests that learning may play some role in either the recognition or the formation of facial expressions

Implications of the readout and behavioral ecology hypotheses

the READOUT HYPO -another individual should not influence our facial expressions -the emotion-generated expression should occur whether the individual is alone or with others the BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY HYPO -the presence of another individual is important for the occurrence of a facial expression, since the other individual is the one most likely to satisfy our social motive

Appeasement

to show that the person cares about social norms and wants to repair any social damage that was caused ; an attempt to admit error, apologize, or placate the offended individuals in order to deter retaliation, aggression, or banishment