Chapter 10 - Soups, Stocks, and Sauces

Thick soups

-Chowders: Usually fish based soups thickened with vegetable pieces, such as potatoes, that have been cooked in milk. -Gazpacho: Uncooked thick tomato-based soup with added vegetables and Latin American seasonings; served chilled. -Minestrone: An Italian soup that contains macaroni, vegetables, and beans. -Egg drop: A Chinese soup made by dropping slightly beaten eggs into simmering clear stock. -Borscht: A Russian/Polish soup based on beets and may or may not have vegetables and/or meats added to it.

Types of soup

-Clear: Removing the particles found in stock results in a clear soup such as a bouillon or consommé. -Thin: Consistency between a clear liquid soup and a thickened soup; typically contain cooked meats, vegetables, and/or starch such as pasta or rice. -Thick: Any stock can be thickened with starch or pureed vegetables to yield thick soup such as chowders, gazpacho, minestrone, egg drop, and borscht. -Cream: Adding cream and/or milk plus a thickening ingredients to a puree made from meats, poultry, fish, or vegetables results in creamed soup, and bisques.

Functions of starch in foods

-Thickening/ gelling agent: Main function of starch in processed foods. Foods: soups, sauces, pie fillings, gravies, chili, stews, cream fillings, custards, whipped toppings, some puddings and some salad dressings. -Edible films: Protective coating for chewing gums. Bind foods such as meat products and pet foods. Act as a base on food for holding substances such as flavor oils in chocolate. -Dextrose: Starch is broken down into its primary units, glucose (dextrose) for use as a sweetener. Used in production of confections, wine, and some canned goods. -Starch syrups: Used to produce corn syrup. Added to soft drinks, canned fruits, jams, jellies, preserves, frozen desserts, confections, frozen fruits, fountain syrups.

Changes during grain heating

-Water softens outer covering and makes starchy endosperm digestible -Starch gelatinizes - grain absorbs water, softens, and expands -improving texture and flavor

Clarifying stock in consommé

1) Add one raw egg white for every quart of stock. 2)Add ground meat, finely chopped vegetables to the mixture. This is done to add flavor since egg whites strip flavor from stock. 3)Heat the mixture to boiling. 4) The egg white (and the other ingredients) will coagulate on the surface of the stock, forming what is referred to as the raft. As the stock simmers, the raft entraps loose particle. 5) Remove the raft by straining thus ending up with a clear soup.

Phases of gel formation

1) Hydration 2) Dispersion 3) Gelation

Gelantinization

1) Starch granules are heated in water. 2) Hydrogen bonds within the starch weaken. 3) Water penetrates the starch molecules causing starch to swell, increasing translucency and viscosity. -A gel forms when a linear amylose strands form a network trapping water within a more solid mass. Heating too long will cause the starch to rupture and the proteins will begin to denature.

Factors influencing gelantinization

1) Water - sufficient for absorption by the starch. 2) Temperature - dependent on starch (133-167 F). 3) Timing - heating beyond gelatinization temperature decreases viscosity. 4) Acidity - a pH below 4.0 decreases the viscosity of a starch gel. Acidic fruit juices should be added after gelatinization. 5) Sugar - competes with starch for water 6) Fat/protein - Delays gelatinization by coating the starch and preventing water absorption.

Factors influencing gel formation

1) gelatin concentraiton 2) temperature 3) sugar 4) acid 5) salts 6) solid ingredients 7) whipping

Medium/short grain

2-3 x's longer. Medium and short grain rice have less amylose, which makes them stickier when cooked. Moist and tender.

Long-grain rice

4 times longer than they are wide, cook to a drier, fluffier consistency which allows grains to separate.

Stocks

A foundational thin liquid, made by simmering vegetables, meat or fish, and other seasoning ingredients in water. The stock often is strained. Generally considered white or brown.

Roux

A thickener made by cooling equal parts flour (usually wheat) and fat (butter or meat droppings). Hot liquid is gradually added to cooked flour and butter and this combination is cooked until it reached the desired consistency, depending on sauce or soup being prepared.

Fortification

Add

Deglaze

Adding liquid to a pan dripping and simmering/stirring to dissolve and loosen cooked on particles sticking to the bottom of the pan.

Soups

Are liquid foods which may or may not contain other solid ingredients such as meat, poultry, vegetables and/or grain based foods (pasta, bread, rice, etc.). Based on stock or broth.

White stock

Beef/veal/chicken/pork, poultry stock, fish stock, vegetable stock.

Nutrient content in grains

Carbohydrates protein = incomplete protein so pair with legumes. fat = low and no cholesterol vitamins and minerals = low in these because milling takes away nutrient content. Enriched back in Fiber = whole grains help meet standard

How to make clarified butter (ghee)

Clarification of Butter: Clarified butter is easily obtained by melting butter over low heat, allowing it to cool until the heavier, cloudy looking milk solids have settled out, and gently pouring off the clear liquid portion.

Consomme

Clear soup with rich flavorful broth made crystal clear by cooking and clarifying the stock.

Hominy grits

Coarsely ground grain. Grinding dried hominy into small uniform particles that are boiled as breakfast dish in south.

Instant Rice

Cooked and then dehydrated so it only takes a few minutes to prepare. Texture inferior but grains have tendency to split during cooking and dry out.

Cream soups

Easy to make. Generally follow the same basic steps and add almost any vegetable you want.

Hominy

Endosperm of white corn is enlarged because it has been soaked in lye and dried. Enlarged kernels of hulled corn which bran and germ removed. Canned or frozen.

Starch properties

Gelantinization, gel formation, retrogradation (3 step process), dextrinization, and modified starches.

Gelatin - protein formation

Gelatin is a mixture of proteins extracted from the collagen found in the bones, hides and connective tissue of animals. It is available in the form of powder or sheets, and can be colorless, almost transparent, odorless, and virtually tasteless, or flavored (combined with sugar, and with coloring and flavoring agents).

Wheat Germ

Germ of wheat is good source of Vitamin E, some B vitamins and Fiber. Contains polyunsaturated fat and unless defatted, become rancid if not refrigerated.

Components of cereal grain

Husk - rough outer covering protecting grain. Bran - hard outer covering just under husk to project endosperm. Has fiber and minerals. Endosperm - largest portion of grain containing all of starch. Basis of all flours. Provides energy like Carbs and proteins. Germ - smallest portion of grain and embryo for future plant. Has fat, vitamins, minerals. Brain and germ = whole wheat flours

Rice bran

Just as effective at lowering cholesterol as oat bran but bran from rice has a slightly different taste and a shorter shelf life than that from oats.

Farina

Known as cream of wheat is made by granulating the endosperm of wheat into fine consistency.

Factors influencing gel formation

Levels of amylose - amylose molecules gel but amylopectin molecules do not, so sufficient amylose must be present in starch for a gel to form. Higher amylose is used for product when gelling is desirable. Ex. regular cornstarch. Lower amylose is used for products when gelling is not desirable like potato starches, tapioca, and waxy cornstarch.

Absorption method

Most common preparation for grains like rice. Grain is added to boiling water. 1/4 teaspoon per cup of uncooked rice of salt is added. Pan covered, brought to boil than reduced to simmer for remaining time.

More on soups

Other ingredients are added to give soup particular name like: chicken noodle, split pea, heart vegetable, etc. Cooking time varies from half an hour to 12 hours depending on soup type and ingredients.

Converted rice

Parboiled rice is long-grain that has been soaked, steamed under pressure and dried before milling. Accounts for 20% of all rice sold in North America. Commonly used because grains stay firm and separated.

Starches - Sources

Plants - Cereals (wheat, rice, corn), Roots (potatoes, arrowroot, tapioca), and other (dried beans, peas) -Starches vary in flavor, viscosity, and price depending of the origin (amounts of amylose and amylopectin).

Pasta

Predominately made from flour starch and water. Types of pasta depend on disc used to make shape.

Enrichment

Replace

Starch characterisitics

Retrogradation - the gel contracts (bonds tighten between the amylose) which causes syneresis or weeping (seepage of water out of the gel). Dextrinization - Amylose and amylopectin are broken down into smaller, sweeter tasting dextrin molecules in the presence of dry heat. Modified Starches - Starch that has been chemically or physically modified to produce unique functional characteristics and increases the starch's usefulness.

Unthickened sauces

Sauces prepared without a starch or any other thickening agent. Examples: bbq sauce, tartar sauce, ketchup.

Ingredients for stock

Seasoning, mire poix, meat, and water.

More on starches

Starch granules differ in sizes based on their sources.

Starch structure

Starch is a polysaccharide consisting of long chains of repeating units of glucose molecules linked together in the form of amylose, which is made up of molecules arranged in a linear fashion, or amylopectin, where the arrangement is highly branches. The proportions of these are responsible for differences in cooking characteristics of starches.

Broth

Stock with added spices, herbs, and other flavors.

Relationship among them

Stocks - white or brown -> Soups - clear, thin, thick, cream. OR -> Sauces - veloute, bechamel, espagnole, hollandaise, or tomato. Sauces uses starch/roux for thickening.

Sauces

The purpose of a sauce is to enhance a food's flavor, texture, moisture and appearance. Whether thickened or unthickened, can be grouped in mother and small sauces. -Mother sauce: a sauce that serves as the springboard from which other sauces are prepared. -Small sauce: a secondary sauce created when a flavor is added to a mother sauce. Starch/roux added for thickening.

Reduction

The reduction is made by simply simmering or boiling a liquid until the volume is reduced through evaporation. Produces a thickened, more concentrated, flavorful product. White wine is reduced from 3 cups to 1 oz.

Short grain

The very starchy short grain rice known as arborio give italian risotto its creamy texture. Round, Ideal for rice pudding. Sticky for sushi and chopsticks.

Thin soups

There are hundreds of types of thin soups. Many made with small chunks of meat and vegetables. Ex: chicken noodles, vegetable and rice, bean and vegetable, etc.

Thickened sauces

Three main ingredients: liquid, thickening agent, seasoning/flavorings. Most common flavorings are: salt, black pepper, white pepper, lemon juice, cayenne, herbs, and wine. White stock -> white roux -> veloute (pot pie) Milk -> white roux -> béchamel (mac n cheese/steak) Brown stock -> brown roux -> espagnole (roasted beef) Clarified butter -> egg + acid -> hollandaise (eggs benedict, asparagus, broccoli, cauliflower). Tomato juice/puree -> Tomato pulp -> tomato sauce. (pasta).

Corn on the cob and kernel corn

Used as vegetable in wide variety of dishes. Fresh corn include yellow and white and hybrid containing both yellow and white.

Thickening agent for 5 mother sauces

Veloute - Liquid: white stock TA: white roux bechamel - Liquid: Milk TA: white roux Espagnole - Liquid: Brown stock TA: brown roux Hollandaise - Liquid: clarified butter TA: Egg + acid Tomato sauce -Liquid: tomato juice/puree TA: tomato pulp

Bulgur

Wheat berried ground even finer than cracked wheat. Berries partially steamed, dried, and then cracked to produce more pronounced flavor. Common ingredient in tabouleh.

Types of Roux

White/blonde/brown: Variations in heating times of the fat‐flour combination causes differences in the colors and flavors. As the roux cooks, it becomes darker and its starchy taste lessens, but its ability to thicken is also reduced as the starch molecules are broken down by heat. Thus, the darker the roux, the more of it will be needed to add to the liquid for thickening purposes. Consistency: butter (tbs): flour (tbs): Liqiod (cup): Thin = 1:1:1 Medium = 2:2:1 Thick = 3:3:1

Vegetable stock

carrots, onions, tomatoes, garlic, shallots, celeriac, parsnips, fennel, leeks.

Corn oil

extracted from germ of the corn kernel.

Cornstarch

finely ground corn endosperm. Used to thicken gravies, puddings, and sauces because of high starch content.

Rolled wheat

flattening wheat berries between rollers. Similar to rolled oats, but different from the extruded wheat flakes used in breakfast cereal.

Wheat Bran

insoluble fiber, indigestible cellulose.

Specialty rice

long-grain rice varieties that have nuttier taste, separate easily, and more expensive. Not enriched and include basmati, jasmine teammate, wehani, and wild pecan/popcorn rice.

Cornmeal

meal that is coarsely ground version of any grain, so corn meal is coarsely ground corn. Bread has shorter shelf life cause fat content is higher.

Brown stock

meat, beef/veal/pork. Bones, vegetables, and other ingredients are browned before the liquid is added.

White rice

milled and polished to remove husk, bran, and germ. Most nutrients eliminated and some replaced in enriched grains. Exception is riboflavin because it turns grain yellow.

Wild Rice

not really rice or grain, but rather a reed-like water plant. Has nutty flavor and is often used to stuff game and poultry. Contains twice amount of protein and more B vitamins than white rice. Cooked until grain pops with creamier center. Swells up four times size during cooking.

Brown rice

only hull removed leaving bran and germ intact. Results in more fiber but longer cooking time because tougher texture compared to white rice.

Wheat berries

simplest form of wheat, also called groats, which are whole wheat kernels that have not been processed or milled. These take longest time to cook.

Glutinous rice

sweet rice that is slightly sweeter, stickier, and more translucent than regular white rice when heated. Easily shaped and molded so preferred for rice dumplings, rice crackers, and sushi.

Corn syrup

viscous liquid containing fructose, glucose and other sugars. Made by treating cornstarch with selected enzymes. HFCS is corn syrup that has been chemically altered to increase sweetness.

Cracked wheat

wheat berries that are ground until they crack. Can get in coarse, medium, or fine grinds. Reduces cooking time from 1 hour to 15 mins resulting in more tender, less chewy wheat.