Chapter 12 Middle Childhood Cognitive Development

Working memory( short term)

the structure of memory that can hold a sensory stimulus for up to 30 seconds after the trace decays. The ability to maintain info in this area depends on cognitive strategies and on the basic capacity to continue to perceive a vanished stimulus , in middle childhood seems largely adultlike in organization/strategies, shows only gradual improvement through early adolescence. Auditory stimuli can be maintained longer in short-term memory than visual stimuli.

Vocabulary and grammar

Age 6 → 10,000 words Age 7 to nine → most children realize different words have different meanings; entertained by riddles 8 or 9 → children able to form 'tag questions' in which the question is tagged on to the end of a declarative sentence

Rote learning

learning by repetition, which is how children learn alphabet, not by storing all 26 letters into 26 chunks of info.

Convergent thinking

a thought process that attempts to focus on the single best solution to a problem.

Critique of Kohlberg/ domain theory approach

-Developmental critics say moral reasoning can be achieved earlier, kohlberg underestimated children's cognitive abilities. -Domain theory approach to moral development frames morality as universal domain , prescriptive and formal rules are applied to solve concerte moral dilemmas and problems -Domain theorists argue that moral values/knowledge are neutral and free of cultural norms and personal beliefs

IQ formula

-IQ= (Mental age (divided by) chronological age) x 100\ This formula , a child with an MA (mental age) of 6 and a CA (chronological age) of 6 has an iq of 100

Carbonneau and colleagues theory to education views

-If child is struggling with a problem, it is recommended that a similar problem be given, allowing them to work through that one rather than pointing out the missing step to the child. -Instructional strategies that incorporate the use of manipulatives in math have positive results -Caution that the use of manipulatives is dependent on other factors such as level of instructional guidance, the particular mathematical concept being taught , the developmental stage of students and amount of instructional time. -Teachers should not try to impose on a child but should find interesting/stimulating materials

Development of recall memory

-Involves retrieval of info from memory as children develop their capacity for recalling info increases. Improvement in memory is linked to their ability to quickly process infi, children's memory is good overall indicator of their cognitive ability. -Research reveals that children are more likely to accurately recall info when they are strongly motivated to do so, fear of poor grades can encourage recall in middle childhood the promise of rewards also helps -A study of grade 2 vs grade 4 students show that when both parties were given objects that fell into four categories (furniture, clothing, tool, fruit) and given 3 min to arrange them as they wanted, the grade 4 were more likely to categorize/recall than the grade 2s.

Piaget' theory in education

-Learning involves active discovery -Examined usefulness of manipulatives ie. tangrams, counters, cards used in games) in helping children acquire logio-mathematical knowledge. -Rigid use of manipulatives -without possibility of exploration and problem solving and minimal teacher intervention -Instructions should be geared to child's level of development ie. concrete operations children learning about fractions should not be lectured but invited to divide concrete objects into parts. -Learning to take into account the perspective of others is a key ingredient in the development of both cognition and morality, believed that teachers should promote group discussions and interactions among their students.

Does a child's education in math need to begin prior to kindergarten?

-Many children enter kindergarten with weak whole-number skills which includes issues comprehending and what they mean and the relationship between numbers, -Children who do not develop basic whole-number skills prior to entering kindergarten will be at a disadvantage for achievement in math.

Lewis Terman

-adapted the Binet-Simon scale, naemd hsi test the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, gave an IQ instead of an MA, can be used on children aged 2-adults. -shows the kinds of items that define performance at various ages

Critics of Gardner's Theory

agree that ppl function more intelligently in some area of life than other, they agreed that many ppl have special talents , even if overall intelligence is average. They question whether such special talents are "intelligences"

Seriation

placing objects in an order or series according to a property or trait

Information processing

view in which cognitive processes are compared to the functions of computers, the theory deals with the input, storage and retrieval, manipulation and output of info, which focus is on the development of children's strategies for problem solving and their "mental program". Key elements : development of selective attention, development of capacity for storage and retrieval of information, development of strategies for processing info.

Sight vocabulary

words that are immediately recognized on the basis of familiarity with their overall shapes rather than decoded.

Decentration

(can focus on multiple parts of a problem at once) simultaneous focusing (centering) on more than one aspect or dimension of a problem or situation.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

- originally a ratio obtained by dividing a child's score or mental age on an intelligence test by his or her chronological age. In general, it is a score on an intelligence test.

Whole language approach

- a method of learning to read in which children come to recognize words in variety of contexts through repeated exposure to them. -Requires that children associated visual stimuli such as cat and robert with the sound combinations that produce the spoken words, usually required by rote learning or extensive repetition.

Factor Analysis

- a statistical technique that enables researchers to determine the which items on test seem to be measuring the same things.

Divergent thinking

- a thought process that attempts to generate multiple solutions to problems., free and fluent association to the elements of a problem. -Sometimes arriving at the correct answer requires using both thinking styles , child may first use divergent thinking then convergent thinking may be used to select likely solutions and reject others.

Piaget assessment of seriation

- asked children in range of ages to place ten sticks in order of size -children age 4/5 place sticks in random sequence or in small groups as in small, medium or large -6/7 year olds in transition from preoperational to concrete operational may place sticks in proper sequence, usually do so with trial and error, overall perspective is still limited but they can compare sizes between stick and organize that way. -7/8 year olds are usually capable of concrete operations, go about task systematically , without error , can look at array of ten sticks than select the longest or shortest stick and place it from point they will build their series (ie. shortest to longest or longest to shortest)

Capacity of short term memory

- can be described in number of bits" or chunks of info that can be kept in memory at once, ie. to keep phone number in short-term memory simultaneously one must rehearse consecutively. -Typical adults/ adolescents can keep about 7 chunks of info in short term memory at a time, typical 5 year old can work on two chunks of info at a time, ability to recall series of digits improves through middle childhood.

Phonetic method

- children first learn to associate written letter and letter combinations with the sounds they are meant to indicate. - Has the advantage of giving children skills they can use to decode and read new words. However, it can also slow them down when it comes to familiar words, most children/adults tend to read familiar words by the word-recognition method and make an effort to sound out new words.

Semantic codes

- code based on the meaning of info ie. using elaborative strategy in terms of remembering new vocab can build extended cues which can help retrieve words in the future.

Development of the capacity for storage and retrieval of information

- development of capacity of memory and of children's understanding of the processes of memory and how to strengthen/use memory.

Development of selective attention

- development of children's abilities to focus on the elements of a problem and find solutions, preoperational children who are engaged in problems solving tend to focus on one element or problem at a time, concrete operational can attend to multiple aspects of the problem at once.

Development of strategies for processing information

- development of the ability to solve problems ex. By finding the correct formula and applying it.

Information processing view

- focuses on children's capacity for memory and their use of cognitive strategies/how they focus their attention. Piagetian tasks (Piaget study tasks) require several cognitive strategies, which young children fail to because they cannot simultaneously hold many pieces of info, only one or two pieces at a time for preschoolers.

Result of culture free tests

- have not lived up to their promise, middle class background children still outperform other children from lower classes, also they do not predict academic success as other intelligence tests and scholastic aptitude remains the central concern for educators.

Elaborative strategy

- method for increasing retention of new info by relating to well known info. Ex. teachers encourage children to use new vocab words in sentences to help remember them.

Autonomous morality

- older stage (ages 9-11) when children understand that rules are created and that punishments are not automatic. -more self governed moral judgments are made -social rules are arbitrary agreements that can be changed -no longer view obedience to authority figures as right -Realize that circumstances can require breaking rules -Capable of flexible operational thought, focus simultaneously on multiple dimensions so they consider not only social rules but motives of wrongdoer. - can take the point of view of other to empathize with them (decentration) weigh the intentions of the wrongdoer more heavily than amount of damage done. -accidents are less likely to be considered crimes Piaget assumed that this develops as result of cooperative peer relationships , also believed parents could help foster this by creating egalitarian relationships with children by explaining reasons for social rules.

Objective morality

- perception of morality as objective- that is existing outside of the cognitive functioning of ppl , a characteristic of moral realism. -Emerges at about age 5, children consider behaviour correct if it conforms to authority/rules of game. -Children perspective rules as embedded in the structure of things,r rules to the reflect ultimate reality, hence the term moral realism, rules and right/wrong are seen as absolute. -A consequence of viewing rules embedded in the fabric of the world is immanent justice or automatic retribution.

Howard Gardner

- psychologist , like Sternberg believes that intelligence reflects more than just academic ability. -He refers to each kind of intelligence in his theory "an intelligence" because the kinds differ in quality, he also believes that intelligence are based in different parts of the brain. -theory of multiple intelligence's -academic intelligence, personal and social intelligence, talents, and philosophical intellgiences

Naturalist intelligence

- refers to ability to look at natural events such as various kind of animals and plants or stars above and develop an insight into their nature and the laws that govern their behaviour.

Creative intelligence

- sternberg was interested in novelty, creativity , insight, automatization, creativity to him is a basic facet of intelligence as it is the ability to cope with novel situations and to profit from experience, allowing us to relate situations to familiar situations and foster adaptation. -He also believes there is some usefulness in automatization of everyday routines and practices.

Organization in long term memory

- storehouse of their long term memory becomes gradually organized according to categories. -Preschoolers organize by grouping objects that share the same function ie. toast grouped with peanut butter. -When items are correctly organized in long term memory, children are more likely to recall accurate info about them. -Has been shown that when knowledge of children in particular area suprases adults, the children have superior capacity to restore/retrieve related info.

Jean Piaget Concrete operational

- the concrete operational stage -Concrete Operations- the third stage in scheme characterized by flexible, reversible thought concerning tangible objects and events. -Children entire stage of concrete operation by age if seven, lasts til about 12 Child shows beginning of the capacity of adult logic, their thought processes or operations generally involve tangible objects rather than abstract idea. -Can be characterized by reversibility and flexibility -Less egocentric than preoperational children, can take on roles of others to view the world , recognize ppl see things different ways bc diff situations/values -Concrete-operational child can engage in decentration

Heritability

- the degree to which the variations in a trait from one person to another can be attributed to or explained by genetic factors.

Encode

- to transform sensory input into a form that is more readily processed. -this is a way to promote memory , using visual stimuli as sounds/auditory stimulation, sounds can be repeated out loud or mentally ie. mentally repeating sound of linda's name helps the other girl remember it, the sounds can be reheres.

Louis Thurstone

- used factor analysis and concluded that intelligence consists of several specific factors which he determined "primary mental abilities" including visual-spatial abilities, perceptual speed, number ability, ability to learn the meaning of words, ability to bring to mind the right word rapidly and ability to reason. -all abilitiess and factors are academically oriented - suggested, than an individual may be able to rapidly develop lists of words that rhyme but not be able to solve math problems.

Intellectual disability

-Characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behaviour as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills, which are apparent prior to the age of 18 -children with mild intellectual disabilities, as the term implies, are the most capable of adjusting to the demands of educational institutions and to society at large -Children with Down Syndrome are most likely to fall within the moderate disability range -Usually do not acquire skills in reading and arithmetic -Some causes of intellectual disability are biological, brain damage

Piaget Seriation task with Barbel Inhelder

-Children are given 49 leaves and asked to classify them according to size and brightness (from small to large and from dark to lightest) , from left to right the leaves become lighter -Six year older (preoperational) can usually order the leaves according to size and brightness but not both at same time -Concrete operational children around 7/8 can work with both at once -Researchers have argued that children can seriate earlier than piaget believed and that piaget's results reflected the demand characteristics of his experiments, the sequence of development in seriation and transitivity seems to be fairly captured well by Piaget.

Pragmatic language skills

-Children who have acquired the phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics of a language have basically acquired linguistic competence -As children move from early childhood and into middle childhood, continue to refine their ability to make requests, use conversational skills, and give and respond to feedback advances -During middle childhood children's growth shows their ability to provide more feedback and support for conversations -Children need practice and support to excel in communication -Reading storybooks with in preschool years helps prepare a child for reading, show better reading skills in school and more positive attitudes toward reading

Bilingualism

-Most ppl in world speak two or more languages -5.8 million canadian report they are bilingual in the two official languages of english and french -two thirds of the population speaking a official language at home are also doing so in combination with either english or french -A century ago it was believed that children raised in bilingual homes were delayed in cognitive development, theory was the mental capacity was limited and ppl who stored two linguistic systems were thought to be taxing their mental abilities -Bilingual children show some differences monolingual children because vocab used at home and school are not always identical -it is NOT true that bilingual children have more academic problems than children who speak only one language most linguists consider it advantageous for children to be bilingual because knowledge of more than one language contributes to the complexity of the child's cognitive processes -Bilingual children are more likely to understand that the symbols used in language are arbitrary and therefore have somewhat more cognitive flexibility -Monolingual children are more likely to think that the word dog is somewhat intertwined with the nature of the beast

Evaluation of Piaget theory

-Some researchers have shown that Piaget underestimated children's abilities -Modified task demands suggest children are capable of conservation and other concrete operational tasks earlier than piaget believed -Cognitive skills may develop more independently and continuously than Piaget thought- not in stages. Ex. conservation does not arrive all at once, children develop it at different ages. -The onset of conservation can be seen in terms of gradual accumulation of problem-solving abilities instead of suddenly changing cognitive structures -The sequence of development - at the core of piaget's theory appears to remain the same -Piaget's theory is rocked (not the most accurate) but not useless.

Relationship between creativity and intelligence

-Sternberg's triarchic model sees creative as one of the three aspects of intelligence, creativity overlapping with intelligence, however it is not necessarily true that highly intelligent children are creative . -Some scientists argue that creativity and innovation require high levels of general intelligence but only moderate relationships between global intelligence scores and measures of creativity -Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences we note that some children who have only average intellectual ability in some areas can excel in areas that are considered more creative

Genetic influence on IQ

-The IQ scores of identical twins are more alike than scores for any other pairs, even when twins have been apart, however scores are more similar between twins who raised together -IQ scores of fraternal twins, sibling and parents are generally comparable -Correlation between IQ scores of children and their biological parents are higher than those between children and their adoptive parents -Adopted children are more similar in intelligence to their biological parents than their adoptive parents, suggestive of the role of genetic factors in intellectual functioning. -Studies suggest that heritability of intelligence is between 40-60% accurate -When children are seperated from birth parents early , can be argued that strong relationships between their IQ scores and those of their biological parents reflect genetic influence, strong relationships between their IQs and those of their adoptive parents tho as a result of environmental influence

When was intelligence studied?

-Towards end of 19th century and beginning of 20th century that psychologist/researchers became interested in trying to measure intelligence because the development of universal public education in Europe and North America prompted administrators in the education system to identify/screen students for appropriate programming.

Child as a moral judge

-You are guilty in the eyes of a five year old if your behaviour was an accident, preoperational children tend to focus on only one dimension at a time, they judge the wrongness of an act only in terms of the amount of damage done, not in terms of intention of the wrongdoer. -Children in the stage of moral realism are tough judges indeed, do not excuse person who harms even if accident. -Piaget told story to children of story which one child breaks 15 cups accidentally and another breaks one cup on purpose, children in moral realism stage say child who broke more cups is naughtier and should be punished more.

Creativity and intellectual development

-ability to generate novel solutions to problems, a trait characterized by flexibility, ingenuity and originality, individuals who have this trait are better problem solvers often. - Often associated with ability to make unusual sometimes remote associations to the elements of problem and generate new combinations. -Creative children: take chances , refuse limitations and strive for the impossible, appreciate art and music, use materials around them to make unique things, challenge social norms, take unpopular stands, examine ideas other ppl accept at face value.

Reversability

-according to piaget recognition that processes can be undone, leaving things as they were before, a factor in conservation of the properties of substances. -Ex. understanding the relationship among numbers, adding 2 and 3= 5, it is reversible that child can subtract 2 from 5 to get 3 and flexibility bc child can subtract 3 from 5 to get 2, child understands operations can be carried out according to the rules.

Testing Controvery/Robert Williams

-african american psychologist, considers intelligence tests t be at least somewhat biased against those in lower social classes/minority groups. -No single test should be used to make vital decisions about a child, should only be made after several tests administered by qualified psychologist in consultation in parents and teachers. -In 1920s the use of intelligence tests were made to keep many europeans and others from immigrating to the US -We often use "american norms" on regards to claucting subscale scores on Wechsler scales bc canadian norms were nonexistent or not readily available prior -if scoring well on intelligence requires a certain type of cultural experience, the tests are said to have a cultural bias.

Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg - moral development

-argued that moral reasoning exhibits the same cognitive-developmental pattern worldwide, moral considerations that children at a given age are likely to reflect values of the social/cultural setting they are being reared. - theorized to reflect orderly unfolding of cognitive process, and is related to overall cognitive development.

Metacognition

-children knowledge/control of their cognitive abilities, shown by intentional use of cognitive strategies in solving problems. - The development of this is shown by having the ability to formulate problems, being aware of the processes required to solve a problem, activating cognitive strategies, maintaining focus on the problem and checking answers.

Goleman example

-described how an american commander prevented confrontation between his troops and an Iraqi mob by ordering troops to point their rifles at the ground and smile, although there was a language barrier, the aiming of the weapons downard and the smiles were universal, conflict was avoided the commander showed social intelligences, by reading Iraqis social concerns dn solved by using useful response.

Culture-free

-descriptive of a test in which cultural biases have been removed. -On such a test, test takers from different cultural backgrounds would have an equal opportunity to earn scores that reflect their true ability.

Piaget class inclusion

-example of an operation - the principle that one category or class of things can include several subclasses. Ex. four year old was shown pictures of four cats and six dogs, when asked whether there were more dogs or more animals she said more dogs. -Preoperational child cannot focus on the two subclasses (dogs and cats) and the larger class (animals) at the same time. -Concrete operational children can focus on them together, thought remains concerte that they will give you a correct answer if you ask them about the two sub classes -But if you attempt to phrase question in terms of abstract symbols such as A, B1, B2, they will not comprehend as easily

Charles Spearman

-general vs specific factors -suggested that the various behaviours that we consider intelligent have a common underlying factor ("g') "general intelligence", he thought this represented broad reasoning and problem solving abilities, supported this by noting ppl who excel in one are generally show capacity to excel in others. -He also said that even the most capable ppl seem more capable in some area- perhaps in music or business or poetry-than in others, he said that ("s") "specific abilities" accounts for a number of individual abilities" -factor analysis

Alfred binet and Theodore Simon

-in france created the Binet -Simon Intelligence scale. -French public school system sought an instrument to identify children who were unlikely to profit from regular classroom so they could receive special attention, this scale came into sue in 1905, has since been revised and refined -This scale would give a mental age (MA), shows the intellectual level at which a child is functioning, child with in MA of six is functioning intellectually like the average six year old. -In taking test, children earned months of credit for each correct answer, MA determined by adding months of credits they attained.

Giftedness

-involves more than excellence on the tasks posed by standard intelligence tests -Outstanding abilities, capable of high performance in a specific academic area, show creativity, leadership, distinction in the visual or performing arts, or bodily talents

Metamemory-

-knowledge of the functions and processes involved in one's storage and retrieval of info (memory) as shown by use of cognitive strategies to retain info. T -this is one aspect of metacognition, refers to the children's awareness of the functioning of their memory. - Older children show greater insight into how memory works, and thus store/retrieve info more effectively than younger children. -Older children show more knowledgeable strategies that can be used to facilitate memory and , adapt their memory strategies to fit characteristics of the tasks at hand.

Psychologists on Intelligence

-provides the cognitive basis for academic achievement and is perceived as one's underlying competencies/learning ability. -competences underlying intelligence manifest in middle childhood, when children are first introduced to formal schooling, and disagree about the nature and origins of a child's underlying competence or learning ability.

Peter Salovey and John Mayer

-psychologists who developed the theory of emotional intelligence which holds that social and emotional skills are a form of intelligence just as academic skills. -They bear resemblance of two of Gardner's intelligences- awareness of ones inner feelings and sensitivity to the feelings of others, which involves control/regulation over one's own emotions -Theory suggests that self/awareness and social awareness are best learned during childhood, failure to develop emotional intelligence is linked to childhood depression and aggression, childhood experiences may even mould brains emotional responses to life's challenges.

Environmental influences

-several strategies including discovering situational factors that affect IQ scores, exploring children's ability to rebound from early deprivation and exploring the effects of positive early environments. -The testing situation can explain the discrepancy of IQ scores ie, study where examiner was making children as comfortable as possible, being warm and friendly as opposed to impartial and cold, made children's test anxiety less frequent, their IQ scores were six points higher than those for a control group treated differently -Stereotype vulnerability- latino or african americans carry extra burden on intelligence tests bc they worry of conforming to groups negative stereotype. -Kinship study of twins showed that the older they become, the less they are alike in measure of intelligence and personality which increases exposure to different environments/experiences, many psychologists believe that heredity and environment interact to influence intelligence -impoverished environment may prevent some children from living to full potential Enriched environment may encourage to raise to potential, minimizing possible differences in heredity,

Practical intelligence

-states that intelligent behaviour is highly dependent on the context, both Aristotle and Sternberg speak of practice of intelligence or "Street smarts', enabled ppl to adapt to demands of their environment and social environment.

Transitivity

-the principle that if A is greater than B in a property and B is greater than C , then A is greater than C. -property can be age/height -an aspect of concrete-operational thought -researchers can assess if children understand this transitivity principle by asking them to place objects in a series or order according to some property/trait ie. lining up one's family members according to age, height or weight. -Knowledge of principles makes them realize that if stick A is longer than stick B and stick B is longer than stick C , then stick A will also be longer than stick C, after putting stick C in place they do not need to double check to make sure it will be shorter than stick A because they already know it is.

Moral realism

-the stage which children judge act as moral when they conform to authority or to the rules of the game. Morality at this stage is perceived as embedded in the structure of the universe.

Psychologists should assess

-their own cultural self knowledge and cultural competence, review and where appropriate include key elements in culturally competent assessment, be aware of the strengths and limitations of assessment instruments, scales, and inventories, research and implement alternate assessment strategies, and be sensitive to the continuing evolution of intellectual assessment.

The Wechsler Scales

-used deviation IQ which is based on an individuals score in relation to those of her or his age-mates. -Developed a series of scales for use with school aged children, younger children and adults. -Grouped test questions into subsets, each measure different intellectual tasks Test compares a person's performance on one type of task ie. defining words with his/her performance on another ie. using blocks to make design. -scale suggest children's strengths and weakness and provide overall measure of intellectual functioning, makes it possible to compute verbal and performance IQS -College students who are not technically oriented often obtain higher verbal than performance IQ skills

Piaget's view of cognitive development and the information-processing approach

-viewed children as budding scientists/psychologists who view cognitive development in terms of information processing. -However children are not computers as they are self aware and capable of creativity and intuition

Patterns of intellectual development

Intellectual growth happens in 2 spurts: Age 6 → coincides with entry into school and also with shift from preoperational to concrete-operational thought Age 10 -Although intelligence test scores change throughout childhood, many children show reasonably consistent patterns of below-average or above-average performance

Cultural bias

a factor hypothesized to be present in intelligence tests that bestows an advantage on test takers from certain cultural or ethnic backgrounds but that does not reflect true intelligence.

Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scales require

children to think of the single correct answer., on these intelligence tests, ingenious responses that differ from designated answers are marked wrong.

Jackson and Rushon

claim that "g' underlies scores on the verbal and quantitative parts of the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) # of researchers connect with academic achievement and working memory

David Weshcler- intelligence

complex and controversial concept defined by -"the capacity to understand the world and the resourcefulness or ope with its challenges". -This implies the capacity to make adaptive choices. -From latin "inter" meaning "among" and "legere" meaning to choose.

Conservation

concrete-operational children show understanding of the laws of conservation -ex. mass of items, If asked if the flattened ball of clay has the same amount of clay as the round ball of clay, they respond saying yes "because you can roll it up again like the other one", shows reversibility. -understand that objects have several properties or dimensions ie. recognizing the loss in height compensates for the gain in width of the clay. -conservation of mass usually develops first, followed by conservation of weight then volume Piaget theorized that gains of the concrete-operational stage are so tied to specific events that achievement in one area does not necessarily transfer to achievement in another.

Robert Sternberg

constructed a triarchic theory of intelligence that is similar to a view proposed by the greek philosopher Aristotle -= analytical intelligence, creative intelligence and practical intelligence.

Cattell

culture fair intelligence test, evaluates reasoning and ability through the child's comprehension of the rules that govern a progression of geometric designs

Preconventional Level

early childhood -period during moral judgments that are based mainly on expectations of rewards or punishments -Stage 1 reasoning , heinz could be urged to steal drug bc he did ask to pay for it first, but can also be not urged to steal drug bc it would lead to punishment -Stage 2 , good behaviour allows ppl to satisfy own needs and need of others, reason for stealing drug is bc Heinz wife needs it, stealing drug is the only way of getting it, and it is not wrong. -A stage 2 reason to not steal would be because Heinz wife might die even if he steals drug In an american study of children aged 7-16 , Kolberg found that stage 1 and 2 types of moral judgments were offered most freq by 7 and 10 year olds

Existential intelligence

involves dealing with the larger philosophical issues of life

Analytical Intelligence

is information processing component/analytical intelligence enables us to solve problems and acquire new knowledge , info processing theorists such as Sternberg believe that how we process stimuli and cues generate strategies to solve problems , evaluate these strategies and implement a strategy and evaluate the outcome, tell us out intellectual potential.

Memory

is not a scientific term, but it is the process by which we store/retrieve info, most (not all) psychologists divide memory into three processes , sensory memory, working memory (short-term memory) and long term memory.

Achievement

is what a child has learned, the knowledge and skills that have been gained by experiencing . is obtained by one's efforts and presumed to be made possible by one's abilities. Involves a child's acquired competencies or performance.

The conventional level

level 2 -Right and wrong are judged by conformity to conventional (family, religious, societal) standards of right and wrong. -Stage 3= "good boy/girl" , it is good to meet the needs and expectations of others -Moral behaviour is what is normal and what majority does -Heinz should steal drug bc good husband would do that, it is normal to help one's wife, OR Heinz should not steal bc good people do not steal. -Stage three focus on the role of sympathy- the importance of doing what will make someone else feel good or better -In stage 4 , moral judgements are based on rules that maintain the social order, showing respect for authority and duty is valued highly , this perspective could argue that heinz must steal the drug bc it is his duty to help his wife and he can pay druggist when he can or that he should not steal bc against law

Two stages of moral devleopment

moral realism and autonomous morality

The PostConventional Level

moral reasoning is based on the person's own moral standards, if this level of reasoning develops at all, it is found amongst adolescents and adults. -stage five= contractual, needs to eight pressing needs against social order of society, complicated bc society needs order but he needs the drug -stage 6=universal ethical principles , law comes between principle of sanctity of human life -typically in adolescence

Psychologists who believe that creativity is seperate from academic ability find

only moderate relationship between academic ability and creativity.

Kohlberg moral development

preconventional, conventional, postconventional -story of heinz -Argued that developmental stages of moral reasoning follow the same sequence in all children. -Children progress at different rates and not all children or adults reach the highest stage -There are three levels of moral development and two stages within each level

Long term memory

structure of capable of relatively permanent storage of info. Vast storage of names/dates/places, may last days/years or for practical purposes. No known limit of amount of info that can be stored. Often times, proper cues need to be made in order to retrieve certain things from long term memory.

Sensory memory

structure of memory that if first encountered by sensory output, info is maintained in this memory for only a fracture of a second, ie. when we are introduced to somebody, the trace of the sound of the name also decays but we can maintain the name in memory by focusing on it.

cultural-familial disability

substandard intellectual performance that is presumed to stem from lack of opportunity to acquire the knowledge and skills considered important within a cultural setting -May not develop sophisticated language skills or the motivation to acquire the kinds of knowledge that are valued in a technologically oriented society -Children with cultural-familial disability can change dramatically when enriched learning experiences are provided, especially at early ages

Immanent justice

the view that punishment for wrongdoing is a direct consequence of the wrongdoing, reflecting the belief that morality is embedded within structure of the universe. -5/6 year old who lie/steal usually believe they will be found or at least punished for their acts, if they scrap knees they may assume this accident represents a punishment of a transgression (the act of stealing/lying lead to punishment of accidentally scraping knee)