Chapter 12 Test

Neoplatonism

Based on the Neoplatonic hierarchy of substances and a theory of spiritual love. The hierarchy of substances - from the lowest form of physical matter (plants) to the purest spirit (God) - held that humans were somewhere in the middle between the material and spiritual world and that our highest duty is to ascend toward union with God. Spiritual love maintained that just as all people are bound together in their common humanity by love, so too are all parts of the universe held together by bonds of sympathetic love

Giotto

Began the imitation of nature in the 14th century

Botticelli's Primavera

Botticelli was intrigued by Greek and Roman mythology. Primavera is set in the garden of Venus, a garden of eternal spring. The figures possessed otherworldly qualities different from the realism of the Early Renaissance

Donato Bramante (1444-1514) and Saint Peter's

Bramante took up residence in Rome, where he designed a small temple on the supposed site of Saint Peter's martyrdom. Thie tempietto, or little temple, with its Doric columns surrounding a sanctuary enclosed by a dome

Filippo Brunelleschi's (1377-1446) Dome

Brunelleschi drew much inspiration from the architectural monuments of Roman antiquity. His first project, upon returning to Florence, was to build a dome for the unfinished cathedral of Florence (the Duomo). He devised new building techniques and machinery to make the dome that was built to span a 140 foot opening that would take from 1420 to 1436 to complete. Brunelleschi's Church of San Lorenzo was more comforting than gothic cathedrals because it was meant to fit human and not divine measurements.

Raphael (1483-1520)

By age 25, Raphael was already considered one of Italy's greatest painters. He is well known for his numerous Madonnas, that held an ideal of beauty past that of human standards. Well known for his frescoes in the Vatican Palace.

Republic of Florence

By beginning of 15th century, Florence was governed by a small merchant oligarchy that manipulated the "republican" government.

Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519)

Carried on the experimental tradition, but stressed going beyond portraying nature realistically and instead thought that it should be portrayed ideally. Leonardo depicted a person's character and inner nature by use of gesture and movement. He is the definition of the idea of l'uomo universale.

Madrigal

Chief form of secular music in Italy and France. It was a poem, typically 12 lines long in the vernacular, set to music. The theme was typically erotic love or was emotional. By mid 16th century, most madrigals were written for 5 or 6 voices and employed a technique called text painting, in which the music tried to portray the literal meaning of the text (eg. melody rises for the word heavenly)

War of the Roses

Civil war broke out in the 1450s between the ducal house of Lancaster and the ducal house of York. In 1485, Henry Tudor, duke of Richmond, defeated the last Yorkist king, Richard III at Bosworth field and established the new Tudor dynasty.

Giovanni Pico della Mirandola's (1463-1494) "Oration on the Dignity of Man"

Claimed that God gave humans free will and unlimited potential to be whatever we wanted to be.

Hungary

Closely tied to central and western Europe because of its conversion to Roman Catholicism by German missionaries. The church became a large and prosperous institution. For a brief period of time, Hungary was the dominant power in eastern Europe.

Masaccio (1401-1428)

Continued on the imitation of nature in his work in Florence. Masaccio's frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel have been regarded as the first masterpieces of Early Renaissance Art. Used monumental figures, a more realistic relationship between figures and landscapes, and a visual representation of the laws of perspective.

Charles VII (1422-1461)

Established a royal army composed of cavalry and archers, gained the right to levy the taille, an annual direct tax on land or property, all with the approval of the Estates-General in France.

Marsilio Ficino

He was one of the Florentine Platonic Academy's leaders and was commissioned by Cosimo d'Medici to translate Plato's dialogues. He wanted to blend the philosophy of Plato with Christianity, and so Neoplatonism was created.

Jan Van Eyck (1390-1441)

Among the first to use oil paints, a medium that enabled the artist to use a varied range of colors and create fine details

Michelangelo (1475-1564)

An accomplished painter, sculptor, and architect of the HR. Commissioned by Pope Julius II to decorate the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in 1508 and he completed it in 1512. He attempted to portray the story of the Fall of Man.

Position of Artist

Artists became heroes during the Renaissance, and during the High Renaissance artists profited even more greatly as they rose in social status. Platonic Academy and Renaissance Neoplatonism had an important impact on painters.

Francisco Sforza

As a leading condottieri, this man turned on his employers and conquered the Duchy of Milan and became duke after the death of the last Visconti ruler in 1447. The Sforza rulers created a highly centralized state, that had a successful method of taxation.

Organization of Urban Society

At the top were wealthy patricians, below them were the burghers, below them the propertyless workers and the unemployed, and even beneath them were the slaves (mainly from the Eastern Mediterranean and Black Sea regions, as well as from Africa, or the Muslims from Spain). Slavery dramatically declined in Italian cities by the end of the 15th century however.

"New Monarchies

Attempts made by the states of Europe in the 2nd half of the 15th century (when recovery set in) to reestablish the centralized power of monarchical governments. Especially those of France, England, and Spain

What happened in Spain in 1502

All professed Muslims were expelled from Castile

Condottieri

A leader or member in a troop of mercenaries

Hus and Hussites

A marriage between the royal families of England and Bohemia enabled Lollard ideas to spread to Bohemia, where they reinforced the ideas of a group of Czech reformers led by the chancellor of the university at Prague, John Hus (1374-1415). He called for the elmination of worldliness and corruption of the clergy and attacked the excessive power of the papacy. Catholic church was widely criticized in Bohemia, and since many clergymen were German, the native Czech's resentment of the Germans also contributed to Hus's movement. John Hus was summoned for the council of constance so that heresy could be dealt with, and after being granted safe conduct by Emperor Sigismund. Instead he was arrested, condemned as a heretic, and burned at the stake in 1415. This action turned the unrest in Bohemia into revolutionary upheaval, and the resulting Hussite wars rocked the HRE until a truce was arranged in 1436.

Hanseatic League/Hansa

A military and commercial association that was formed by a bunch of North German coastal towns starting in the 13th century. For nearly 200 years, the Hansa had a monopoly on northern European trade. Its southern outlet in Flanders became the economic crossroads of Europe in the 14th century as a place for Hansa merchants to meet with the Flanders Fleet of Venice. As territorial states developed, the Hansa diminished.

Pope Pius II's Execrabilis

A papal bull, that the condemned appeals to a council over the head of a pope as heretical. Popes wouldn't cooperate with the Council of Constance.

Renaissance

A period of "Rebirth" in Europe (especially Italy) after the catastrophes of the 14th century (Black Death, political disorder, economic recession, etc.). The Renaissance was a rebirth of Greco-Roman civilization in Italy (and then later the rest of Europe) that (dates from the book) lasted from 1350-1550. Was an elitist movement.

Sack of Rome in 1527

After two generations of kings on both the French and Spanish sides fighting for control of Italy, the Spanish army sacked the city of Rome and brought a temporary end (one which would become permanent) to the Italian wars, leaving the Spaniards on top.

Isabelle d'Este

Daughter of the duke of Ferrara, who married Francesco Gonzaga, marquis of Mantua. Educated in Ferrara, known for her intelligence and political wisdom. Was the "first lady of the world," and attracted many to the Mantuan court. Before and after the death of Francesco, she ruled Mantua and was known as a clever negotiator.

Laura Cereta

Defended the ability of women to pursue scholarly pursuits.

Humanism and History

Divided the past into the ancient world, the dark ages, and their own age. They secularized the writing of history and de-emphasized divine intervention and miracles in favor of human motives (political and not religious forces).

Lorenzo the Magnificent

During the last decades of the 15th century, a new sense of invention swept Florence, especially in the circle of artists and scholars who were a part of this man's court. One of the group's prominent members was Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510).

Renaissance Music

During this time, music ceased to be used solely in the service of God and moved into the secular world of courts and cities.

Charles

Emperor Frederick III married off Maximilian I to Mary, daughter of Duke Charles of Burgundy. Maximilian married off his son Philip of Burgundy to Joanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. Philip and Joanna produced Charles, who through a series of unexpected deaths, became heir to the Habsburg, the Burgundian, and Spanish Kingdoms.

The Artistic High Renaissance

End of the 15th century saw the emergence of more individualistic forms of creative expression. This final stage of Renaissance art flourished between 1480 and 1520. This period saw Rome become the new cultural center of the Italian Renaissance.

John Wyclif and Lollardy

English Lollardy was a product of the Oxford theologian John Wyclif (1328-1384), whose disgust with clerical corruption led him to make a far-ranging attack on papal authority and medieval beliefs and practices. Wyclif advocated that the popes be stripped of their authority and property. Believing that the Bible should be a Christian's sole authority, he advocated that they should be available in the vernacular so that everyone can read it. Rejected all practices not mentioned in scripture. Wyclif's followers became known as Lollards

Albrecht Durer (1471-1528)

He was greatly influenced by the Italians. Made two trips to Italy to learn to paint like an Italian. He tried to integrate the use of minute details (Northern) into his works more harmoniously, and he also tried to achieve a standard of ideal beauty by careful examination of human form.

"Liberal Studies"

History, moral philosophy, eloquence (rhetoric), letters (grammar and logic), poetry, mathematic, astronomy, and music. Purpose of a liberal education was to produce individuals who followed a path of virtue and wisdom and possessed the skills to persuade others to do so as well. Humanists believed that humans could be drastically changed through receiving an education. The goal was to produce complete citizens.

Habsburg Dynasty

House of Habsburg acquired land along the Danube, known collectively as Austria, and had become one of the wealthiest landholders in the Holy Roman Empire, and by mid 15th century they began to play an important role in European affairs. After 1438, the position of Holy Roman Emperor lay with them. The Habsburgs had success in the 15th through a policy of dynastic marriages

Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444) and "The New Cicero"

Humanist, Florentine patriot, and chancellor of the city, Bruni wrote a biography on Cicero in which he waxed enthusiastic about the fusion of political action and literary creation in Cicero's life

Cosimo d'Medici

In 1434, he took control of the Florentine oligarchy and ran the government at a time when Florence was the center of the cultural renaissance.

Constantinople and 1453

In 1453, the Ottomans destroyed the last of the Byzantine Empire, after Sultan Mehmet II laid siege to Constantinople. Byzantine emperor died in the final battle.

Michelangelo's David

In 1501, Michelangelo was commissioned by the Florentine government to build the 14-foot high marble statue that would be David. It was completed in 1504.

The Spanish Inquisition

In Medieval Spain, the Jews were mostly tolerated, but during the 14th century, increased persecution led the majority of Spanish Jews to convert. Many of these converted Jews came to play important roles in Spanish society, but complaints that they were reverting to Judaism, prompted Ferdinand and Isabella to ask the pope to introduce the Inquisition into Spain in 1478. The Inquisition had a cruel efficiency to guarantee the orthodoxy of converts but had no authority over practicing Jews.

Northern Artistic Renaissance

In the North, the prevalence of Gothic cathedrals with their stained-glass windows resulted in more emphasis on illuminated manuscripts and wooden panel painting for an altarpiece. Space available in these works was limited and great detail was required to depict each object, leading northern painters to become masters of detail. Northern painters tried to imitate nature throughout empirical observation of visual reality and the accurate portrayal of details. They placed great emphasis on the emotion intensity of religious feeling.

Italian Renaissance Humanism

Intellectual movement based on the study of the Classical literary works of Greece and Rome. Humans examined the studia humanitatis (studies of humanities)- grammar, rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy or ethics, and history- all based on Greek and Roman authors. Humanists worked in mostly secular positions.

Cardinal Ximenes

Isabella's chief minister who restored discipline and eliminated immorality among the monks and secular clergy. They pursued a policy of strict religious uniformity.

Peace of Lodi and the Italian Balance of Power

Italian territorial states had a balance of power to prevent the aggrandizement of any one state. Peace of Lodi, signed in 1454, ended almost 50 years of war and brought 40 years of peace. However, this balance of power broke down and it laid the path down for Italy to become a battleground (over control of the Kingdom of Naples) between the French and the Spanish.

King Louis XI (1461-1483)

Known as "The Spider" for his wily and devious ways. Retained the taille as a government tax levied by royal authority so that France would always have a stable source of income. Not entirely successful in repressing the French nobility. Charles the bold, Duke of BUrgundy, tried to create a middle kingdom between France and Germany. It wasn't until the death of Charles that Louis was able to add back the Duchy of Burgundy to his lands.

Hundred Years' War

Left France prostrate, but had had helped the people develop of strong degree of French feeling toward a common enemy that the kings could use to reestablish monarchical power. Took its toll on the English as well.

Independent City-States

Mantua, ruled by the Gonzaga; Ferrara, governed by the d'Este family; Urbino governed by the Montefeltro dynasty

Poland

Much of Poland's history has been revolved around a struggle between the crown and landed nobility until the end of the 15th century when a preoccupation of Poland's rulers with Bohemia and Hungary, as well as war with the Russians and Turks, enabled the aristocrats to reestablish power. Through control of the Sejm or national diet, the magnates reduced the peasantry to serfdom by 1511 and the right to elect their kings was established

Machiavelli's "The Prince"

One of the most famous treatises on political power in the Western world. His political ideas stemmed from knowledge of ancient Rome and Italy's political problems. In Machiavelli's eyes, a prince's attitude toward power must be based on an understanding of human nature, which he perceived to be self-centered and evil. Cesare Borgia was his golden example of a ruler who ruled to preserve his state, not morality.

Development of Painting Styles

One style of painting emphasized the mathematical side of painting: geometry, proportions, perspective. The other investigated movement and anatomical structure. 15th century was a period of experimentation and technical mastery.

Nepotism

Practice of favoring relatives or friends, especially by giving them jobs. The Renaissance popes practiced this a lot

Baldassare Castiglione's "The Book of the Courtier"

Published in 1528, this book said that nobles should possess fundamental native endowments such as character, talents, grace, and noble birth and that the perfect courtier should be a l'uomo universale (involved in the military, have a classical education, participate in the arts). Aristocrats should follow good conduct, and the perfect noble should serve his prince in an honest and effective manner.

Papal States

Renaissance popes of the 15th century were focused on leading their state, and so they directed a lot of energy towards re-establishing control of their territory, after the Great Schism allowed for some cities and territories to gain their independence.

Ivan III and Russia

Russia had been under Mongol control since 13th century. Princes of Moscow rose to prominence by using their close relationship to Mongol khans to increase their wealth and expand their possessions. In reign of the great prince Ivan III (1462-1505), a new russian state- the principality of Russia- was born. He annexed other Russian principalities and threw off the Mongol yoke.

Jacob Burckhardt

Swiss historian/ art critic that created the modern concept of the Renaissance in "The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy" (published in 1860). In it, he portrayed Italy as the birthplace of the modern world, and he established the revival of antiquity, the "perfecting of the individual," and secularism as the defining features. He believed that the Renaissance was a sudden cultural break (modern historians disagree).

Hermeticism

The Corpus Hereticum contained 2 kinds of writings: one stressing the occult sciences, with emphasis on astrology, alchemy, and magic; while the other focused on theological and philosophical beliefs/speculations, with some of them espousing pantheism. Intellectuals came to believe that humans were born divine and that they can regain that divinity through a regenerative experience. Once pure, they became true "sages" or "magi," who had knowledge of God and truth. The most prominent magi in Italy were Ficino and Mirandola.

What happened in Spain in 1492

The Jews were expelled from Spain

Modern Diplomatic System

The MDS began in Italy during the Renaissance because in order to survive, Italian states sent out diplomats to each other to share info. During the Italian wars, the practice spread to the rest of Europe, and in the 16th and 17th centuries, Europeans developed the diplomatic machinery in use today.

The House of Medici

The Medici expanded from cloth production into commerce, real estate, and banking. In the 15th century, House of Medici was the greatest bank in Europe. They were the bankers for the papacy. Due to bad leadership, and a series of bad loans, the Medici declined in power and their financial estate collapsed in 1494.

Renaissance Popes

The Renaissance Popes were not concerned with the spiritual role of the papacy, they were too wrapped up in the temporal preoccupations of the papacy.

Renaissance view of humans and Leon Battista Alberti

The Renaissance brought a new way of viewing people, as it focused much more on the individual. The goal of people should be to be a l'uomo universale: a universal person who is capable of achievements in all aspects of life. Leon Battista Alberti supplemented the idea that humans can achieve anything by saying, "Men can do all things if they will."

Family in Renaissance Italy

The bond of family in Italy was very strong. If a member of Family A wronged a member of Family B, both families would go to "war" with each other. Father/husband was at the center of the family, making all important decisions. His authority on his children was absolute until he either died or "emancipated" them. Wife managed the household. Their primary function was to give birth.

Johannes Gutenberg

The development of multiple printing with a moveable metal type was a gradual process that culminated between 1445 and 1450. Gutenberg played a vital role in bringing the process to completion. Gutenberg's Bible, completed in 1455 or 1456, was the first true book in the West made from moveable type. With printing presses popping up all over Europe, books were now widely available.

Petrarch (1307-1374)

The father of Italian Renaissance Humanism. First intellectual to characterize the Middle Ages as a period of darkness. Sought out the classics of Greco Roman civilization. Started the emphasis on usage of pure Classical Latin, using Cicero for prose, and Virgil for poetry.

Artistic Renaissance

The imitation of nature was the primary goal of Renaissance artists. These new artistic standards reflected a new mindset, in which humans were the center of attention.

Marriage

Were arranged often to strengthen business or family ties. Details and marriage contract worked out in advance. Size of dowry was important. Females were married off at ages 16-18, while men usually married in their 30s or even 40s. Lack of emotional connection and the age differences encouraged the tendency of seeking sexual outlets outside of marriage.

Isabella of Castile (1474-1504) and Ferdinand of Aragon (1479-1516)

They got married in 1469. Was a dynastic union (both kingdoms remained independent). Worked to strengthen royal control of government, especially in Castile. Royal council stripped of aristocrats and replaced primarily with middle class lawyers, trained in Roman law, who believed that the monarchy embodied the power of the state. Reorganized military of Spain

Civic Humanism

This movement reflected the values of the urban society of the Italian Renaissance. Intellectuals should use their knowledge of Greco-Roman civilization for the betterment of their society. Cicero (a Roman statesman) became their model.

Donatello's David

This nude statue of David that shows him standing triumphant over Goliath with his foot on the top of his severed head radiates simplicity and strength that reflected the dignity of humanity. It was built to commemorate Florentine victory over Milan. It was the first known life size, free standing bronze nude in European art since antiquity

Giorgio Vasari's "Lives of the Artists"

Vasari was a painter, but also was an avid admirer of Italy's great artists and wrote a series of brief biographies of them in this book

Bohemia

Was a part of the HRE, but distrust of the Germans and close ethnic ties to the POles and Slovaks encouraged the Czechs of Bohemia to associate with their northeastern Slavic neighbors. Bohemian nobles increased their authority and wealth at expense of the church and the crown

Maritime Republic of Venice

Was governed by a small oligarchy of merchant/aristocrats. Venice was kept in check by Milan and Florence

Henry VII (1485-1509)

Worked to reduce internal dissension and established a strong monarchical government. Abolished the private armies of nobles. English king had to rely on special commissions of trusted nobles to raise an army for a specific campaign, that, after which, would be disbanded. Established Court of Star Chamber (no juries, allowed torture). Successful in extracting income from the traditional financial resources of the English monarch

Francesco Guicciardini

Wrote "History of Italy" and "History of Florence." Many say these books represent the beginning of modern analytical historiography. To him, the purpose of writing history was to teach lessons. He emphasized political and military history.

Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457)

Wrote "The Elegances of the Latin Language," as an effort to purify medieval Latin and restore it to its proper position over the vernacular. He identified different stages in the development of the Latin language and accepted only the Latin of the last century of the Roman Republic and the first century of the empire.

King Matthias Corvinus (1458-1490)

broke the power of the wealthy lords and created a well-organized bureaucracy. Patron of humanist culture. After his death Hungary returned to weak rule.