Chapter 12: Work, Leisure, and Retirement

Alienation and Burnout

Alienation: feeling that what one is doing is meaningless Burnout o Too much stress in one's occupation and can lead to o Loss of energy and motivation o Loss of occupational idealism o Feeling that one is being exploited Making sure workers feel that they are important to the organization by involving them in decisions, keeping expectations realistic, ensuring good communication, promoting teamwork and co -worker support may help employees avoid alienation and burnout

Interpersonal Ties

All aspects of a person's life and interpersonal relationships are affected by retirement - Marital relationships o May undergo considerable stress until new role definitions are reached o Readjusting to being home rather than at work is difficult for men in traditional marriages o Sometimes marriages are disrupted, but marri ed men are generally happier in retirement than men who are not married

Occupational Insecurity and Job Loss

Anxiety about one's job may result in negative attitudes about one's employer or work in general, which in turn may result in a diminished desire to be successful Occupational insecurity is a growing problem - fear that one may lose one's job is a better predictor of anxiety than the actual likelihood of job loss Losing one's job can have serious negative effects on every aspect of a person's life - may result in mental health problems, including o Low self-esteem o Depression o Anxiety o Suicide These effects are related to the degree of financial stress one is under and the timing of the job loss Effects of losing one's job emphasize the central role of occupations in forming a sense of identify in adulthood - how one perceives a loss plays a major role in determining what the long -term effects will be

Dual-Earner Couple

Dual-earner couples with children experience both benefits and costs - there are many stresses living in this arrangement, gender differences are also clear, especially in the division of household chores

Planning for Retirement

Financial planning and realistic expectations toward retirement ar e important predictors of future satisfaction o people who plan for retirement tend to be more successful in adapting to this major life change Pre-retirement education programs cover a variety of topics, including finances, attitudes, health, and expectations

Types of Leisure Activates

Four categories are usually used to help organize leisure activities: o Cultural - attending sporting events concerts, church services and meetings o Physical - basketball, hiking, aerobics and gardening o Social - visiting friends and going to parties o Solitary - reading, listening to music, and watching tv Leisure activities can also be considered in terms of the degree of cognitive, emotional, or physical involvement - they can also vary in degree o intensity of sport or activity Leisure activities are distinguished by preoccupations and interests o Preoccupations are much like daydreaming - sometimes they become more focused and become interests o Interests are ideas and feelings about things one would like to do, is curious about or is attracted to Any specific activity has different meaning and value, depending on a person involved How do we pick our leisure activities? o Each of us has a leisure repertoire - personal library of intrinsically motivated activates that we do regularly o These activities are determined by two things 1. Perceived competence - how good we think we are at an activity compared to people of the same age as us 2. Psychological comfort - how well we meet our personal goals for performance Other factors are also import ant - income, health, abilities, transportation, education and social characteristics

Work-Family Conflict: The feeling of being pulled in multiple directions by incompatible demands from one's job and one's family

How to deal with work-family conflict successfully: o Women must be clear in their commitment to their careers, marriage, and children o Couples equally share housework and emotional work, and combine their roles without high levels of stress How did they do it? o Age of children is not a factor, but number of children is o Stress is lower if men have a flexible work schedule that allow them to care for sick children and other matters o Stress is higher during the peak parenting years, then is reduced

Traditional and Non-Traditional Occupations

In the past, women who were employed entered traditionally female - dominated occupations Women who end up in non-traditional occupations is often related to personal feelings and experiences as well as expectations of occupation Many women have difficulties in finding occupations that match their skills Women who choose non-traditional occupations still are viewed with disapproval by their peers of either sex, even though they have high job satisfaction themselves

Job Satisfaction: the positive feelings that results from an appraisal of one's work

Job satisfactions tends to show low to moderate increases with age o Older workers report higher job satisfaction than younger workers This may be partly because of self-selection o Unhappy workers may quit Other reasons include intrinsic satisfaction, good fit, lower importance of work, finding non-work diversions, and life -cycle factors

Consequences of Leisure Activities

Leisure activities promote well-being and can enhance all aspects of people's lives Importantly, it is the amount of satisfaction you derive from your leisure activities; not your level of participation Quality rather than quantity of leisure activities

Leisure Activities

Leisure consist o activities not related to work According to University of Waterloo (2001), women may experience "family leisure" as just one more added burden required of good mothers

Developmental Changes in Leisure

Longitudinal research shows that leisure preferences in adulthood reflect those in earlier life However, as people grow older they tend t o engage in leisure activities that are less strenuous and more family-oriented

Occupational Choice and Development

Main purpose of work is to earn a living Meaning of work = money we exchange for life's necessities/luxuries and the possibility of personal growt h Although most people work for money, other reasons are highly variable - They include, prestige, recognition, and a sense of worth Occupational priorities: what people want from their employment reflect the culture and times in which people live, as well as the characteristics of the job and the quality of the workplace Study on job strain (balance between psychological demands of a job and the amount of control the worker has in that job ) - was the amount of job strain related to the decision to retire? - findings: o Job strain affected the retirement decision in those in managerial, technical or professional jobs but not in those in service and blue-collar occupations Impact of work cuts through all aspects of life; work is a major social role and influence on adult life

The Dependent Care Dilemma

Many employed adults must also provide care for dependent children and/or parents Whether a women returns to work after having a child depends largely on how attached she is to her work o This can lead to inter-role conflict Conflicts between work and family responsibilities Giving up a career means that the aspect's of one's identity that come from work must be re -defined and based on being a stay-at-home mom Inter-role conflict: results in a clash between competing sets of roles, in this case between work and family responsibilities Flexible work schedules and number of children are important factors in role conflict o Employed mothers are significantly less distressed than employed non-mothers When a woman's partner provides good support and women have average or high control over their jobs The mere availability of a workplace childcare centre does not always result in higher job satisfaction o Sympathetic supervisors are essential to lowering the stress of how child care issues can be resolved

Gender Differences in Occupational Choice

Men have been groomed from birth for future employment Currently, more than 81% of women between ages of 25 and 54 worked outside of the home in 2005 (versus 91% of men, Statistics Canada, 2006) Many women have difficulty finding occupation that match their level of skill o Women in non-traditional occupations are viewed more poorly by both men and women o Women in traditional female occupations changed jobs less often

Ethnicity and Occupational Development

Not much research has been conducted from a developmental perspective Statistics Canada (1991, 1996, 2001) one in four recent universitytrained immigrants obtained a job that required no more than a high school diploma Members of this group were most likely women from South or Southeast Asia who had a mother tongue other than English or French Whether an organization is responsive to the needs of ethnic minorities makes a big difference for employees Having an identifiable role model has a positive effect for ethnic minority employees, even if they are not active mentors

Gender, Ethnicity, Bias and Discrimination

Occupational choice and development are not equally available to all

Occupational Choice

Our work life is a major source of our identity influences our lifestyle and social interactions More adults changing occupations than ever before or have to rethink about the kinds of jobs that they want to hold - can happen in middle a older adulthood as well, not only limited to young adults

Occupational Expectations

People have expectations about what they want to become and when they hope to get there Expectations change as the result of o Realizing that one's interests have changed or the dream was not a good fit o But also due to age, race, or sexual discrimination, lack of opportunity, and obsolescence of skills Reality Shock: the realization that one's expectations about an occupation are different from the reality one experiences o Reality shock is common among young workers o This happens most to young adults and people with little relevant experience prior to assuming a new job o The outcome of reality shock is often a revision of o personal priorities in life

Occupational Development

Promotion is a measure of how well one is doing in one's career People who want to advance learn rather quickly how long to stay at one level and how to seize opportunities as they occur How a person advances in a career depen ds on professional socialization, expectations, support from co -workers, priorities and job satisfaction

Adjustment to Retirement

Retirement is an important life transition and can be stressful o However, the degree of stress is related to attitudes toward retirement and whether retirement is voluntary Most people are satisfied with their retirement, as long as people o Have financial security o Have their health o Have a supportive network of relatives and friends High satisfaction in early retirement includes - For men: o Being in good health o Having enough income o Having retired voluntarily - For women: o No one role was associated with satisfaction For both men and women high personal competence was associated with higher retirement satisfaction over the long run

The Changing Nature of Work

Start of global competition- workers in Canada are competing for jobs with workers in other countries Globalization has resulted in extensive changes in number and types of jobs available Full-time work has been replaced by part-time work, manufacturing jobs have been lost Layoffs occur mostly because of o competition o productivity o relocation of operations o mergers o acquisitions o infusion of new technology or plant obsolescence Traditional organizational careers consisted of meeting organizational needs A fundamental re -definition of the nature of work is occurring - not the emphasis is on occupational flexibility and learning - everyone must stay current with the latest technology and newest skills With mandatory retirement being eliminated in most provinces, workers 55 and over are becoming a predominant segment of the workforce

Occupational Transitions

The average North American changes jobs multiple times during adulthood Changing occupations may be one way to guarantee challenging and satisfying work Factors influencing occupational change include o Dislike - which results in quitting or seeking other employment o Worker obsolescence - for example, technological developments that eliminate jobs o Economic factors which result in layoffs or downsizing - for example, recessions

What Does Being Retired Mean?

The way in which people withdraw from full-time employment Changing conceptions of work are resulting in changing conceptions of retirement Retirement can be crisp or blurred o Crisp: making a clean break from employment by stopping work entirely o Blurred: repeatedly leaving and returning to work, with some periods of unemployment

Juggling Multiple Roles

Women still perform the greater amount of housework regardless of employment status - greater likelihood of gender parity if wife's income is high or has a university education o This causes women to feel more time -stressed than men Working mothers spend about twice as many hours per week as their husbands in family work and bear the greatest responsibility for household tasks Unequal division of labour is a major cause for arguments and unhappiness Men are often most satisfied with an equitable division based on number of hours spent, especially if the amount of time is small Women are most satisfied when men are willing to perform women's traditional chores

How do health and life satisfaction change after retirement?

+ Life satisfaction is higher for those who choose to retire. + Not much evidence that retirement causes decline in health, but health issues may cause a person to retire

Women and Occupational Development

Women who leave well-paid occupations do so for many reasons, including o Family obligations - for women working part-time o Workplace issues - for women working full-time Women who continue to work full-time o Have adequate child care o Look for ways to further their occupational development Most important workplace issues are gender-related o Unsupportive or insensitive work environments o organizational politics o lack of occupational development opportunities

Holland's Theory of Occupational Choice

"people choose occupations to optimize the fit between their individual traits (personality, intelligence, skills and abilities) and their occupational interests Occupation categorized in two ways: 1. Interpersonal settings in which people must function 2. By their associated lif estyle o 6 work environments in which people can express their personalities have been identified: • Realistic = individuals enjoy physical labour and working with their hands, like to solve concrete problems • Investigative = individuals are task-oriented and enjoy thinking about abstract relations • Social = individuals are skilled verbally and interpersonally, enjoy solving problems using these skills • Conventional - individuals have verbal and qualitative skills that they like to apply to structured, well-defined tasks assigned to them by others • Enterprising = individuals enjoy using their verbal skills in positions of power, status and leadership • Artistic = individuals enjoy expressing themselves through unstructured tasks + Theory exists at level of interest not level of performance + Having a good match between personality and occupation maximizes occupational satisfaction + When people have jobs that match their personality, research shows that employees are more productive and have more stable career paths Limitations to Holland's theory = how the match between personality type and occupation may change in adulthood has been ignored, also interactions between personal, ethnic, gender and economic factors have not been conside red

What is a bridge job?

+ A job that one has after ending one's primary career, but before becoming fully retired. - e.g. working as a consultant for the engineering firm that one used to work for full time. - e.g. more likely: working as a waiter after having been an engineer. + These jobs are usually lower paying, lower status, and part-time. - High demand for these jobs, which can drive down wages. + Nonetheless, ideal for people near retirement as it "weans" them off work. + Most professionals enjoy bridge job more than career job.

Why might employers discriminate against older workers?

+ ADEA (age discrimination in employment act) made age discrimination illegal, but has lost its teeth. - Courts favor corporations. Why? Ignorance? Corruption? - Corps turn it into a monetary issue. + When Older Adults are let go, they have a harder time finding a job. Lower salaries when they do. - This is might sometimes be because they truly do have outdated skills and/or resumes. + Employers will often not hire someone or will fire someone simply due to age. + Often, employers base decisions on stereotypes (health, training, performance). + More often, the decision is based on finances. - Older Adults tend to make more because of their experience. + Older Adults are forced out, or given incentives to leave. + Sometimes, they are actually brought back in to train young adults

What aging-relevant factors might you consider when choosing an occupation?

+ Ability to work into old age. - Consider a construction worker vs. professor. + Retirement benefits. + Prospects for re-training as initial education becomes obsolete. - Imagine someone who was trained as an engineer 40 years ago

Where do people go when they retire?

+ Aging in place. By far, most people do NOT move after retirement. + If they do move, Florida, Arizona, Texas, and North Carolina are popular destinations, but again, most age in place. + Typically, a move away from home is the result of declining health. (e.g. nursing homes)

When do people typically retire?

+ An increasing proportion are retiring before age 65. - Although, they try to hold out until 62. ** Perhaps due to health, but this keeps them from working, not living. + Length of retirement estimated based on life expectancy at age of retirement. - e.g. retired at 65 in 2000, expect to live another 18 years. + Implications for Social Security system (e.g. potential to spend 40 years in retirement). + Full benefits at 67 for those born after 1960.

What did Otto von Bismark have to do with retirement?

+ Bismark created an early pension system in Germany in the late 1800's. + Established 65 as retirement age. - In 1900, people spent only 1.2 years in retirement, so it was relative easy to pay for compared to the amount of time people spend in retirement today. + US social security act passed in 1935 creating pension for those over 65

What are the 5 phases of retirement?

+ Defined by Atchley + Not all will go through all stages. 1. Preretirment - Remote: saving now, find jobs with good pension plans. - Near: Actually begin the process. Let the boss know. File for Social Security. 2. Honeymoon: soon after retirement. Elevated mood, because you can do anything. No structure. - Often ends when out of money, when health declines, or boredom sets in. 3. Retirement Routine: Basically, how our lives are now, but without work. Chores at certain times, meetings, etc. 4. Disenchantment: Unhappy because hopes and dreams of retirement can't be realized (*Money, loss of spouse). - Not many say they are disenchanted. 5. Termination: Go back to work due to boredom or necessity.

How might work-related issues pertaining to gender and ethnicity have implications for financial independence and retirement in old age?

+ Ethnic and gender differences in the types of jobs people have. - Non-white workers more likely to have "blue-collar" jobs. *** Blue-collar jobs can be harder on the body forcing people out of the work force early. *** Blue-collar jobs tend to have fewer retirement benefits. + Both women and minorities tend to make less over the course of a career, allowing less money to be saved for retirement. - Women more likely to put careers on hold to raise a family

What is the difference between formal and informal retirement planning?

+ Informal planning: family discussions about finances, travel, residence, etc. + Formal planning: Participation in formal planning program and/or meeting with someone specializing in retirement (usually a financial expert). + Most use informal planning. +Those that use formal planning tend to be of higher SES. + Regardless of type, finances are almost always the focus.

The Role of Mentors

+ Mentors are likely to be older, more experienced employees who have learned the "tricks of the trade" and the inner workings of a particular business. + Mentors can help finish a new employee's training (when initial education is not adequate). + New employees can learn the unspoken rules and procedures that may be in place. + Research has shown that women and minorities seem to benefit from mentors. + A mentor is a co-worker who teaches a new employee the unwritten rules and fosters occupational development + Mentor-protégé relationships develop over time, through stages, like other relationships + Being a mentor helps middle-aged workers achieve generativity Kram suggests that a four-stage sequence occurs in mentor-protégé relationships o Initiation - 6 to 12 month period during which the protégé selects a mentor and they begin to develop their relationship o Cultivation - lasts 2 to 5 years and is the most active phase of the mentoring relationship; period when mentor provides occupational assistance and serves as a confidant o Separation - most difficult stage; begins when protégé receives a promotion, often to the level of the mentor; protégé must emerge from protection of mentor to demonstrate his or her own competence o Redefinition - protégé and mentor redefine their relationship but with a new set of rules based on friendship between peers

Are older adults more or less satisfied with their jobs than young adults?

+ Most older workers look forward to retirement, but they are also more satisfied. - Probably because Older Adults have found their niche

Why do People Retire? What factors motivate people to retire?

+ Most people retire because they choose to o although some people are forced to retire because of financial status or serious health problems + Finances - Negative relationship between SES and retirement age (more money, more able to retire). ** So, the poor keep on working. Poverty (or worse poverty) and depression may result if poor are forced into retirement + Health - Minorities are often forced to retire due to poor health. ** More physically demanding jobs (wear and tear). **** Wet conditions, vibrating equipment, heavy loads, chemical exposure. + Sometimes it is the health of a family member that forces one to retire. (e.g. ill parent.) - Women more likely to care for family members than men. o The most important factor in determining early retirement and satisfaction Gender differences o Married women's decision to retire is predicted most by her husband's health status or number of dependents, the opposite is true for men o Having a retired spouse will also increase the likelihood of retiring Ethnic differences o In Canada, almost no attention has been paid to retirement decisions as a function of ethnicity

Are older workers injured more often than young workers? Do they miss more work?

+ Older Adults are not injured more (protected by experience?) but when they are injured, it does take them longer to recover. + Type of injury associated w/ age. - OAs tend to get repetitive strain injuries. *** Likely due to physical changes in musculature

What kinds of new job skills might older workers have the most difficult time learning?

+ Older Adults can learn to perform new job tasks, but more slowly and with more errors. + Learning can be improved by reducing WM demands, and teaching memory strategies. + Regardless of whether they can, Older Adults may fear learning new tasks. Employers offer fewer training opportunities for Older Adults. Why? - Stereotypes? Investment (about to retire anyway). Have to pay them more. Already experienced

What is meant by "the three-legged stool"?

+ Retirement income comes from three sources: Social Security, Pensions, and Savings. + Deficiencies in one leg must be supplemented by increases in the others. + Social Security: partial @62, full @67. Incentives for working longer. - Not funded by how much you contributed, but by those working now. ** Think about implications of life expectancy at retirement. ****- 1970: 4.1 workers for every 1 retiree, now: 2 for every 1. ** How do we save it? **** Increase taxes, Privatization, Raise tax cap, increase age. **** Ultimately, compression of morbidity and changes in attitudes about being entitled to retirement may be the only real solutions + Pensions: benefits provided by employers for a certain number of years of service. Usually government. - Many do not claim benefits because they lose track of them. - Women and Minorities receive less from pensions. + Savings: Money in the bank, home, other assets. -Tend to make up a small part of retirement resources. - The largest asset for retirees is their home. *Reverse mortgages can be helpful.

How would you define retirement?

+ Retirement: Leaving the workforce either because one chooses to, or because one is unable to find a new job. + What is the difference between retirement and simply being unemployed? - Permanence of situation. = Expectations (i.e. no intentions of rejoining the workforce). - Choice + Retirement was not seen drastically across people until AFTER World War II

7. How does social support change after retirement?

+ Social Support is important for well-being during retirement. + Retirees may lose contact with former co-workers.

Does job performance decline with age?

+ Whether or not performance declines depends on the abilities required for the job. - Decline may be expected if abilities related to fluid intelligence are required. + However, experience can be a protective factor, and can often compensate for intellectual and physical loss.

Are people working longer now than they use to?

+ Yes. At least, this is suggested by the fact that the median age of the workforce is increasing (41.4 years as of 2012). - Partly because they have to (can't afford to retire), partly because they can (older workers have better health now than in years past). + Type of job influenced by cohort, age, gender. - young - more dangerous and more diverse jobs. - older women - more clerical jobs.

Retraining Workers

Rapid changes in the nature of work have resulted in the displacement of older workers Career plateauing: occurs when there is a lack of promotional opportunities in the organization or when a person decides not to seek advancement Very difficult for older workers to maintain their job or land new jobs when they are forced into retirement, displaced or downsized unless they keep skills up-to-date If corporations are to meet the challenges of a global economy, they must include retraining in their employee development programs Effective training and development are often predicted by self-efficiency

Bias and Discrimination

Sex discrimination: denying a job to someone solely on the basis of whether the person is a man or a women o sex discrimination is a major issue, in terms of getting jobs, occupational development, and also in pay Glass ceiling: the level to which women may rise in a company, but not go beyond o This is a barrier to promotion women and ethnic minorities often experience o Study on wage gap - women who delayed motherhood, presumably until skills and seniority were acquired, achieved higher rates of pay o Evidence of glass ceiling found in private co -operations, government agencies and non -profit organizations Glass elevator: in traditionally female occupations, men may rise much faster than female counterparts o Women paid 84 cents for every dollar that a man is paid; wage gap widens as women's working years increase o Solutions to problem have been promoted, one of which is the comparable worth: equalizing pay in occupations that are determined to be equivalent in importance but differ in the gender disposition of the people doing the job ; this can be carried out by gender-neutral job evaluations, which examine all positions within an organization to establish fair pay policies Sexual Harassment o 70% of women have experienced or heard offensive slurs or jokes or remarks about women o 40% of women have been sexually harassed o Less than 5% of victims report their experiences to anyone in authority o 40% of women report having been sexually harassed in the workplace at least once; victims are often single/divorced women under the age of 35 o The reasonable woman (person) standard is used to decide whether an act constitutes harassment o - If a reasonable women would view a behaviour as offensive then it is offensive even if the man did not conceive it as so o Train people in gender awareness to help minimize sexual harassment in work places Age Discrimination: denying a job or promotion to someone solely on the basis of age o Making employment decisions only on the basis of age or denying employment or promotion if the worker is over the age of 40 o Age discrimination occurs in many ways, such as differential layoff patterns and stereotypical views about older worker

Super's Theory - occupational development theory based on self-concept

The initial two phases occur during late adolescence: 1. Crystallization - identity development as a source of career ideas 2. Specification - focusing on and training in specific lines of work Super describes five stages in adulthood, based on self-concept and adaptation to an occupational role o Implementation - begins in late adolescence or early 20's; people take a series of temporary jobs to learn about work roles and try out possible career choices o Establishment - begins by selecting a specific occupation during young adulthood; continues as person advances up the career ladder in the same occupation o Maintenance - transition phase during middle age; as workers max. Their efficiency, they begin to reduce the amount of time they spend fulfilling work roles o Deceleration - workers begin planning in earnest for their upcoming retirement and separating themselves from their work o Retirement - begins when people stop working full-time The more congruent a person's occupational behaviours are with what is expected of them at different ages, the more vocationally mature they are Super believes that people's occupations evolve in response to changes in their self-concept Limitations to Super's Theory - in recent times, people do not stay in the same occupation for all their worki ng lives, does not agree with women's work experience