Chapter 13 psychology

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

personality

individual's characteristics pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Concerning personality assessments, free association is to _____ theory as personality inventories are to _____ theory.

psychoanalytic; trait

According to social-cognitive psychologists, the BEST place to assess behavior is in:

realistic situations.

self-esteem

the experience of being competent to cope with the basic challenges of life and being worthy of happiness." According to Branden, self-esteem is the sum of self-confidence ( a feeling of personal capacity) and self-respect (a feeling of personal worth).

Pride that is rooted in _____ supports self-confidence and leadership, while _____ perceptions underlie conflicts such as marital discord.

actual achievement; self-serving

psychodynamic theories

focus on the role of the unconscious motivations/desires and early childhood experiences in shaping personality

People with high self-esteem are LESS likely than those with low self-esteem to:

give in to conformity pressures.

individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.

According to Freud, the part of the mind that is an impulsive mechanism is the:

id.

Does research support the consistency of personality traits over time and across situations?

- A person's average traits persist over time and are predictable over many different situations. But traits cannot predict behavior in any one particular situation.

How do social-cognitive theorists view personality development, and how do they explore behavior?

- Albert Bandura first proposed the social-cognitive perspective, which emphasizes the interaction of our traits with our situations. Social-cognitive researchers apply principles of learning, cognition, and social behavior to personality. Reciprocal determinism is a term describing the interaction and mutual influence of behavior, internal personal factors, and environmental factors.

Which of the following is NOT one of the Big Five personality factors?

- Anxiety

What did your simulated study find? To measure personality, you chose to have participants complete a measure of: Of the following options, which one would give a stranger the most accurate information about your personality? As a possible confounding variable, you selected whether the astrologer had met participants (and was not using their astrological sign only). Why?

- Astrologers cannot describe people's personality. - the Big Five personality traits. - Your friends' perceptions of your personality - Extra information would be gained by meeting with a participant

How has modern research developed our understanding of the unconscious?

- Current research confirms that we do not have full access to all that goes on in our mind, but the current view of the unconscious is that it is a separate and parallel track of information processing that occurs outside our awareness. This processing includes schemas that control our perceptions; priming; implicit memories of learned skills; instantly activated emotions; and stereotypes that filter our information processing of others' traits and characteristics.

How did Freud think people defended themselves against anxiety?

- For Freud, anxiety was the product of tensions between the demands of the id and superego. The ego copes by using unconscious defense mechanisms, such as repression, which he viewed as the basic mechanism underlying and enabling all the others.

Which of Freud's ideas did his followers accept or reject?

- Freud's early followers, the neo-Freudians, accepted many of his ideas. They differed in placing more emphasis on the conscious mind and in stressing social motives more than sex or aggression. Conteporary psychodynamic theorists and therapists reject Freud's exphasis on sexual motivation.

What developmental stages did Freud propose?

- He believed children pass through five psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital).

What was Freud's view of personality?

- He referred to his theory and techniques as psychoanalysis. He saw personality as composed of pleasure-seeking psychic impulses (the id), a reality-oriented executive (the ego), and an internalized set of ideals (the superego).

How have humanistic theories influenced psychology? What criticisms have they faced?

- Humanistic psychology helped renew interest in the concept of self. Critics have said that humanistic psychology's concepts were vague and subjective, its values self-centered, and its assumptions naively optimistic.

How did Sigmund Freud's treatment of psychological disorders lead to his view of the unconscious mind?

- In treating patients whose disorders had no clear physical explantation, Freud concluded that these problems reflected unacceptable thoughts and feelings, hidden away in the unconscious mind.

How do individualist and collectivist cultures differ in their values and goals?

- Individualism emphasizes individual goals and rights. Collectivism emphasizes group goals and personal relationships.

What are some common misunderstandings about introversion?

- Introversion is often misunderstood as shyness, but introverted people often simply seek low levels of stimulation from their environment. Introversion is also sometimes thought to be a barrier to success, but in fact introverts often experience great achievement, even in sales, through characteristics such as their superior listening skills.

What are personality inventories, and what are their strengths and weaknesses as trait-assessment tools?

- Personality inventories (such as the MMPI) are questionnaires on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors.

What are projective tests, how are they used, and what are some criticisms of them?

- Projective tests attempt to assess personality by showing people ambiguous stimuli (open to many possible interpretations) and treating their answers as revelations of unconscious motives. One such test, the Rorschach inkblot test, has low reliability and validity except in a few areas, such as hostility and anxiety.

Which of the following is NOT part of the contemporary view of the unconscious?

- Repressed memories of anxiety-provoking events

How might Rogers explain how environment influences the development of a criminal?

- Rogers might assert that the criminal was raised in an environment lacking genuineness, acceptance (unconditional positive regard), and empathy, which inhibited psychological growth and led to a negative self concept.

What evidence reveals self-serving bias, and how do defensive and secure self-esteem differ?

- Self-serving bias is our tendency to perceive ourselves favorably. Defensive self-esteem is fragile, focuses on sustaining itself, and views failure or criticism as a threat.

How did humanistic psychologists assess a person's sense of self?

- Some rejected any standardized assessments and relied on interviews and conversations. Rogers sometimes used questionnaires in which people described their ideal and actual selves, which he later used to judge progress during therapy.

Which traits seem to provide the most useful information about personality variation?

- The Big Five personality factors—conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion (CANOE)—currently offer the clearest picture of personality.

Researchers have found that low self-esteem tends to be linked with life problems. How should this link be interpreted?

- The answer isn't clear because the link is correlational and does not indicate cause and effect.

How did humanistic psychologists view personality, and what was their goal in studying personality?

- The humanistic psychologists' view of personality focused on the potential for healthy personal growth and people's striving for self-determination and self-realization.

Why has psychology generated so much research on the self? How important is self-esteem to our well-being?

- The self is the center of personality, organizing our thoughts, feelings, and actions. Considering possible selves helps motivate us toward positive development, but focusing too intensely on ourselves can lead to the spotlight effect.

How do contemporary psychologists view Freud's psychoanalysis?

- They give Freud credit for drawing attention to the vast unconscious, to the stuggle to cope with our sexuality, to the conflict between biological impuleses and social restraints, and for some forms of defense mechanisms, and unconscious terror-management defenses. But his concept of repressions, and his view of the unconscious as a collection of repressed and unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories, have not survived scientific scrutiny. Freud offered after-the-fact explantations, which are hard to test scientifically. Research foes not support many of Freud's specific ideas, such as the view that development is fixed in childhood.

What criticisms have social-cognitive theorists faced?

- They tend to believe that the best way to predict someone's behavior in a given situation is to observe that person's behavior in similar situations.

How do psychologists use traits to describe personality?

- Trait theorists see personality as a stable and enduring pattern of behavior. They describe our differences rather than trying to explain them. Using factor analysis, they identify clusters of behavior tendencies that occur together.

Anna entered therapy to deal with her problems with: Anna's claims included the statement that her father had: The authors of the book The Courage to Heal are:

- anorexia and bulimia. - encouraged her to abuse her younger brother. - laypeople.

Freud believed that defense mechanisms are unconscious attempts to distort or disguise reality, all in an effort to reduce our____________- .

- anxiety

According to Freud's view of personality structure, the "executive" system, the____________ , seeks to gratify the impulses of the ___________ in more acceptable ways.

- ego; id

According to the psychoanalytic view of development, we all pass through a series of psychosexual stages, including the oral, anal, and phallic stages. Conflicts unresolved at any of these stages may lead to

- fixation at that stage.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs proposes that we must satisfy basic physiological and safety needs before we seek ultimate psychological needs, such as self-actualization. Maslow based his ideas on

- his study of healthy, creative people.

. Individualist cultures tend to value ____________; collectivist cultures tend to value __________.

- independence; interdependence

Our scores on personality tests best predict

- our average behavior across many situations.

What is personality, and what theories inform our understanding of personality?

- personality is an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. - Psychodynamic theories view personality from the perspective that behavior is a dynamic interaction between the conscious and unconscious mind. These theories trace their origin to Sigmund Freud's theory of psychoanalysis. - The humanistic approach focused on our inner capacities for growth and self-fulfillment. - Trait theories examine characteristic patterns of behavior (traits). - Social-cognitive theories explore the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

__________tests ask test-takers to respond to an ambiguous image by describing it or telling a story about it.

- projective

Freud believed that we may block painful or unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, or memories from consciousness through an unconscious process called__________ .

- repression

. Critics say that ______________ personality theory is very sensitive to an individual's interactions with particular situations, but that it gives too little attention to the person's enduring traits.

- social cognitive

In general, neo-Freudians such as Adler and Horney accepted many of Freud's views but placed more emphasis than he did on

- social interactions.

The tendency to overestimate others' attention to and evaluation of our appearance, performance, and blunders is called the ______________ .

- spotlight effect

Freud proposed that the development of the "voice of our moral compass" is related to the____________ , which internalizes ideals and provides standards for judgments.

- superego

Modern-day psychodynamic theorists and therapists agree with Freud about

- the existence of unconscious mental processes.

The social-cognitive perspective proposes that our personality is shaped by a process called reciprocal determinism, as internal factors, environmental factors, and behaviors interact. An example of an environmental factor is

- the presence of books in a home.

____________-theories of personality focus on describing characteristic behavior patterns, such as agreeableness or extraversion.

- trait

The total acceptance Rogers advocated as part of a growth-promoting environment is called _______________ .

- unconditional positive regard

A fortune cookie advises, "Love yourself and happiness will follow." Is this good advice?

- yes, if that self love is of the secure type. Secure self esteem promotes a focus beyond the self and a higher quality of life. Excessive self love may promote artificially high or defensive self esteem, which is fragile; perceived threats may be met with anger or aggression.

defense mechanisms

Unconscious copying mechanisms that reduce anxiety generated by threats from unacceptable impulses

social-cognitive perspective

Views behaviour as influenced by the interaction between people and their social acts; Emphasize the importance of cognition before, during, and after an event or situation.

unconditional positive regard

accepting and respecting another person's feelings and self concept. Nonjudgemental care for another person. unconditional positive self-regard. an ideal state of total self acceptance.

Oedipus [ED-uh-puss] complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father. identification. the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos.

This Big Five personality factor involves these endpoints: soft-hearted versus ruthless, trusting versus suspicious, and helpful versus uncooperative.

agreeableness

Fernando was reprimanded for an accounting error by his boss in front of his co-workers. When Fernando gets home from his job he yells at his oldest son for not having dinner ready. His son then yells at the younger children for leaving their toys all over the house. This ripple effect best illustrates a defense mechanism known as:

displacement.

humanistic theories

emphasize each person's internal feelings, thoughts, and sense of basic worth, humanist believe that people are naturally good, our personality and behavior depends on how we perceive and interpret the world, humanistic psychology was developed largely by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Eli has always been an extravert. There is some evidence that people like Eli seek stimulation because their normal brain arousal is relatively low. For example, extraverts:

exhibit less activity in a frontal lobe area involved in behavior inhibition.

Lee has always been an extravert. There is some evidence that people like Lee seek stimulation because their normal brain arousal is relatively low. For example, extraverts:

exhibit less activity in a frontal lobe area involved in behavior inhibition.

The tendency to be social, happy, and cheerful is an example of which of the factors in the Big Five model of personality?

extraversion

Which technique would psychologists use to assess whether a cluster of characteristics that includes ambition, determination, persistence, and self-reliance reflects a single personality trait?

factor analysis

ego

focuses on: The ego portion of the personality and its relationship to other aspects of the personality and the external world. ... Changing one's own behavior or self in order to adapt. The ego is: the portion of the personality that is responsible for human behavior.

Alexis imagines that the self she wants to be is a great athlete, well loved, and well educated. She also imagines the self she fears becoming: homeless, lonely, and unemployed. These visions BEST reflect the concept of:

possible selves.

The old saying, "That is the pot calling the kettle black," is a good example of the defense mechanism _____.

projection

Dr. Berger believes that behavior generally reflects conscious and unconscious attempts to manage conflicts and tensions of which an individual is often unaware. Dr. Berger appears to have a _____ theory of personality.

psychodynamic

Which defense mechanism is at work when we unconsciously replace threatening inner wishes with exaggerated versions of their opposite?

reaction formation

Reciprocal determinism is associated with the _____ perspective.

social-cognitive

The _____ perspective on personality involves reciprocal determinism.

social-cognitive

These theories build from research on learning and thought processes.

social-cognitive

When Lydia noticed she was wearing mismatched socks, she overestimated the extent to which others would also notice. Her reaction BEST illustrates the _____ effect.

spotlight

The Big Five model seems to best capture personality because:

studies show that these descriptions show up over a wide range of cultures.

The _____ theory explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death.

terror-management

To assess the extent to which a person is faking it, ____________ include(s) a lie scale that flags socially desirable answers given to make a good impression.

the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving. Mental set. A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem.

identification

the process by which according to Freud children incorporate their parents values into their developing superegos. fixation. according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved.

Many researchers believe this does NOT involve passions and repressive censoring as Freud once believed.

the unconscious

A(n) _____ describes a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.

trait

Dr. Wayne states that the task of the personality psychologist is to describe the consistent and persistent patterns of behavior that distinguish one person from another. Dr. Wayne is MOST likely a _____ theorist of personality.

trait

The most widely used personality inventory is the

- MMPI.

psychosexual stages

; the stages of personality development including: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Adult Genital.

self-serving bias

A readiness to perceive oneself favorably. people see themselves better than average. thinking of positives. take credit for successes and that outside forces did not have a factor.

id

A reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that constantly strives to satisfy basic drives to survive, reproduce, and aggress. Id operates on the pleasure principle. Pleasure principle. in constrained by reality, it seeks immediate gratification., (psychoanalysis) the governing principle of the id.

self

A symbol using social being who can reflect on his or her own behavior; communicates with others and defines his or her own social reality; anticipates the future and adapts behavior based on those anticipations.

psychoanalysis

A system of psychological theory and therapy for tx of mental disorders by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind by techniques such as dream interpretation and free association.

. self-concept

An individual's view of self; subjective; mixture of unconscious and conscious thoughts, attitudes, and perceptions. Identity. The internal sense of individuality, wholeness, and consistency of a person over time and in different situations. Being distinct and separate from others.

Emily, though not especially shy, is an introvert. What's the difference between shyness, introversion, and extraversion?

As an introvert, Emily—unlike a shy person—can interact confidently with others in social situations. But unlike an extravert—who draws energy from being with others—introvert Emily finds social interaction exhausting. As an introvert, she regains energy through solitude.

collectivism

Giving priority to goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly.

repression;

Involuntary pushing of unpleasant feelings out of conscious thought. Suppression. Conscious, intentional pushing of unpleasantness from one's mind.

reciprocal determinism

It is the theory set forth by Albert Bandura which states that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment.

narcissism

Mental disorder in which people have an inflated sense of their own importance, a deep need for admiration and a lack of empathy for others. Behind this mask of ultra-confidence lies a fragile self-esteem that's vulnerable to the slightest criticism.

collective unconscious

Jung; memories/behavior patterns inherited from past generations; shared by all humans; deep roots in the ancestral past an entire species; manifest as archetypes, myths, and legends.

Al is applying for a new job with a large company. As part of the application process, Al will need to take a personality test. The test has 10 scales including a scale that assesses depressive tendencies. Al is MOST likely taking the:

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory.

The _____ attempts to classify people according to Carl Jung's personality types.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Jim is taking a personality test based on Carl Jung's personality types. Jim is MOST likely taking the:

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.

Excessive self-love and self-absorption is called _____.

Narcissism

_____ emphasized the importance of unconditional positive regard in healthy personality development.

Rogers

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Proponents of the technique assert that subjects' responses, in the narratives they make up about ambiguous pictures of people, reveal their underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world.

self-actualization

Taking responsibility for one's own life and decisions; understanding one's own psychological needs; self-direction. Abraham Maslow. American humanistic psychologist who introduced a hierarchy of needs to achieve self-actualization.

self-efficacy

The BELIEF that a person has in their CAPABILITY to perform a SPECIFIC SKILL. Self confidence. the BELIEF a person has in their OVERALL CAPABILITY.

spotlight effect

The belief that others are paying more attention to one's appearance and behavior than they really are. Illusion of transparency. The illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others.

Rorschach inkblot test

The most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

unconscious

The part of the mind that contains material of which we are unaware but strongly influences conscious behaviors and processes.

hierarchy of needs

Theory of Motivation which states that we must achieve lower level needs, such as food, shelter, and safety before we can achieve higher level needs, such as belonging, esteem, and self-actualization

trait

a core tendency that underlies a person's behavior across situations.

personality inventory

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

empirically derived test

a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups. social-cognitive perspective. views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

projective test

a type of personality test in which the individual offers responses to ambiguous scenes, words or images. it intends to uncover such unconscious desires that are hidden from conscious awareness.

superego

a voice of conscience that forces the ego to consider not only the real but the ideal.

Gordon Allport was the first to determine that:

certain consistencies in a person's behavior may reflect some sort of inner psychological quality.

Social-cognitive theorists believe people learn many of their behaviors either through _____ or by observing and _____ others.

conditioning; imitating

A partner refuses to believe firm evidence of his loved one's affair. This is an example of which defense mechanism?

denial

Social-cognitive theorists have been criticized for:

depreciating a person's inner traits.

Bonnie is afraid to express anger toward her overbearing and irritating supervisor. Instead, she is critical of her children. A psychoanalyst would suggest that Bonnie's reaction to her children illustrates:

displacement.

Landon has become more responsive to his boyfriend's advances since he noticed that an attractive man had moved in next door. Landon is using a defense mechanism called:

displacement.

Do introverts or extraverts make better leaders?

job interviewers in Western countries tend to prefer extraverts, who love interacting with others. Yet introverts also have their strengths as leaders, such as when welcoming innovative ideas or handling conflict thoughtfully rather than reactively.

Lin enjoys roller skating with her friends. Which choice exemplifies a behavioral factor associated with roller skating for Lin?

learning to roller skate

self-transcendence

meaning, purpose, and communion beyond the self. peak experiences. ones that surpass ordinary consciousness. unconditional positive regard.

Kayden has to take a Rorschach inkblot test for his new job. He is worried because he has heard that the Rorschach is not a very good test. Critics would agree and suggest that the Rorschach is:

not very reliable and that it has limited validity.

The Oedipus conflict is associated with which stage of psychosexual development, according to Freud?

phallic

Specific goals for the future that people have for themselves are a reflection of their:

possible selves.

Sally and her husband, Sam, begin arguing at the dinner table over differing views on how they should spend Sam's bonus check. After arguing for a few minutes, Sally storms from the table and slams the front door as she goes out for a walk. Sam snaps at the children and tells them to hurry up and finish their dinner. Sally is displaying _____; Sam is displaying _____.

regression; displacement

Which of the following is NOT included in psychology's current understanding of the unconscious mind?

repression

Abraham Maslow suggested that individuals who are open, spontaneous, and not paralyzed by the opinions of others display:

self-actualization.

Ashley feels that she has reached her full potential as a physician. According to Maslow, Ashley:

self-actualized

Maria believes that she is a very bright and caring person. These qualities help make up her:

self-concept.

Tamara has always approached her job with a can-do attitude, assuming that, even if she had never done something before, she would be able to figure it out. This attitude suggests that she has a high degree of:

self-efficacy.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched & clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders. Empirically derived test. A test developed by testing a pool of items & then selecting those that desceiminate between groups.