Chapter 13 Ts and Qs

What reforms did the Catholic Church make, and how did it respond to Protestant reform movements?

Some Reforms that the Catolic chruch made

Book of Common Prayer

The Book of Common Prayer, written by Thomas Cranmer, in stately and dignified English included the order of all services of the Church of England. It was the first to be approved by the Parliament. It was also the first prayer book to include the complete forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English. The 1549 book was soon succeeded by a more reformed revision in 1552 under the same editorial hand, that of Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury.

Martin Luther

A German monk who became one of the most famous critics of the Roman Catholic Chruch. In 1517, he wrote 95 theses, or statements to reform the church and their practices. The church should only use 2 sacraments (Ukerast Baptism=Community), he created the Diet of Worms and denied to recant, therefor, he was excommunicated from the church. "Faith, not Deeds". He saw Tetzel selling the indulgences and relics, so he created the 95 Thesis. German theologian and leader of the Reformation. His opposition to the wealth and corruption of the papacy and his belief that salvation would be granted on the basis of faith alone rather than by works caused his excommunication from the Catholic Church (1521). Luther confirmed the Augsburg Confession in 1530, effectively establishing the Lutheran Church.

Council of Trent

A council called by Pope Paul III to reform the church. The council re-affirmed traditional practice and theology (salvation by faith and deeds, role of priests and ritual, vulgate(rejection of humanism), role of Bible and tradition(reject putting Bible into vernacular), transubstantiation and 7 sacraments, index of forbidden books). They reformed Tridentine decrees - Tametsi Decree (got rid of secret marriages amongst priests, got rid of concubines), rejected sale of indulgences as a form of making profit (can't buy your way out of purgatory), made seminaries - encouraged religious education of priests

Anne Boleyn

Anne Boleyn, the second wife of King Henry VIII, served as queen of England in the 1530s. She was executed on charges of incest, witchcraft, adultery and conspiracy against the king. Anne Boleyn was born circa 1501, likely in Bickling (Norfolk), England. She was the second wife of King Henry VIII—a scandalous marriage, given that he had been denied an annulment from his first wife by the Roman Church, and that his mistress was Anne's sister, Mary. Thusly, King Henry VIII broke from the Church to marry Anne. She gave birth to a daughter, but could not conceive a son. On May 19, 1536, Anne Boleyn was executed on false charges of incest, witchcraft, adultery and conspiracy against the king. Her daughter, Elizabeth, emerged as one of England's greatest queens. Anne Boleyn died on May 19, 1536, in London, England. Anne was unable to produce a male heir as Catherine could not.

Anticlericalism

Anticlericalism is the opposition to the clergy. In the sixteenth century court records, bishop's visitations of parishes, and popular songs and images show widespread Anticlericalism. In the early sixteenth century, among the population deep criticisms to the Catholic Church were being made, due to the church being the cause of many social and political problems, like the babylonian capacity or the greats Schism. In addition, there was papal tax collection for laypeople and people thought the doctrines were not being taught correctly. Anticlericalism criticized clerical immorality (they were drunkards, gamblers, indulges in fancy dress, weren't celibate), clerical ignorance (priests were barely literate, so how could they preach from the Bible?), clerical pluralism (holding multiple offices at the same time), they did not pay taxes and they were chosen by urban leaders according to their interests. This led people to welcome the idea of a religious Reformation, giving it a huge momentum for it to spread across Europe.

How did the political situation in Germany shape the course of the Reformation?

Beginning in 1519 the Habsburg emperor Charles V ruled almost half of Europe along with Spain's overseas colonies. Within the empire his authority was limited, however, and local princes, nobles, and cities actually held most power. This decentralization allowed the Reformation to spread as local rulers assumed religious authority. Charles remained firmly Catholic, and in the late 1520's religious wars began in central Europe. The papacy and Catholic Kings of France initially supported Charles V's cause, but they withdrew support when he began gaining too much ground. The wars were brought to an end with the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 which officially recongized Lutheranism and allowed rulers in each territory to choose whether their territory would be Catholic or Lutheran.

Mary Tudor

Born on February 18, 1516, at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, England, Mary Tudor was the only child of King Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon to survive into adulthood. Mary took the throne in 1553, reigning as the first queen regnant of England and Ireland. Seeking to return England to the Catholic Church, she persecuted hundreds of Protestants and earned the moniker "Bloody Mary." She died at St. James Palace in London on November 17, 1558. Early Life Mary Tudor was born on February 18, 1516, at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, England. She was the only child of King Henry VIII and his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, to survive through childhood. She was baptized as a Catholic shortly after her birth. Tutored by her mother and scholars, she excelled in music and language. In 1525, Henry named her Princess of Wales and sent his daughter to live on the Welsh border, while he continuously tried to negotiate a marriage for her.Frustrated by the lack of a male heir, in 1533 Henry declared his marriage to Catherine null claiming that because he had married his deceased brother's wife, the marriage was incestuous. He broke relations with the Catholic Church, established the Church of England, and married one of Catherine's maids of honor, Anne Boleyn. After Boleyn gave birth to Elizabeth, she feared Mary would pose a challenge to the succession to the throne and successfully pressed for an act of Parliament to declare Mary illegitimate. This placed the princess outside the succession to the throne and forced her to be the lady-in-waiting to her half-sister, Elizabeth. After Anne was executed for treason and many more lives died or were somehow "taken care of" by Henry and after Henry's death. Mary schemed her way to become the first queen reagent of England. IN attempt to revert England to Catholicism she married Philip of Spain but the marriage just made her unfavorable by the people.

Catherine of Aragon

Catherine of Aragon was originally a Spanish Princess, when she was three years old she was betrothed to Arthur, the son of Henry VII of England. On October 2, 1501 Catherine and Arthur married. Arthur soon died from what was known during this time as "Sweating Sickness" Catherine stayed on in England and was betrothed to Arthur's younger brother, Henry. However, they weren't married straight away due to wrangling between King Ferdinand and King Henry VII over Catherine's dowry. In April 1509 Henry assumed the throne on the death of his father, married Catherine in a private ceremony in June after receiving a dispensation from the Pope, and Catherine's short marriage to Arthur was forgotten. Unable to produce a male heir, Catherine's marriage to Henry began to sour and Henry began pursuing her lady-in-waiting, Anne Boleyn. In 1527 Henry, still desperate for a son, asked the Pope for an annulment of his marriage so he could marry his new mistress. He claimed that the marriage was cursed as it went against the biblical teaching that a man should never marry his brother's widow. Catherine however, said that since she never technically married Arthur. Catherine refused to give and hoped to maintain the her title and the title for her daughter, Mary. With Anne Boleyn already pregnant with his child the couple wed in secret in 1533. He then passed the Act of Supremacy, declaring that he was the head of the English church, and appointed Thomas Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury, who annulled Henry's marriage to Catherine. Catherine left the court and now was unable to see her daughter Mary.

Thomas Cromwell

Cromwell was one of the strongest and most powerful advocates of the English Reformation. He helped to engineer an annulment of the king's marriage to Queen Catherine of Aragon so that Henry could lawfully marry Anne Boleyn. Henry failed to obtain the Pope's approval for the annulment in 1534, so Parliament endorsed the king's claim to be Supreme Head of the Church of England, giving him the authority to annul his own marriage. Cromwell subsequently charted an evangelical and reformist course for the Church of England from the unique posts of vicegerent in spirituals and vicar-general.During his rise to power, Cromwell made many enemies, including his former ally Anne Boleyn. He played a prominent role in her downfall. He later fell from power, after arranging the king's marriage to German princess Anne of Cleves. Cromwell had hoped that the marriage would breathe fresh life into the Reformation in England, but Henry found his new bride unattractive and it turned into a disaster for Cromwell, ending in an annulment six months later. Cromwell was arraigned under a bill of attainder and executed for treason and heresy on Tower Hill on 28 July 1540. The king later expressed regret at the loss of his chief minister.

Henry VIII

Declared the king the supreme head of the Church of England, thus severing England's ties with the Catholic Church. He dissolved monasteries and confiscated their land and wealth. He had Thomas Moore the author of "Utopia" as a chancellor in his office.

Poltiques

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, politiques were those in a position of power who put the success and well-being of their state above all else. During the Wars of Religion, this included moderates of both religious faiths (Huguenots and Catholics) who held that only the restoration of a strong monarchy could save France from total collapse, as rulers would often overlook religious differences in order to have a strong country. References to individuals as politique often had a pejorative connotation of moral or religious indifference. The concept gained great currency after 1568 with the appearance of the radical Catholic League calling for the eradication of Protestantism in France, and by 1588 the politiques were seen by detractors as an organized group and treated as worse than heretics.

Edict of Nantes

Edict of Nantes, French Édit De Nantes , law promulgated at Nantes in Brittany on April 13, 1598, by Henry IV of France, which granted a large measure of religious liberty to his Protestant subjects, the Huguenots. The edict was accompanied by Henry IV's own conversion from Huguenot Calvinism to Roman Catholicism and brought an end to the violent Wars of Religion that began in 1562. The controversial edict was one of the first decrees of religious tolerance in Europe and granted unheard-of religious rights to the French Protestant minority.

Ignatius of Loyola

Founded the Society of Jesus. The order grew out of the activity of Ignatius, a Spanish soldier who experienced a religious conversion during a period of convalescence from a wound received in battle. After a period of intense prayer, he composed the Spiritual Exercises, a guidebook to convert the heart and mind to a closer following of Jesus Christ. On August 15, 1534, at Paris, six young men who had met him at the University of Paris and made a retreat according to the Spiritual Exercises joined him in vows of poverty, chastity, and a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. If this last promise did not prove possible, as it did not, they vowed to accept any apostolic work requested by the pope. In 1539 Ignatius drafted the first outline of the order's organization, which Pope Paul III approved on September 27, 1540.

Henry of Navarre/ Henry IV

Henry IV, also called (until 1572) Prince de Béarn, byname Henry of Navarre, or Henry of Bourbon, French Henri de Navarre, or Henry de Bourbon (born Dec. 13, 1553, Pau, Béarn, Navarre [France]—died May 14, 1610, Paris, France) king of Navarre (as Henry III, 1572-89) and first Bourbon king of France (1589-1610), who, at the end of the Wars of Religion, abjured Protestantism and converted to Roman Catholicism (1593) in order to win Paris and reunify France. With the aid of such ministers as the Duke de Sully, he brought new prosperity to France.

Huguenots

Huguenots is a Reformed member of a French Protestant denomination with origins in the 16th or 17th centuries.Huguenot numbers peaked near an estimated two million by 1562, concentrated mainly in the southern and central parts of France, about one-eighth the number of French Roman Catholics. As Huguenots gained influence and more openly displayed their faith, Catholic hostility grew, in spite of increasingly liberal political concessions and edicts of toleration from the French crown. A series of religious conflicts followed, known as the Wars of Religion, fought intermittently from 1562 to 1598. The wars finally ended with the granting of the Edict of Nantes, signed probably on 30 April 1598, which granted the Huguenots substantial religious, political, and military autonomy.

Indulgence

In the Roman Catholic Church, an indulgence is the remission of a temporal punishment brought about by sin. This punishment consists of either earthly sufferings or time spent after death in Purgatory. Typically a writ of indulgence is issued by the Church and given to an individual who has demonstrated some type of penance, or good work. Indulgences can be applied to oneself or to the soul of a deceased person. The practice of indulgences evolved over many centuries. In the early Church, it was common for certain sects of Christians to do penance as a way of showing sorrow for sin and incurring remission from God. Typically this involved fasts, the offering of alms, extended prayers, and even self-mutilation and other forms of severe asceticism. The forgiveness of the punishment due for past sins, granted by the Catholic Church authorities as a reward for a pious act. Martin Luther's protest against the sale of indulgences is often seen as touching off the Protestant Reformation.

Peasants revolt

It was the reaction by the peasant class after the introduction of Martin Luther and his radical ideas to European society. They had very different ideas, like baptism of adult believers, communal ownership of property, they reacted harshly to deviated members or believed in religious toleration and respect. They thought that the end of the world was approaching and new Jerusalem would be born at Munster, they tried to own the place, but were treated harshly and as a consequence, their ideas survived. They were still seeking for religious change. In addition, the german peasantry was struggling, their economy was worsening and they had had bad harvesting that year. This led to rebellion. At the beginning, Martin Luther supported them , but ended going against them. The nobility slaughtered the peasant rebels and protestantism los strength after the event. Ignited in 1524, the Peasants' War spread across the Germanic regions of the Holy Roman Empire during 1525, and was ultimately put down in 1526. Many factors played a role in inciting the peasants to revolt, including changes in social and economic structures. The move from an entirely agrarian economic base during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries served as a backdrop to the development of new social classes, ones that could not and did not coincide with the traditional feudal hierarchy. Although initially the grievances cited by the peasants were essentially based on individual abuses on the part of government of the Church, this shifted as time went on, and would come to encompass these minor issues within a general dissatisfaction for the entire feudal order

Jesuits

Jesuit, member of the Society of Jesus (S.J.), a Roman Catholic order of religious men founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola, noted for its educational, missionary, and charitable works, once regarded by many as the principal agent of the Counter-Reformation, and later a leading force in modernizing the church.he society grew rapidly, and it quickly assumed a prominent role in the Counter-Reformation defense and revival of Catholicism. Almost from the beginning, education and scholarship became the society's principal work. The early Jesuits, however, also produced preachers and catechists who devoted themselves to the care of the young, the sick, prisoners, prostitutes, and soldiers; they also were often called upon to undertake the controversial task of confessor to many of the royal and ruling families of Europe. The society entered the foreign mission field within months of its founding as Ignatius sent Saint Francis Xavier, his most gifted companion, and three others to the East. More Jesuits were to be involved in missionary work than in any other activity, save education. By the time of Ignatius's death in 1556, about 1,000 Jesuits were already working throughout Europe and in Asia, Africa, and the New World. By 1626 the number of Jesuits was 15,544, and in 1749 the total was 22,589.

Johann Tetzel

Johannes Textzel A priest that works for the Church to sell relics and indulgences. He sells the items not for salvation, but for money because of greed. Martin Luther saw him and was furious with his actions. One of Textzel's saying is, "When the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from Purgatory Springs." Set up a pulpit on the outskirts of Wuttenburg. He offered indulgences to any Christian who contributed money for the rebuilding of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome.

John Calvin

John Calvin was an influential French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism. John Calvin has four key belifs that are all explained in the book he wrote, "The Institutes of the Christian Religion".1) God is just and perfect, while humans are weak and corrupt. 2) Humans cannot work for salvation as they are naturally sinful. God had "predestined" by a "terrible decree" who will be saved. 3) The people who will be saved are called the elect. 4) The elect have the duty to rule society to glorify God. The ideal government is therefore a theocracy.

Phillip II of Spain

King Philip II of Spain, also known as Philip the Prudent, ruled one of the world's largest empires. His reign as Spain's king began the Golden Age, a period of great cultural growth in literature, music and the visual arts. He was also the King of England through his marriage to Mary Tudor for four years. The Philippines, a former Spanish colony, are named after him. He had no male Heir and therefore, could not be succeeded.

Ulrich Zwingli

Leader of the Swiss Reformation; strongly influenced by Erasmus. Critic of mercenary service; supported ending clerical celibacy; followed scripture exactly as it was, became people's religious leader in Switzerland. Believes that not everyone is equally chosen by god, there is a community of believers and the ones chosen by the state, they are not the same. This is why they believe in separation of church and state.

Mary Queen of Scots

Mary Stuart was born on December 8, 1542, in Linlithgow Palace, West Lothian, Scotland. She was the daughter of King James V of Scotland and his second wife, Mary of Guise. Her father died when Mary was only 6 days old, making her Mary, Queen of Scots. Mary's mother was French, and the Scots had a longstanding alliance with France, so Mary was betrothed to the 4-year-old French heir. At the age of 5, Mary was sent to France, where she grew up in the luxurious French court. In 1558, she married Francis, the eldest son of French King Henry II and Catherine de Medicis. In 1559, Mary's husband was crowned Francis II, making Mary his queen consort. Unfortunately, Francis died from an ear infection the year after he ascended to the throne, leaving Mary a widow at 18. ollowing her husband's death, Mary returned to Scotland. By the time of her return, in 1561, John Knox's influence had changed Scotland's official religion from Catholicism to Protestantism. As a Roman Catholic raised in France, Mary found herself an outsider. However—with help from her illegitimate half-brother, James, earl of Moray—Mary managed to rule while creating an atmosphere of religious tolerance.

Union of Utrecht

On January 23, 1579, the agreement at Utrecht was concluded, forming a "closer union" within the larger union of the Low Countries led by the States General sitting in Brussels. Included in the Union of Utrecht were the provinces and cities committed to carrying on resistance to Spanish rule: Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland (Guelders), and Zutphen

How did protestant ideas and institutions spread beyond German-speaking lands?

Outside of Germany, Protestantism spread first to Scandinavia and then elsewhere in northern Europe. In England, Henry VIII's desire for an annulment triggered the split with Rome and a Protestant church was establishes, first differing little from Catholicism in terms of theology and later, under Queen Elizabeth, breaking more firmly into Catholic practice. The printing press and increased literacy of European society as well as the growing number of universities allowed Protestant ideas to spread rapidly into France and eastern Europe. In all these areas a second generation of reformers built on Lutheran and Zwinglian ideas to develop their own theology and plans for institutional change. the most important of the second-generation reformers was John Calvin whose ideas would come to shape Christianity over a much wider area than did Luther's

Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis

Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis, (April 3, 1559), agreement marking the end of the 65-year (1494-1559) struggle between France and Spain for the control of Italy, leaving Habsburg Spain the dominant power there for the next 150 years. In the last phase of the war, fought mostly outside of Italy, France was beaten at the battles of Saint-Quentin (1557) and Gravelines (1558). These defeats, coupled with the beginning of the religious struggle between the Roman Catholics and the Huguenots in France, and the financial difficulties of both powers, led to the peace. Henry II of France restored Savoy and Piedmont to Spain's ally, Emmanuel-Philibert of Savoy; Henry also restored Corsica to Genoa and renounced his hereditary claim to Milan. Although France finally gave up its claims to Italian territory and Spain retained the predominant position in Italy that it had secured in the Treaty of Cambrai in 1529, France managed to retain five fortresses, including Turin, Saluzzo, and Pignerol. Elsewhere, France also retained the three bishoprics of Toul, Metz, and Verdun, which it had captured from the Habsburg emperor Charles V in 1552, and Calais, which it had taken from Spain's allies the English in 1558.

What were the central ideas of the reformers? Why were they appealing to different social groups?

Peasants: Protestant ideas appealed to European peasants because they were attracted to Luther's ideas that there is no need for wealth in order for salvation. Additionally, they were inspired by the idea of attacking authority, shown by many Protestants in response to Church authority. Also, Luther's focus on egalitarianism (equality) appealed to the power classes. Individuality. Middle Class: Protestant ideas, specifically Lutheranism, appealed to the middle class because they were attracted to the idea of knowledge of education used as a tool for religious faith and professions because this meant they could save themselves without depending upon indulgences. Upper Class: The upper class was attracted to the Lutheran ideas that allowed political leaders who have been alienated by the Pope to take control of land originally belonging to the Church if they converted.

Compare and contrast the political consequences of the spread of Protestant ideas in the Netherlands and France.

Politically and Religiously: The papal conflict with the German emperor Frederick II in the 13th century, followed by the the Great Schism, badly damaged the prestige of church leaders, and the 15th century popes' concentration on artistic patronage and building up family power did not help. The critics of the clergy mainly focused on 3 problem; clerical immorality, clerical ignorance, and clerical pluralism. Economically: Other nobles and persons in power converted and joined the Reformation to gain land holdings and increase their own wealth and influence. Politically: Others joined the Reformation as a means of opposition to Emperor Charles V. Politically: The townspeople envied the church's wealth and resented paying because they believed that churches should also pay taxes and not have special legal privileges.

Elizabeth I

Queen Elizabeth I was born on the September 7, 1533 in Greenwich England. She was a princess but declared illegitimate through political machinations. She eventually claimed the throne at the age of 25 and held it for 44 years, keeping England in the ascendant through wars, and political and religious turmoil. She died in 1603. Even though Elizabeth supported Mary in her coup, she was not free from suspicion. A staunch Roman Catholic, Mary sought to restore her country back to her faith, undoing her father's break from the Pope. While Elizabeth went along with the religious change, she remained a candidate for the throne for those who wanted a return to Protestantism. Thomas Wyatt organized a rebellion against Mary in 1554 with the hopes of making Protestant-raised Elizabeth queen. But his plot was uncovered, and Elizabeth was quickly imprisoned by Mary. Elizabeth disputed any involvement in the conspiracy, but her sister was not wholly convinced. when she was released she went back to her studies.

What were the causes and consequences of religious violence, including riots, wars, and witchhunts?

Religious differences led to riots, civil wars, and international conflicts in the later sixteenth century. In France and the Netherlands, Calvinist Protestants and Catholics used violent actions against one another, and religious differences mixed with political and economic grievances. Long civil wars resulted with that in the Netherlands becoming an international conflict. War ended in France with the Edict of Nantes in which Protestants were given some civil rights, and in the Netherlands with a division of the country into a protestant north and Catholic south. The era of religious wars was also a time of the most extensive with persecutions in European history, as both Protestants and Catholics tried to rid their cities and states of people they regarded as linked to the Devil.

Catholic Reformation

The Counter-Reformation also called the Catholic Reformation or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation, beginning with the Council of Trent (1545-1563) and ending at the close of the Thirty Years' War (1648). The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort composed of four major elements: Ecclesiastical or structural reconfiguration Religious orders Spiritual movements Political dimensions Such reforms included the foundation of seminaries for the proper training of priests in the spiritual life and the theological traditions of the Church, the reform of religious life by returning orders to their spiritual foundations, and new spiritual movements focusing on the devotional life and a personal relationship with Christ, including the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality. It also involved political activities that included the Roman Inquisition. One primary emphasis of the Counter-Reformation was a mission to reach parts of the world that had been colonized as predominantly Catholic and also try to reconvert areas such as Sweden and England that were at one time Catholic, but had been Protestantized during the Reformation.

French Religious Wars

The French Wars of Religion, or Huguenot Wars, are names for a period of civil infighting, military operations and religious war primarily fought between Roman Catholics and Huguenots (Reformed, i.e. Calvinist Protestants) in the Kingdom of France. It involved several minor territories around it, like the Kingdom of Navarre, and occassionally spilled beyond the French region (i.e. War with Spain, 1595-1598). Approximately 3,000,000 people perished as a result of violence, famine and disease in the deadliest European religious war behind the Thirty Years' War, which took 8,000,000 lives in present-day Germany.[1] Unlike all other religious wars at the time, the French wars retained its religious character.

The Peace of Augsburg

The Habsburgs were the dominate family controlling the Holy Roman Empire, Austria, Spain, Netherlands, and Naples. They were important because they tried to stop the spread of Protestant ideas and went to war against the French and the Habsburgs eventually agreed to the Peace of Augsburg which officially recognized Lutheranism. The Peace of Augsburg was signed in 1555 by Charles V. Between 1546 and 1555 a religious civil war between Catholics led by Charles V and Protestants led by German princes tore Germany apart. The peace ended the civil war by giving the Prince the right to determine the religion of his state, either Roman Catholic or Lutheran (not Calvinist or other minorities).

Holy Office

The Palace of the Holy Office (Italian: Palazzo del Sant'Uffizio) is a building in Rome which is an extraterritorial property of Vatican City. It houses the curial Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.

Witch Hunts

The definition of what a witch was changed- the essence of witchcraft was making a pact with the devil. The views of women- sexually driven(desire could only be fulfilled by the devil) , creatures of nature, and weaker. Change in the courts- inquisitorial procedure allowed people to accuse others without having to fear reprisal or taking personal responsibility, smaller territories saw persecuting witches as a way to demonstrate piety and concern for order. The Great Witch Hunt caused thousands of people to die and be killed.

Charles V

This was the Holy Roman Emperor that called for the Diet of Worms. He was a supporter of Catholicism and tried to crush the Reformation by use of the Counter-Reformation

Thomas Cranmer

Thomas Cranmer was born on 2 July 1489 in Nottinghamshire. His parents were minor gentry. As his father only had enough land to give his eldest son, Thomas and his younger brother joined the clergy. A plague forced Cranmer to leave Cambridge for Essex. He came to the attention of Henry VIII, who was staying nearby. The king and his councillors found Cranmer a willing advocate for Henry's desired divorce from Catherine of Aragon. Cranmer argued the case as part of the embassy to Rome in 1530, and in 1532 became ambassador to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Cranmer was sent to Germany to learn more about Lutheranism. Here he met Margaret Osiander, the niece of a Lutheran reformer, who he married. Thomas Cranmer also wrote and compiled the first two editions of the Book of Common Prayer, a complete liturgy for the English Church.

Protestant

Western Christians who, during this time, did not follow the pope but rather followed Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli. The world Protestant derives from the protest drawn up by a small group of reforming German princes at the Diet of Speyer in 1529. The princes "protested" the decisions of the Catholic majority, and the word gradually became a general term applied to all non-Catholic western European Christians. They agreed in salvation coming from faith alone, authority rests on the Bible alone, the church is priesthood of all believers an d that every person should serve God in his or her individual calling. It had a great popularity among the Europeans.

Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants

gainst the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants is a piece written by Martin Luther, related to the German Peasants' War. The Peasants' War took place between 1524 and 1526, as a result of a tumultuous collection of grievances in many different spheres: political, economic, social, and theological. Martin Luther is often considered to be the foundation for the Peasants' Revolt; however, he maintained allegiance to the Princes as a method of ensuring[citation needed] the survival of his reformation. Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants typifies Luther's reaction to the Peasants' War, and alludes to Luther's concern that he might be seen to be responsible for their rebellion, as well as to his desire to keep his reformation on track.

John Knox

hn Knox was born in 1514 in Haddington Scotland and died in 1572. He was a Scottish Reformer and disciple of George Wishart. In 1546, he was taken to France and made a galley slave. In 1549 he was freed and went to England where he became a preacher at Berwick. He preached against the Catholic errors of the mass and drew the unfavorable attention of the Catholic powers. Knox was summoned to appear in the black Friars' Church of Edinburgh to face his accusers, who backed down. He was burned in effigy. In 1554 at John Calvin's urging, he became the pastor of the English congregation at Frankfurt, but was dismissed after a dispute over the Book of Common Prayer. 1555 brought him to Geneva where he pastored. In 1559 he returned to Scotland. He died on November 24, 1572 and was buried in the churchyard of St. Giles on November 26. John Knox is the father of Presbyterianism.