Chapter 16 book questions + answers

Identify several hormones necessary for normal growth and development (16.16)

Insulin, Parathyroid hormone and calcitriol, Thyroid hormones, reproductive hormones, and growth hormones

Decreased blood calcium level would result in increased secretion of which hormone? (16.9)

Parathyroid hormone

Define hormone receptor (16.4)

A protein molecule to which a hormone binds to strongly. They are located either on plasma membranes (extracellular receptors) or within target cells (intracellular receptors)

In a dehydrated person, how would the amount of ADH released by the posterior lobe of the pituitary change? (16.6)

It would increase in response to increased blood osmotic pressure resulting from a rise in solute concentration. (stolen answer)

The release of which pituitary hormone would lead to an increased level of somatomedins in the blood? (16.7)

Growth hormone

List the three phases of the stress response (16.17)

1. Alarm phase 2. Resistance phase 3. Exhaustion phase

Describe the chemical classification of hormones (16.2)

1. Eicosanoids 2. Steroids 3. Amino acid derivatives

Identify some clinical problems associated with diabetes mellitus (16.13)

1. Partial or complete blindness 2. Heart attacks 3. Degenerative changes in the kidneys which can lead to kidney failure 4. Problems with peripheral nerves from abnormal blood flow to nervous tissues 5. Reduced blood flow to distal portions of the limbs, possibly causing tissue death, ulceration, infection, and the loss of toes or a major portion of one or both feet

List three functions suggested for melatonin in humans (16.12)

1. Setting circadian rhythms 2. Inhibiting reproductive functions 3. Protecting against damage by free radicals (antioxidant)

Name the regions and zones of an adrenal gland from superficial to deep (16.10)

1. Zona glomerulosa, (superficial) 2. Zona Fasiciculata, 3. Zona Reticularis, 4. Adrenal Medulla (deep)

Adrenal gland hormone functions (extra)

Aldosterone: increases renal reabsorption of Na and water (especially in the presence of ADH). It also accelerates urinary loss of K Mineralocorticoids: Secretion is stimulated by decreased blood pressure and volume through a kidney enzyme that activates RAAS Glucocorticoids: Increase rates of glucose and glycogen formation by the liver. They also stimulate the release of amino acids from skeletal muscles and the release of lipids from adipose tissues. They also promote lipid catabolism within peripheral cells. These actions supplement the glucose-sparing effect of growth hormone. Cortisol: Reduces inflammation Androgen: Stimulates the development of pubic hair in both genders before puberty E and NE: Increase cardiac activity, blood pressure, glycogen breakdown, and blood glucose levels

What condition is characterized by increased body weight due to Na+ and water retention and a low blood K+ concentration? (16.18)

Aldosteronism -- An over-production of Mineralocorticoids

Explain how hormones interact to produce coordinated physiological responses (16.14)

Because cells have more than one type of receptor, they respond to multiple hormones simultaneously When a cell receives instructions from two hormones at the same time, there are four different outcomes: Antagonistic effect: When the observed effects are weaker than those produced by either hormone acting unopposed Additive effect: When the net result is greater than the effect that each would produce acting alone Permissive effect: When the first hormone is needed for the second to produce its effect Integrative effect: When two hormones produce different but complimentary effects

Why do signs and symptoms of decreased thyroxine concentration not appear until about a week after a thyroidectomy? (16.8)

Because the bloodstream usually contains more than a week's supply of thyroid hormones

What thyroid hormone aids in calcium regulation? (16.8)

Calcitonin

Define diabetes mellitus (16.13)

Diabetes mellitus is characterized by a glucose concentration high enough to overwhelm the reabsorption capabilities of the kidneys.

During which phase of the general adaption syndrome is there a collapse of vital systems? (16.17)

During the exhaustion phase, one or more organs will begin to fail.

What effects would increased circulating levels of glucocorticoids have on the pituitary secretion of ACTH? (16.7)

Elevated circulating levels of glucocorticoids inhibit the release of CRH by the hypothalamus. The lack of CRH reduces the secretion of ACTH from the pituitary gland, so ACTH levels would decrease. This is an example of negative feedback.

Define the prefixes hyper- and hypo- in the context of endocrine disorders (16.18)

Hyper- refers to excessive hormone production and hypo- refers to inadequate hormone production

Define endocrine system (16.3)

Includes organs whose primary function is the production of hormones or paracrines

What effect would increased cortisol levels have on blood glucose levels? (16.10)

It would cause elevated blood glucose levels

Increased amounts of light would inhibit the production of which hormone? (16.12)

Melatonin

Name the hormones secretes by the heart (16.15)

Natriuretic peptides

What are the organs of the endocrine system? (16.3)

PRIMARY ORGANS 1. Hypothalamus 2. Pituitary gland 3. Thyroid gland 4. Adrenal gland 5. Pancreas (pancreatic islets) 6. Pineal gland 7. Parathyroid gland SECONDARY ORGANS 1. Heart 2. Thymus 3. Digestive tract 4. Kidneys 5. Gonads

Identify the hormone-secreting cells of the pineal gland (16.12)

Pinealocytes

Define regulatory hormone (16.5)

Regulatory hormones control the secretory activities of the endocrine cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland

Describe key endocrine disorders, citing their characteristic signs and symptoms (16.18)

SEE KEY ENDOCRINE DISORDERS QUIZLET SET

Which type of hormone diffuses across the plasma membrane and binds to the receptors in the cytoplasm? (16.4)

Steroid hormones diffuse across the lipid part of the plasma membrane and bind to the intracellular receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus

Name the two lobes of the pituitary gland (16.6)

The anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe (neurohypophsis)

Name and describe the characteristics and functions of the blood vessels that link the hypothalamus with the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland (16.5)

The hypophyseal portal system is capillary networks and interconnecting vessels. It ensures that all the hypothalamic hormones entering the portal vessels will reach their target cells in the anterior lobe before being diluted through mixing with the general circulation. The blood vessels that link the two capillary networks are called portal vessels. They have the histological structure of veins, so they're called portal veins.

What gland secretes calcitonin, and what gland secretes Parathyroid hormone? (extra)

The thyroid glands secrete calcitonin, and the parathyroid glands secrete PTH

What is the effect of increased glucagon levels on the amount of glycogen stored in the liver? (16.11)

There is an increased breakdown of glycogen to glucose, and an increased synthesis and release of glucose

Describe the location of the parathyroid glands (16.9)

They are embedded in the posterior surfaces of the thyroid gland

Describe the negative feedback in the functional relationship between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland (16.7)

When the hypothalamus produces a releasing hormone that triggers the release of a hormone by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, the pituitary hormone suppresses the secretion of both the hypothalamic releasing hormone and the pituitary hormone.

Define synergistic effect (16.14)

When the net result of an additive effect is greater than the sum of the hormones' individual effects

Cite the hormones secreted by each region of an adrenal gland (16.10)

Zona glomerulosa: Secretes Mineralocorticoids and aldosterone Zona fasiculata: Secretes glucocorticoids, cortisol, corticosterone, cortisone Zona reticularis: Secretes small quantities of androgens that may be converted to estrogen in the bloodstream Adrenal medulla: Secretes Epinephrine (E) and Norepinephrine (NE)

Identify the nine pituitary hormones and their target tissues (16.6)

1. ADH = kidneys 2. OXY = Uterus & mammary glands 3. Thyroid-stimulating hormone = thyroid 4. Adrenocorticotropic hormone = adrenal gland 5. Gonadotropins = gonads 5a. Follicle-stimulating hormone = ovaries & testes 5b. Luteinizing hormone = ovaries & testes 6. GH = skeletal muscle cells & chondrocytes 7. Prolactin = mammary glands 8. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone = skin

Explain the structural classification of hormones (16.2)

1. Amino acid derivatives -contains thyroid hormones (such as thyroxine), catecholamines (E, NE, and dopamine), and tryptophan derivatives (such as melatonin) 2. Peptide hormones -synthesized as prohormones -short polypeptide chains such as ADH and OXT -small proteins such as insulin, GH, and prolactin -includes all the hormones secreted by the hypothalamus, heart, thymus, digestive tract, and pancreas, and most of the hormones in the pituitary gland -Glycoproteins -polypeptides that have carbohydrate side chains - may also function as hormones (Ex: thyroid-stimulating hormone, lutenizing hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormone from the pituitary gland) 3. Lipid derivatives -consist of carbon rings and side chains built from either fatty acids or cholesterol -Eicosanoids: paracrines that coordingate cellular activities and affect enzymatic processes in ECF -leukortrines (a type of eicosanoid) have secondary roles as hormones -prostaglandins (a second group of eicosanoids) is involved primarily in coordinating local cellular activities

What are the similarities between the endocrine system and the nervous system? (16.1)

1. Both systems rely on the release of chemicals that bind to specific receptors on their target cells 2. The two systems share many chemical messengers 3. Both systems are regulated primarily by negative feedback control mechanisms 4. The two share a common goal of preserving homeostasis

List the hypothalamic releasing hormones (16.7)

1. Corticotropin-releasing hormone 2. Thyrodropin-releasing hormone 3. Growth hormone-releasing hormone 4. Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone 5. Prolactin-releasing hormone 6. Prolactin-inhibiting hormone 7. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone

What are the specific modes of intercellular communication for the endocrine and nervous system? (16.1)

1. Direct communication -through gap junctions -limited to adjacent cells of the same type that are interconnected by connexons 2. Paracrine communication -through extracellular fluid -Primarily limited to the local area, where paracrine concentrations are relatively high; target cells must have appropriate receptors 3. Autocrine communication -through extracellular fluid -Limited to the cell that secretes the chemical signal 4. Endocrine communication -hormones -Target cells are mainly in other distant tissues and organs and must have appropriate receptors 5. Synaptic communication -across synapses -Limited to very specific area; target cells must have appropriate receptors

(1) Define the general adaption syndrome, and (2) compare homeostatic responses with stress responses (16.17)

1. Expose to a wide variety of stress causing factors (physical or emotional) will produce the same general pattern of hormonal and physiological adjustments known as the GAS 2. A homeostatic response is due to any situation or stimulus tending to disturb its normal condition or function. A stress response is due to an exposure to a wide variety of stress-causing factors

Identify the three mechanisms by which the hypothalamus integrates neural and endocrine function (16.5)

1. Hypothalamic neurons synthesize two hormones -- ADH and OXT -- and transport them along axons within the infundibulum to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland 2. The hypothalamus secretes regulatory hormones that control the secretory activities of endocrine cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland 3. The hypothalamus contains autonomic centers that exert direct neural control over the endocrine cells of the adrenal medulla. When the sympathetic division is activated, the adrenal medulla is stimulated directly and immediately

Identity the organs and tissues of the endocrine system and the key functions of the hormones they secrete (16.3)

1. Hypothalamus: secretes hormones involved with fluid balance, smooth muscle contraction, and the control of hormone secretion by the anterior side of the pituitary gland 2. Pituitary gland: secretes multiple hormones that regulate the endocrine activities of the adrenal cortex, thyroid gland, and reproductive organs, and a hormone that stimulates melanin production 3. Thyroid gland: secretes hormones that affect metabolic rate and calcium ion levels in body fluids 4. Adrenal glands: secrete hormones involved with mineral balance, metabolic control, and resistance to stress. They also release E and NE during sympathetic activation. 5. Pineal gland: secretes melatonin, which affects reproductive function and helps establish circadian rhythms 6. Parathyroid gland: secretes a hormone important to the regulation of calcium ion levels in body fluids SECONDARY ORGAN FUNCTIONS 1. Heart: secretes hormones involved in regulating blood volume 2. Thymus: secretes hormones involved in stimulating and coordinating the immune response 3. Digestive tract: secretes numerous hormones involved in coordinating system functions, glucose metabolism, and appetite 4. Kidneys: secrete hormones that regulate RBC production, the rates of calcium and phosphate absorption by the intestinal tract, and an enzyme involved in regulating blood volume 5. Gonads: secrete hormones affecting growth, metabolism, and sexual characteristics, and other hormones that coordinate the activities of organs in the reproductive system

Identify three common causes of endocrine hyposecretion (16.18)

1. Metabolic factors 2. Physical damage 3. Congenital disorders

Explain how parathyroid hormone increases blood calcium level (16.9)

1. Parathyroid glands realize blood Ca level is decreasing 2. Parathyroid glands secrete PTH 3. Causes increased reabsorption of Ca by kidneys, Calcium to be released from the bone, and the increased calcitriol production by the kidneys causes Ca absorption by the digestive tract 4. Homeostasis is then restored

Identify the types of cells in the pancreatic islets and the hormones produced by each (16.11)

Alpha cells: Glucagon Beta cells: insulin Delta cells: Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GH-IH) PP cells: Pancreatic polypeptide (PP)

Which of the four hormonal effects are involved in a negative feedback system? (16.14)

An antagonistic effect is involved in a negative feedback system

What kind of effect do hormones have if they produce different but complimentary effects? (16.14)

An integrative effect may produce different but complimentary effects

The secretion of which hormone lowers blood glucose concentration? (16.11)

Insulin lowers blood glucose levels

Describe the location and structure of the thyroid gland, identify the hormones it produces, and specify the functions of those hormones (16.8)

Location: Curves across the anterior surface of the trachea just inferior to the thyroid cartilage, which forms most of the anterior surface of the larynx Structure: Contains thyroid follicles that produce thyroglobulin Hormones: T3, T4, and calcitonin T3: Affects growth and development, metabolism, body temperature, and heart rate T4: Affects digestion, heart and muscle function, brain development and maintenance of bones. Calcitonin: Regulates calcium concentration in body fluids/the body

Describe the location of the pineal gland, and identify the functions of the hormones it produces (16.12)

Location: Lies in the posterior portion of the roof of the third ventricle in the brain Functions of hormones: Setting circadian rhythms, inhibiting reproductive functions, and protecting against damage by free radicals (act as an antioxidant)

Describe the location of the parathyroid glands, and identify the functions of the hormones they produce (16.9)

Location: Posterior surfaces of the thyroid gland Hormones: Parathyroid hormone Parathyroid hormone: Raises blood calcium level in the body

Describe the location and structure of the pancreas, identify the hormones it produces, and specify the functions of those hormones (16.11)

Location: Retroperitoneal - lies in the loop between the inferior border of the stomach and the proximal portion of the small intestine Structure: A slender, pale organ with a nodular texture Hormone: Alpha cells, Beta cells, Delta cells, and PP cells Alpha cells: secrete glucagon Beta cells: secrete insulin Delta cells: secrete GH-IH PP cells: secrete pancreatic polypeptide

Describe the location and structure of the pituitary gland, and identify pituitary hormones and their functions (16.6)

Location: Sella turcica Structure: is connected to the hypothalamus by the infundibulum -- is round and dangle-y -- has an anterior and posterior side Pituitary hormones: see above question

Describe the location, structure, and functions of the adrenal glands, identify the hormones produced, and specify the functions of each hormone (16.10)

Location: The superior border of each kidney Structure: Retroperitoneal - only their anterior surfaces are covered by a layer of parietal peritoneum Hormone functions: See "Adrenal gland functions"

Describe the functions of the hormones produced by the kidneys and the heart (16.15)

The heart secretes natriuretic peptides. If blood volume becomes too great, the endocrine cells of the heart are stretched excessively and secrete natriuretic peptides. These hormones DECREASE blood pressure and volume by increasing Na and water loss in urine, reducing thirst, inhibiting aldosterone and ADH secretion, and dilating blood vessels. --------------------------------------------------------- The kidneys secrete erythropoiten (EPO) and renin, which activates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). When blood flow to the kidneys decreases, endocrine cells in the kidneys release EPO and renin Kidney hormones stimulate thirst, secrete ADH, and secrete aldosterone, which increases fluid intake and retention. Also, RBC production is increased. These hormones INCREASE blood pressure and volume

Differentiate between a first messenger and a second messenger (16.4)

The hormone, aka the first messenger, uses an intracellular intermediary, or second messenger, to exert the hormone's effects in the cell The second messenger may act as an enzyme activator, inhibitor, or cofactor The net result is a change in the rates of various metabolic reactions

Describe how the hypothalamus controls endocrine organs (16.5)

The hypothalamus controls endocrine organs through hormones and regulatory hormones, such as releasing hormones (RH) and inhibiting hormones (IH)

Explain the roles of other endocrine organs and hormones in normal growth and development (16.16)

The pancreas secretes insulin, the parathyroid glands secrete PTH and calcitriol, the thyroid hormone secrets thyroid hormones, and the pitutiary gland secretes reproductive hormones and growth hormones. Insulin supplies growing cells with adequate supplies of energy and nutrients PTH and calcitriol promote the absorption of calcium salts for later deposition in bone Appropriate levels of thyroid hormones are responsible for normal growth Reproductive hormones are responsible for the activity of osteoblasts in key locations and the growth of specific cell populations. Sex hormones stimulate cell growth and differentiation in their target tissues Growth hormones in children effect protein synthesis and cellular growth, and support their muscular and skeletal growth. In adults, GH helps to maintain normal blood glucose concentrations and to mobilize lipid reserves stored in adipose tissue

Describe the resistance phase (16.17)

The resistance phase is entered when stress lasts longer than a few hours. Glucocorticoids are the dominant hormone of this phase. E, GH, and thyroid hormones are also involved. Energy demands in this phase remain higher than normal because of the combined effects of these hormones. Neural tissue has a high demand for energy, and neurons must have a reliable supply of glucose.

Name the hormones of the thyroid gland (16.8)

Thyroxine (T4), Triiodothyronine (T3), and calcitonin

Explain the general mechanisms of hormonal action (16.4)

To affect a target cell, a hormone must first interact with an appropriate receptor - a protein molecule to which it binds strongly. If a cell has a receptor that can bind to a particular hormone, that cell will respond to the hormone's presence. it not, the hormone will have no effect on that cell.

What is the common goal of the endocrine and nervous system? (16.1)

To preserve homeostasis by coordinating and regulating the activities of other cells, tissues, organs, and systems

Describe the two types of diabetes mellitus (16.13)

Type 1: Characterized by the inadequate insulin production by the pancreatic beta cells -- Insulin dependent Type 2: Associated with obesity. Most people with this form of diabetes produce normal amounts of insulin, at least initially, but their tissues do not respond properly -- Insulin resistant

Explain diabetes mellitus: its types, clinical manifestations, and treatments (16.13)

Types: see above Clinical manifestations: see above Treatments: For type 1: Multiple insulin injections daily or an insulin pump. For type 2, weight loss through diet and exercise, and also certain medications