Chapter 2: evolution and Human Nature

According to Honig (2007)

" many believe that the architecture of the human brain appears to be especially amenable to belief in God or gods, life after death, immortal souls, the power of prayer, and a transcendent meaning for the universe".

Caregiver-infant attachment bond:

"a complex, instinctively guided behavioral system that has functioned throughout human evolution to protect the infant from predators" (Bowlby, 1969). Studies: cortical and hormonal relationship to attachment, e.g., oxytocin.

Shelley and Taylor (2006):

"tend and befriend". Tendency to affiliate with one another often enhanced in times of stress/danger. Emotional development: attachment system organizes earliest experience of human love and fear (Bowlby, 1969). End first year of life, stranger anxiety and separation anxiety: caution/fear in face of novel events and objects and when confronted with strangers. Presence of attachment figure relieves fear.

On Human Nature (Wilson 1978)

"the predisposition to religious belief is the most complex and powerful force in the human mind and in all probability is an ineradicable part of human nature".

Strange situation

(Ainsworth, 1978): study on individual differences. Three general attachment patterns: 1. A-babies; 2. B-babies; and 3. C-babies (Table 2.3, p.60)

Origins of Human Morality and Altruism (DeWaal, 1996)

(TABLE 2.2, p. 55) Sympathy-Related Tendencies Norm-Related Characteristics Reciprocity Getting Along

THE ADAPTED MIND

-Human brain has evolved; complex behavioral patterns and mental programs/functions. -More difficult to understand than evolution of physical body. -Survival in the EEA not by physical strength, but because smarter. -Cognitive niche: -Primary way of adapting to the challenges of EEA was/continues to be use of human mind's extraordinary powers. -Fodor (1983):

Environment of Evolutionary Adeptness (EEA)

-Pleistocene epoch of earth history (1.6 million - 10,000 years ago) = environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EEA). -Much of what makes us human evolved to adapt to life in the EEA. -Humans lived in small cooperative groups → survival strategy. -Group assisted childcare, education; established social relationships. -Humans by nature are social animals. Social life → best survival strategy. -Designed by natural selection to want to be together in groups; seek bonds, attachments, friendships. -Group life in the EEA: also competition and conflict; hierarchies. -Greatest threat to their existence (DeWaal, 1996).

Across animal kingdom

Across animal kingdom: intraspecies often ritualistic. Ritualistic fighting; mock aggression→ stable dominance hierarchies in animal societies. Competitive infanticide, eg., Indian monkeys (Konner, 1983). Aggression in males: a function of intrasexual competition (Trivers, 1972). Competition for female may turn violent. Most sexually appealing males: winners in competitive displays of aggression.

ALTRUISM

Actions of unselfish heroes: how explain examples of great altruism, self-sacrifice; compassion and caring. Humans evolved to be both aggressive and altruistic: both proved adaptive for EEA group life. Cultural norms must be established to keep antisocial aggression under control. Intragroup conflict needs to be resolved by balancing individual and collective interest. C -Dyadic level and higher levels of social structure.

Internalized working model:

Child develops expectations about relationships with other people in first 2-3 years of life. 1. Secure attachment 2. Insecure attachment

Role playing and impression management:

Compulsive tendencies → survival and reproductive success. (Hogan, 1985). Major mechanisms in how we define who we are as social beings.

PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTION

Continuity of life from one generation to the next. How the Mind Works (Pinker, 1997): evolutionary scientist. Laws of physics and chemistry. Charles Darwin (1859) living forms evolve over time via their interactions with the environment. Survival of the fittest: compete for food, etc. Natural Selection

Dealing with Evolutionary Problems

Deal with problems via goal-directed tactics and strategies to ensure survival and reproductive success. Understand human evolution for personality psychology: -Distal: explain behavior in terms evolution; inclusive fitness. -Proximal: immediate environmental, physiological and cognitive mechanisms that determine behavior. ^Distal(evolutionary) reason for human sexual activity: to replicate genes. ^Proximal (individual) reason: pleasure.

D-babies (Carlson, et al.,1989)

Development of "disorganized" attachment pattern. Infant confused, disoriented in presence of mother; can't calm when distressed. Seen with chronic child abuse.

Different Qualities in Partners

Different qualities in partners: Males: prefer young and physically attractive mates. Females: prefer mates with high social status; significant material resources. One motivational strategy for attracting romantic partners: expression of creativity. Research: college males showed higher levels creative expression when thinking of opportunity for short-term or long-term romantic involvement. College females: only for long-term and committed romantic involvement.

Theories of Attachment

Freud: result of feeding. Infant becomes attached to mother because she satisfied oral needs. Harlow and Zimmerman: contact comfort. Bowlby (1969) ethological theory: infants and mothers biologically programmed for attachment. Increases chance of survival.

How to promote likelihood of replication and well-being of future generations?

Generate and promote one's own biological offspring (directly). Promote the reproduction and wellbeing of those who share the same genes, e.g., biological sister (indirectly). Altruism and self-sacrificial behavior in animal kingdom. Darwin didn't have answer to why organisms would compromise own survival to assist another.

Origins of group morality: three conditions of life in the Pleistocene:

Group value Mutual aid Internal conflict

Attachment Theory:

How attachments are adaptive in human evolution (Bowlby, 1969). Assessment and understanding of individual differences in attachment bonds (Ainsworth, 1967). Attachment bonds develop in first year of life; approximately same way in all know human societies (Bowlby, 1969). Behaviorally, attachment refers to seeking and maintaining proximity to another. Ethologists observed attachment behavior in nonhuman primates.

GETTING ALONG AND GETTING AHEAD

Human life = social life. Robert Hogan (1982): Socioanalytic theory. Personality theory that blends evolutionary understanding of the person with Freudian perspectives and sociological role theories. Biologically predisposed to group social living; hierarchies. What advantages of having a high status?

Signs of attachment

Infants show preference for mother over others by 4 months of age. Clear signs of attachment at 6-7 months. Social referencing: "read" emotional reactions of mothers and caregivers, especially in uncertain situations (6 months of age), e.g., visual cliff. Separation anxiety: distress to separation from primary caregivers (6 months of age; peak 14-18 months). Stranger anxiety: strong negative reaction to strangers (8-10 months of age).

Over Evolutionary Time

Over evolutionary time: adapted to challenges of the EEA. Developed characteristics that set them apart from all other species. Large set of "universals": athletic sports; bodily adornment; cooperative labor; courtship; dancing; education; family feasting; folklore, customs; religious rituals. Today, modifications of hunting and gathering societies.

EVOLUTION OF RELIGION

People are religious worldwide. Gallup polls: nearly 95% Americans believe in God. Two-thirds hold membership in a religious organization. Little under half attend a church, synagogue, or mosque. (Goodstein, 2001). Practice/beliefs vary widely worldwide, but almost all cultures hold religious traditions of one kind or another.

Mating

Prime reason both men and women mate: produce offspring. Different advantages: Males: to produce as many offspring as possible. Females: to limit number offspring. Natural selection often works on emotional/motivational mechanisms of behavior rather than behavior itself. Evolutionary explanation of differences in mating strategies not a moral justification for differences in sexual behavior. Sexual differences in speed.

The eight classes of reproductive problems

Reproductive problems are more social and more central to personality. Eight classes (Buss, 1991). 1. Successful intrasexual competition. 2. Mate selection. 3. Successful concept. 4. Mate retention. 5. Reciprocal dyadic alliance.: when a couple works together 6. Coalition building and maintenance. 7. Parental care and socialization.: ensure survival of the offspring 8. Extraparental kin investment.: support outside of the parents

THE ENVIRONMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTEDNESS

Scientific estimates: life on earth emerged about 3.5 billion years ago. About 3 billion years later, life evolved from simple cells→ multicellular animals. Mammals appeared about 200 million years ago; dinosaurs became extinct about 60 million years ago. Humans appeared 2.4 million years ago. Probably in Africa. Migrated; evolved to current form in last 2 million years.

The positives of secure attachment

Secure attachment→ greater levels mastery and competence in preschool→ elementary years (Schneider, et al., 2001). Predicts positive peer and romantic relationships and emotional health in adolescence (Carlson et al., 2004). Secure attachment at 12 months→ social competence in elementary school→ more secure relationships in adolescence→ more positive emotional experiences and less conflict in adult romantic relationships.

Human Nature

Study of persons must begin with human nature. Philosophy, poetry, religion: offered views on human nature. Contemporary scientific understanding: focus on human evolution. Fundamentally about how we have evolved to survive and reproduce. Evolution and human nature: most fundamental context for understanding our individuality.

The Selfish Gene (Dawkins, 1976).

The selfish gene is defined as the replication of the genes that determine their design

Genes

Today we know that genes are responsible for inheritance of characteristics. Segments of chromosomes in every cell in the body (DNA). May be genetic mutations: accidental advantages or disadvantages, e.g., lactose tolerance. No longer needed after weaning to break down sugars.

Aggression

What drives people toward war? Adaptive? Natural inclination? Fossil evidence of organized group killings across cultures rather common in the EEA.

Cognitive Niche

a place humans carved out for themselves via mental activity, etc. in the evolutionary landscape.

Secure attachment

basic trust in surroundings → self confidence to explore world.

Character Structure

changes over time. Childhood: ways of showing self to parents/family members. Adulthood: audience broadens.

Role Structure

characteristic ways we show ourselves to our larger audience. Earlier character structure does not disappear: unconscious rules for social interaction.

Fundamental feature of life in the EEA

evolved in groups. 1. Competition and cooperation. 2. Getting ahead and getting along. 3. Dominance hierarchies created stability and order. 4. Necessary for establishing cooperation, sharing, social support in groups.

William Hamilton (1964)

explained concept of inclusive fitness: an organisms total (inclusive)ability to maximize the replication of genes, including own genes and genes of close relatives. -May be predisposed to assist kin; might also be predisposed to sacrifice selves under certain conditions for one's kin. ex./ donating a kidney- helps move humanity along ^not everyone is altruistic -For social species, certain kinds of caring or altruistic tendencies should be selected by nature, as they enhance the inclusive fitness of the organisms that show them.

Emotional distress when separated from caregivers:

feelings of abandonment. Lengthy or repeated separation: detrimental to healthy personality development. Process of "mourning". Stages from angry protest, despair, sadness → detachment (Bowlby, 1973). Detachment severs attachment bond.

A-babies

insecure attachment (avoidant). Upset when mother leaves; avoids when she returns.

C-babies

insecure attachment (resistant). Upset when mother leaves; approach and avoid when she returns.

Fodor (1983)

mind like collection of specialized subsystems; each designed to address a particular adaptive task. Cognitive, emotional, motivational mechanisms evolved, adapted to solve problems of survival and reproduction.

Human Warfare

most dramatic and legal expression of aggression. Human violence and cruelty. TV, papers, witnessed. According to Wilson (1978), we are by nature a moderately aggressive species. Predisposition to aggression adaptive over time in human evolution. Human aggression: extremely flexible; malleable. Subject to societal limitations and opportunities.

Natural Selection

nature gradually selects organisms that promote survival and reproduction.

Territoriality

reinforced by feelings of kinship. Organize to defend geographic, cultural, ideological turfs.

B-babies

secure attachment. Mildly upset when mother leaves; greet with enthusiasm when she returns.

Ethnocentrism

tendency to ally with own groups; distrust other groups.

Insecure attachment

world seen as threatening and dangerous place. -Low self-esteem; vulnerable to loneliness.

Evolution has shaped the human mind

→ adapt to group life. In the EEA → today: getting along and getting ahead are necessary for social life. Designed by human nature for social life on two levels: Personal character Social role Dilemmas in social life come from our efforts to get along and get ahead in families, peer groups, social world.