Chapter 26: The Reproductive System

Describe the stages of follicle development

1) A primordial follicle is recruited (surrounded by a single layer of flattened cells) and the squamous cells surrounding the primary oocyte grow and become cuboidal cells and oocyte enlarges transforming the primordial follicle to a primary follicle 2) One primary follicle is selected to become a secondary follicle and forms a stratified cuboidal epithelium around the oocyte. The follicle now has granlosa cells and signals to the oocyte to grow. Secondary follicle stage ends when a clear liquid becomes to accumulate between granulosa cells. 3) The secondary follicle accumulates fluid which forms an antrum, a large fluid-filled cavity. When the follicle reaches full size it bulges from the external ovarian surface ready to undergo ovulation. 4) After the oocyte is ejected, only the ruptured follicle remains and transforms into a grandular loooking structure called the corpus luteum.

What is considered part of the duct system of the male reproductive system and what order does the duct system take from beginning to end?

1) Epididymes 2) Ductus or vas defrens 3) Ejaculatory duct 4) Urethra: where male reproductive system and urinary tract join

What are the components of the reproductive system?

1) Gonads 2) Duct system 3) Accessory glands 4) Perineal structures: reproductive structures that support the functions of the internal reproductive system (what you would see looking at a male or female body clinically/external genitalia)

Describe the parts of a sperm

1) Head: Contains compacted paternal DNA and the acrosome which contains hydrolytic enzymes necessary for a sperm to penetrate the ovum 2) Midpiece: Contains mitochondria which makes ATP in order for tail to be able to move 3) Tail: Flagellum made from a centriole that propels sperm forward

Describe the hormonal regulation of male reproductive function

1) Hypothalamus releases gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) which reaches the anterior pitutary via the portal system 2) The anterior pituatary in response releases FSH and LH 3) FSH indirectly stimulates spermatogenesis by causing sustentocytes to release androgen binding protein (ABP), which keeps the local concentration of testosterone high in order to stimulate spermatogenesis 4) Testosterone also acts at other body sites to stimulate maturation of secondary sex characteristics, maturation of sex organs, and libido 5) LH causes Leydig cells in the testes to secrete androgens (specifically testosterone) and a small amount of estrogen 6) Negative feedback from testosterone inhibits FSH and LH release from anterior pituitary and GnRH release from the hypothalamus 7) Inhibin released from sustentocytes feeds back on the anterior pituitary to decrease FSH release (released if sperm count is high, if low inhibin secretion goes down)

Describe the layers which compose the uterus

1) Perimetrium: Is the outermost layer which is composed of the viseral peritoneum of the uterus 2) Myometrium: Thickest layer composed of smooth muscle. It is this layer that contracts during childbirth to expel the baby. 3) Endometrium: Innermost layer which is thin and composed of mucosa that consists of a simple columnar epithelium and a thick basal lamina. If fertilization occurs, the fertilized egg embeds itself in this layer. If fertilization does not occur, this is layer that is shed monthly.

Differences between mitosis and meiosis

1) Prophase I occurs as it does in mitosis, however, synapsis also occurs (replicated homologous chromsomes come together along their length to form tetrads). Tetrads are little groups of four chromatids. The arms of these homologous chromatids wrap around eachother and this is how their nonsister chromatids participate in crossing over (produces genetic variability not seen in mitosis). 2) In Metaphase I during meiosis, tetrads trade genetic information (crossing over) 3) In mitosis there is only one process of cell division, while in meiosis there is two (meiosis I and meiosis II) 4) Mitosis results in two diploid cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. Meiosis results in four haploid cells that are genetically different (due to crossing over) from the parent cell.

What is considered the accessory glands of the male reproductive system?

1) Seminal vesicles 2) Prostate 3) Bulbourethral gland

Summarize the events of spermatogenesis

1) Spermatogonia (sperm stem cells) divide more or less continuously by mitosis and their daughter cells (until puberty) become spermatogonia 2) Spermatogenesis begins during puberty and each mitotic divsion of a spermatogonium results in: type A daughter cell (remains at the basal lamina to maintain the pool of dividing germ cells) and type B daughter cell (becomes primary spermatocyte destined to produce four sperm) 3) Each type B cell gets moved through the cytoplasmic bridges of the Sustenacular cells through the tight junctions of the Sustenacular cells from the basal compartment to the adluminal compartment 4) Once through the tight junctions, each primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis I (forms two smaller haploid cells called secondary spermatocytes) 5) The secondary spermatocytes go through meiosis II which results in spermatids (four haploid daughter cells) 6) Spermatids are stored in the epididymus and undergo spermiogenesis (becomes fully functional) by elongating and sheding its excess cytoplasmic baggage and forming a tail

Describe the two layers which compose the endometrium

1) Stratum Functionalis: The functional layer which responds to hormones and undergoes cyclic changes and is shed during menstruation. 2) Stratum basalis: Composed of stem cells which form a new functional layer after menstruation ends. Does not respond to hormones and contains numerous uterine glands that change in length as endometrial thickness changes. It is the spiral arteries that make up this layer and repeatedly regenerate and degenerate in response to changing hormone levels.

What are the functions of the male reproductive system?

1) To produce gametes (sperm) 2) Synthesis of androgens (testosterone). Responsible for maintaining the health of the male reproductive system, appearance of secondary sex characteristics of males, and the changes which occur during puberty

Spermatic cords

A connective tissue sheath which encloses nerve fibers, blood vessels, vas defrens, and lymphatic vessels and extends from the abdominopelvic area to the testes.

Seminal vesicles

Account for about 60% of semen. Is a fibrous capsule which encloses a thick layer of smooth muscle that contracts during ejaculation to empty its gland. Stores yellowish viscous alkaline fluid (help neutralize acidity of vagina) that contains fructose sugar (gives sperm motility), citric acid, a coagulating enzyme, prostaglandins (stimulate contractions of smooth muscle), fibrinogen (forms a temporary clot in vagina) and other substances that increase sperm motility. Duct of each seminal gland joins that of the vas deferens to form the ejaculatory duct.

Emergency contraceptives

Also known as Plan B or One-step. Contains an elevated dose of hormones which are used to prevent pregnancy but does not stop pregnancy if fertilization has already occurred (not the same as RU-486 which is an abortion pill). Used to be 2 pills but updated version is one pill combining the dosage of 2 pills.

What is an ectopic pregnancy and how does the structure of the uterine tube contribute to this?

An oocyte fertilized in the fallopian tube begins to develop within the fallopian tubes rather than making its way down to the uterus. Ectopic pregnancies usually naturally abort which can result in substantial bleeding and put a woman experiencing this at risk of dying. The narrowness of the uterine tubes/fallopian tubes contribute to this along with them not being continuous with the ovaries (oocyte can also become fertilized in peritoneal cavity).

Why is it that taking antibiotics can make a woman more susceptible to yeast infections?

Antibiotics can destroy the local bacteria in the vagina which make it's environment acidic. Killing these bacteria effectively destroys this "acidic barrier" which allows foreign bacteria to invade and cause infection

Describe the process of oogenesis

Begins during the fetal period (by 7 months gestation a female has her lifetime supply of oocytes). Oogonia (ova stem cells) undergo mitosis and differentiate into primary oocytes (diploid cells). Before birth, primary oocytes undergo meiosis I but arrest in late prophase I. After puberty, each month a select group of primary oocytes are recruited and only one dominant follicle completes meiosis I and becomes a secondary oocyte (haploid cell). It begins meiosis II but arrests in metaphase II and only completes meiosis II if fertilized. If fertilized it completes meiosis II which results in an ovum and two or three non-functional polar bodies. The nuclei of the sperm and ova then fuse as fertilization occurs. If fertilization does not occur, the secondary oocyte does not complete meiosis II and is instead shed with the uterine lining during menstruation.

Somatic cells

Body cells that are not involved in reproduction

Gonorrhea

Caused by Neiseeria Gonorrhea which invades the mucosa of the reproductive tract and urinary tract. Most infections are asymptomatic. In men it can cause painful urination and discharge of pus from the penis. In women, it can cause vaginal discharge, abdominal discomfort, abnormal bleeding, and urethral symptoms. In women it can cause pelvic inflammatory disease and sterility and in men it can cause inflammation of the entire duct system. It is treated with antibiotics but has recently been becoming increasingly resistant to them. Spread by vaginal, anal, and oral sex.

Syphilis

Caused by corkscrew shaped bacterium Treponema pallidum. Is usually transmitted sexually but can be passed mother to child. If passed during pregnancy it usually results in a stillbirth or the baby dies shortly after birth. The first sign of syphilis is the appearance of a chancre (usually on tip of penis for men or inside vagina or on cervix for women). This heals and develops into an overall body rash. If still left untreated it can progress into tertiary syphilis which can cause CNS problems and even death. At all stages syphilis can be treated by pencillin.

What is an inguinal hernia and how is it caused?

Caused by inguinal canal not closing properly. Excessive force on the abdomen can then cause part of bowel to push into inguinal canal. This can cause blood supply to the intestine to be cut off and the bowel tissue to potentially die. Is checked for in males during routine physicals.

Diploid cell

Cell that contains the normal amount of chromosomes

Haploid cell

Cell that has half the number of normal chromosomes (seen in sperm and ova)

What is the most common bacterial STI?

Chlamydia

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)

Common prostatic disease that affects older men. Caused by benign growth of the stroma and glands of the prostate causes the prostatic urethra to become constricted. Makes urine infrequent and can cause frequent urinary tract infections.

Describe the anatomy of the penis

Copulatory organ that delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract. Consists of an attached root and a free body that ends in a enlarged tip, the glans penis. Skin covering the penis is loose, and extends distally around the glands to form a cuff called the prepuce/foreskin (sometimes surgically removed after birth, known as circumcision). Contains spongy urethra and three long cylindrical bodies (corpora) of erectile tissue, each which is covered by a dense fibrous connective tissue. Is a network of connective tissue and smooth muscle riddled with vascular spaces, during sexual arousement, the vascular spaces fill with blood and cause the penis to enlarge and become rigid. It also has paired dorsal erectile bodies, called the corpora cavernosa which make up most of the penis.

Vasectomy

Cuts vas defrens on both sides near where they originate from the epididymus in order to prevent sperm from being ejaculated (a permanent form of male birth control)

Injectable Contraceptives

Depo-Provera. Given by a healthcare provider. One shot every 3 months. 6-12 pregnancies per 100 women in a year

Embryo

Developing human from gastrulation to the end of 8th week of development

When would you expect to see a huge surge of LH?

During ovulation (occurs during proliferative phase of uterine menstrual cycle)

Prostate

Encircles the urethra as it exits the bladder. Enclosed by a thick connective capsule. During ejaculation, prostatic smooth muscle contracts and squeezes the prostatic secretion into the prostatic urethra. Fluid helps to activate sperm and is about 20-30% of semen volume. It is milky, slightly acidic fluid that contains citrate (a nutrient source for sperm) and several enzymes including prostate-specific antigen, and seminal plasmin (an antibiotic that may help prevent urinary tract infections). The prostate is the third most common cause of cancer death in men, and 1 in 6 men in the US will develop it.

Urethra in male reproductive system

End of duct system. Transports both urine and semen (not at the same time). Has three regions: prostatic urethra (surrounds the prostate), membranous urethra, and the penile urethra (contains urethral glands which secrete lubricating mucus into the lumen before ejaculation).

What hormone is dominant in the first 14 days of ovarian cycle?

Estrogen

What hormone stimulates the production of sperm?

FSH (released from anterior pituitary in response to GnRH released from posterior pituitary and made in hypothalamus)

What is crytorchidism?

Failure of one or both of testes to descend into the scrotum. Is most often seen in premature babies and is the most important risk factor for the development of testicular cancer.

Ovaries

Female gonads which flank the uterus. They are shaped like an almond and about twice as large. Have more of a bumpy surface compared to testes. The ovarian ligament anchors the ovary medially to the uterus, the suspensory ligament anchors it laterally to the pelvic wall, and the mesovarium suspend it in between. Each ovary is surrounded by a fibrous tunica albuginea (like the testes) which is covered externally by a layer of cuboidal epithelial cells called a germinal epithelium. The ovary has an outer cortex which houses the follicles (tiny saclike strucutres) that contain immature ovum. If a single ovum is surrounded by a single layer of cells it is called a follicle cell and a granulosa cell if it is surrounded by two or more cell layers. It also has an inner medulla which contains the largest blood vessels and nerves. The ovaries produce estrogen, progesterone, and inhibin (has negative feedback effect on FSH release).

Zygote

Fertilized ovum

Uterine tubes/fallopian tubes

Form the initial part of the female duct system. Receives the ovulated oocyte and is the site where fertilization typically occurs. The infundibulum is the funnel shaped region of the fallopian tubes which are closet to the ovaries. The ovaries are not attached to the fallopian tubes, so the infundibulum part contains fimbrae draw the ovulated oocyte into the fallopian tube. Next to the infundibulum is the ampulla where fertilization takes place. After this is the isthmus which opens into the uterus. The fallopian tubes contain sheets of smooth muscle and highly folded mucosa which contains both ciliated and nonciliated cells. The oocyte is carried towards the uterus by a combination of muscular peristalsis and beating cilia. The non-ciliated cells have dense microvilli and produce a secretion that keeps the ovum (and sperm if present) nourished. The external surface is covered by visceral peritoneum.

What is the most common viral STI?

HPV

Primordial follicles

Have a single layer of squamous/flattened cells surrounding a primary oocyte. It is a follicle that has not started to develop yet. Are the first follicle type to develop in a fetus. Beginning in fetal life, a small fraction of available dormant primordial follicles are recruited into a pool of growing follicles which mature into primary follicles they rest undergo apresia (cell death).

Secondary follicles

Have multiple layers of granulosa cells surrounding a primary oocyte.

What is the inguinal canal?

Hole in abdominal musculature that links abdominopelvic cavity to scrotum cavity. Is the hole through which testes descend into scrotum. Under normal circumstances, it usually closes over with only a very small opening left behind.

Uterus

Hollow, thick walled muscular organ in which the fertilized egg implants and develops. It is divided into 3 regions: the body (makes up the majority of the uterus), the fundus (rounded region superior to the entrance of the uterine tubes), and the cervix which projects into the vagina inferiorly. The cavity of the cervix is called the cervical canal. The cervical canal empties into the vagina via the external os (opening) and connects with the uterus via the internal os. The mucosa of the cervical canal contains cervical glands that secrete a mucus which fills the cervical canal and covers the external os except at midcycle in order to allow sperm to pass.

Describe the ovulation phase of the ovarian cycle

Huge surge of LH causes follicle to rupture and expel secondary oocyte into the peritoneal cavity to be swept by fimbrae into the fallopian tubes.

HPV

Human papillomavirus. Most common STI. Can cause genital warts but most serious threat is that it can cause cancer (especially cervical cancer). It can be passed from a mother to baby and result in benign growths within the air passages of a baby that can block airflow to the lungs. Vaccination is highly recommended and can protect against most cancer causing strains.

Where does fertilization typically occur?

In the fallopian tube

Describe the epididymis

Is area where sperm mature. Is a comma-shaped organ that arches over the posterior and lateral side of the testes. Contains stereocilia (pseduostratified epithelium) that are large, nonmotile microvilli which help absorb excess testicular fluid and pass nutrients to the sperm. Sperm are held here for several months (if held longer are phagocytosized). It is here that ejaculation begins, when smooth muscle contracts and propels sperm to the vas defrens.

Describe the female external genitalia

Known collectively as the vulva. Has a fatty, rounded area overlying the pubic symphisis known as the mons pubis. Running posteriorly are two fatty skin folds known as the labia majora (homologous to the male scrotum). The labia majora enclose the smaller skin folds known as the labia minora. The labia minora enclose the vestibule which is the area that contains the external openings of the vagina and urethra. Flanking the vaginal openings are two pea-sized greater vestibular glands (homologous to the bulbo-urethral glands of males). These glands release mucus and help lubricate the vestibule. Just anterior to the vestibule is the clitoris which is composed largely of erectile tissue (homologous to penis). It's exposed portion is called the glans of the clitoris which is hooded by a skin fold called the prepuce of the clitoris.

What hormone stimulates the release of testosterone from Leydig cells in the testes?

LH (released from anterior pituitary in response to GnRH released from posterior pituitary and made in hypothalamus)

What are the perineal structures of the female reproductive system?

Labia and clitoris

Primary follicles

Larger than the primordial follicles and are surrounded by a single layer of cuboidal cells surrounding a primary oocyte.

Interstitial endocrine cells/Leydig cells

Lie in the soft connective tissue surrounding the seminiferous tubules. They produce androgens (testosterone) and small amounts of estrogens which they secrete into the surrounding interstitial fluid.

Mammary Glands

Modified sweat glands that are present in both males and females (produce milk during pregnancy in females). The breasts lie anterior to the pectoral muscles and each mammary gland consists of 15 to 25 lobes that radiate around and open at the nipple. The lobes are padded and separated by connective tissue and fat. Within the lobes are smaller units called lobules that contain glandular alveoli that produce milk when a woman is lactating. This milk travels via the lactiferous ducts to the nipple.

Chlaymidia

Most common bacterial STI. Can easily be cured with antibiotics. Has similar symptoms to gonorrhea but most infections are asymptomatic. Is responsible for most cases of pelvic inflammatory disease and can cause sterility. Infected newborns can develop conjunctivitis and respiratory tract inflammations.

Breast cancer

Most common cancer in women (about 1 in 8 women will develop breast cancer). Usually arises from the epithelial cells of the smallest ducts which eventually becomes a lump that can metastasize. Most breast cancers are discovered by self-exams and mammograms (recommended every two years for women between the ages of 50 to 74 years).

Describe the role of sustenacular cells in the spermatogenesis

Nonreplicating supporting cells that extend from basal lamina to lumen of seminiferous tubules. Are bound to eachother by tight junctions which form the blood-testes barrier and divide the seminiferous tubule into two compartments: the basal compartment (extends from the basal lamina to the tight junctions and contains spermatogonia and earliest primary spermatocytes) and the adluminal compartment (lies internal to the tight junctions and includes meiotically active cells). This barrier prevents differentiating sperm from escaping into the bloodstream from the basal lamina and activating the immune system. Following mitosis of spermatogonia, the tight junctions open to allow type B daughter cells to pass into the adluminal compartment. They also provide nutrients and essential signals that regulate spermatogenesis, mover spermatocytes and spermatids along the lumen, secrete testicular fluid (rich in androgens and metabolic acids) that provide a transport medium for sperm, phagocytize faulty spermatogenic cells and excess cytoplasm, and produce proteins which regulate spermatogenesis.

Ring contraception

Nuvaring. Ring is inserted to vagina and left there for 3 weeks (take 1 week off). 6-12 pregnancies per 100 women in a year

Describe the secretory phase of uterine menstrual cycle

Occurs days 15-28 (most consistent time wise). Endometrium continues to thicken and secretes glycogen in order to prepare for the possibility of fertilization and implantation. Levels of progesterone rise due to its secretion from the corpus luteum. As progesterone levels rise, it also causes the cervical mucus to become viscous again and form the cervical plug. Rising levels of progesterone and estrogen inhibit LH. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates and progesterone levels fall depriving the endometrium of hormonal support and causing menstruation to occur, restarting the cycle.

Describe the proliferative phase of the uterine menstrual cycle

Occurs days 6-14. The endometrium begins to rebuild under the influence of estrogen secreted by the granulosa cells. Endometrium glands enlarge and spiral arteries increase in number. Higher estrogen levels also cause endometrial cells to synthesize progesterone receptors. Rising estrogen levels also cause cervical mucus to thin in order to allow easier passage of sperm. Ovulation occurs at the end (usually day 14) in response to a surge of LH.

Vesicular (Grafian) follicles

Occurs prior to ovulation. Has many layers of granulosa cells. Has a fluid-filled cavity (antram) which contains the primary oocyte. Just before ovulation, the primary oocyte resumes meiosis and becomes a secondary oocyte who's second meiosis division is arrested unless fertilization occurs.

Patch contraceptive

Ortho Evra. Put on a new patch every week for 3 weeks (take 1 week off). 6-12 pregnancies per 100 women in a year

What hormone causes the expulsion of milk from the breasts?

Oxytocin

Bulbo-urethral glands

Pair pea-sized glands that are inferior to the prostate. Secretes a thick-alkaline mucus, some of which drains into the urethra where it neutralizes acidic urine in order to provide an optimal environment for sperm to exit the penis. Also helps to neutralize the acidic environment of the vagina and lubricates the glans penis when a man becomes sexually aroused.

What are the perineal structures of the male reproductive system?

Penis and scrotum

Pill contraceptive

Pill is taken everyday (usually over 28 period, 3 weeks of pills with 1 week of placebo). 6-12 pregnancies per 100 women in a year

Describe the anatomy of the testes

Plum-shaped and surrounded by two tunics. The outer tunic is the two-layered tunica vaginalis which is derived from an outpocketing of the peritoneum. Deep to this layer is the tunica albuginea which is the fibrous capsule that cover the each testes and gives it a smooth, shiny surface. The testes are divided into lobules which contain tightly coiled seminiferous tubulues (responsible for sperm production). The seminiferous tubules of each lobule converge to form a straight tubule which convey sperm into the rete testis that then convey sperm into the epididymis.

Describe the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle

Primordial follicle grows into primary follicles which has granulosa cells surrounding ovum that begin to grow multiple layers. As granulosa cells grow they secrete liquid around the ovum filling the spaace around it. FSH levels rise and then begin to drop in the middle of the follicular phase. FSH is necessary for this growth and the follicle that outcompetes other follicles for FSH becomes the dominant follicle which develops into a secondary follicle that continues to fill with fluid (has fluid filled antrum) and gets so large that it bulges from the ovary surface (at this point is graafian follicle). At this point, the oocyte has undergone meiosis I and formed one polar body and has started meiosis II but will not compete it unless fertilized.

What hormone is dominant in the second half the ovarian cycle? (luteal phase)

Progesterone

What hormone causes the production of milk in the mammary glands?

Prolactin

Intrauterine devices (IUD)

Put in by healthcare provider. Copper IUD (paragard) can last up to 10 years and progestin IUD (Mirena) which lasts 3-5 years. Less than 1 pregnancy per 100 women.

Implant birth control

Put in by healthcare provider. Lasts up to 3 years (Nexplanon). Less than 1 failure rate. Progesterone only contraceptive

What is the uterine menstrual cycle refer to and what are it's 3 phases?

Refers to a series of changes that take place in the uterine endometrium in response to ovarian hormones. Is divided into three phases: the menstrual phase (1-5 days), proliferative phase (6-14 days), and the secretory phase (15-28 days).

What are the accessory reproductive organs?

Reproductive structures (besides gonads) that include ducts, glands, and external genitalia

Describe the scrotum

Sac-like structure that cover each testis and hangs outside of the abdominopelvic cavity at the root of the penis. Is composed of an external layer of skin with an underlying superficial fascia (type of connective tissue). During pregnancy, the testes develop inside the abdominopelvic cavity and before birth descend into the scrotum. The scrotum is necessary for sperm production as being of the abdominopelvic cavity provides a temperature about 3C cooler than body temperature, which is the optimal temperature for sperm production.

Spermatocytes

Sperm stem cells that give rise to mature sperm. Are found enveloped by sustentocytes within the seminiferous tubules (make up body of testicle).

Sustenocytes

Surround and nourish spermatocytes (sperm stem cells). Are large, columnar cells which help sperm cells to develop into mature sperm.

Describe the menstrual phase of the uterine menstrual cycle

Takes place from days 1-5. The uterus sheds all but the deepest lining of its endometrium (menses occurs). This lining is shed in response to low levels of hormones which cannot support the built up lining. The detached tissue and blood flow out of the vaginal canal and by day 4, the growing ovarian follicles (particularly granulosa cells) are beginning to produce more estrogens.

What are considered the gonads of the male reproductive system?

Testes

What male and female organs have fibrous tunica albuginea layers?

Testes and ovaries

What layer of the uterus is shed during menstruation?

The endometrium (specifically it's stratum functionalis)

What are the primary sex organs?

The gonads (testes and ovaries). Produce gametes (sperm and ova) and sex hormones (testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone)

What is the ovarian cycle and how does it begin at puberty?

The monthly series of events associated with the maturation of an egg. Before puberty, GnRH is inhibited by low levels of estrogens released from the puberty. At the onset of puberty, the hypothalamus becomes less sensitive to estrogen and GnRH is released in pulses which stimulates the release of LH and FSH which causes the ovarian cycle to begin. Consists of 3 phases: follicular phase (period when a cohort of graffian follicules begins to secrete estrogen and one of these is selected as the dominant follicle), ovulation (when dominant graffian follicle is released), and the luteal phase (period when the corpus luteum is active).

Which part of the ovary contains the oocytes?

The outer cortex

What are considered the gonads of the female reproductive system?

The ovaries (produces gametes and sex hormones estrogen and progesterone)

What is the only organ system not required for life?

The reproductive system

Describe what occurs in the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle

The ruptured follicle remains behind and collapses and begins to secrete progesterone and some estrogen. If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum begins to degenerate after 10 days and its hormonal output ceases. If pregnancy does occur, the corpus luteum will continue to secrete estrogen/progresterone until the placenta is developed enough to take over (about 3 months).

Describe the set of muscles the scrotum contains to help maintain an optimal temperature for sperm production

The scrotum has a layer of smooth muscle in its superficial fascia (dartos muscle), which wrinkles the skin to reduce surface area and increase its thickness to decrease heat loss. It also has a cremaster muscle (lies deep to scrotum) which helps to elevate the testes and bring them closer to the body when it is cold.

Vagina

Thin walled tube that extends from the cervix to the body exterior. Located between the bladder and the rectum. Provides an exit route for babies during birth and an exit for menstrual flow. It is the female organ of copulation. It is made up of three layers: the outermost adventitia, the middle layer which is made up of smooth muscle and known as the muscularis, and an inner mucosa layer which is marked by rugae (transverse ridges). The mucosa layer is composed of stratified squamous epithelium. Glycogen from epithelial cells is converted to lactic acid by local bacteria which makes the vagina acidic and helps to prevent it from infections. The mucosa near the vaginal orifice forms an incomplete partition called the hymen.

Ductus Defrens/Vas defrens

Transports sperm during ejaculation. From epididymus, it runs upwards through the spermatic cord and through the inguinal canal into the pelvic cavity. Its end expands to form the ampulla part of the vas defrens that joins with the duct of the seminal gland to form the short ejaculatory duct. Has pseduostratified epithelium but a thick muscular layer in order to propel sperm along it's long tract.

What are considered the duct system of the female reproductive system?

Uterine/Fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina

What type of follicle is closest to ovulation?

Vesicular (Grafian) follicle

Genital herpes

Viral STI that once contracted never goes away. Can be treated with antiviral drugs to help control symptoms. Only about 15% of infected individuals display symptoms which are painful blisters that flare up occasionally. Can cause severe malformations of a fetus if passing through an infected birth canal.