chapter 27 learning curve ap euro
What group did Joseph Stalin order to become "engineers of human minds" in the 1930s and thus support the socialist state?
Intellectuals -Whereas the 1920s had seen considerable modernist experimentation in art and theater, in the 1930s Stalin ordered intellectuals to become "engineers of human minds." They were instructed to exalt the lives of ordinary workers and glorify Russian nationalism.
Benito Mussolini promoted nationalism by manipulating popular pride in the grand history of which ancient civilization?
Rome -The Roman Empire was the most powerful empire in the world at its time, and many Italians saw this as a glorious period of their history; as one propagandist put it, "Fascism, in its entirety, is the resurrection of Roman-ness."
What role did economics play in bringing the Nazis to political power in Germany in 1933?
The Great Depression opened the door for Nazi electoral success. -After the onset of the Depression, Hitler promised Germans economic salvation, and, reeling from bankruptcies and rising unemployment, Germans flocked to his party. By July 1932, with 14.5 million votes, the Nazi party became the largest party in the German Reichstag.
The Soviet collectivization of agriculture was part of what movement?
The first five-year plan in 1929 -Stalin wanted to implement a socialist economic plan, which included the nationalization of all industry and the collectivization, or state control, of all agriculture.
Nazism grew out of many complex developments, of which the most influential were
nationalism and racism. -Like Italian fascism, German fascism focused on the nation, particularly what it meant to be a "good" or "pure" German — and on identifying those groups, like gypsies and Jews, who were "impure."
Ideas about race can help us differentiate between fascism and communism because
the Nazis used a racial ideology to justify the "purification" of the German nation through mass murder. -Eugenics is a pseudoscientific doctrine which maintains that the selective breeding of human beings can improve the general characteristics of a national population, which helped inspire Nazi ideas about "race and space" and ultimately contributed to the Holocaust.
The public "show trials" of 1936 to1938 in the Soviet Union, in which party administrators and Red Army leaders were prosecuted and executed, are an example of
the Stalinist terror. -The so-called confessions of these often-prominent administrators and leaders were fabricated and mostly gathered through torture.
When did Stalin implement the first five-year plan for economic recovery?
1928 -The first five-year plan was launched in order to begin modernizing the Soviet Union.
What was one result of Stalin's forced collectivization of agriculture in Ukraine as part of the first five-year plan?
A massive famine with some 3 million Ukrainian deaths -In the quest to provide for the urban workforce, the Soviet leadership pressed the Ukrainians for their food supply despite reports of starvation and death, resulting in a man-made famine.
Which action is an example of British appeasement of Germany?
Allowing Germany to annex Austria -Austria, the Rhineland, and Czechoslovakia were all areas that Britain was willing to sacrifice if it meant not going to war with Germany.
Which action is an example of British appeasement of Germany?
Allowing Germany to annex Czechoslovakia Austria, the Rhineland, and Czechoslovakia were all areas that Britain was willing to sacrifice if it meant not going to war with Germany.
What was the Beer Hall Putsch of 1923?
An attempted armed uprising -Adolf Hitler, inspired by Benito Mussolini's recent victory, organized an armed uprising in Munich — the so-called Beer Hall Putsch. Despite the failure of the poorly planned coup and Hitler's arrest, National Socialism had been born.
Which type of art was typical of Stalinist Soviet propaganda?
Art glorifying the lives of ordinary Soviet workers -The ordinary worker was held up as the backbone of the Soviet Union, so propaganda often depicted working men and women.
Based on the map, what strategic area was most under threat of Japanese conquest in 1942?
Australia -Having conquered most of nearby New Guinea, the Japanese were on the cusp of invading Australia. Conquering that area would have given Japan access to abundant natural resources.
What contributed to the ability of Britain to defeat Germany in the Battle of Britain?
British aircraft factories increased production enough to beat Germany three to one in the air. -By October, Britain was beating Germany three to one in the air war, and the Battle of Britain was over.
How did the totalitarian dictatorships of Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union differ from traditional conservative authoritarianism?
By radically reconstructing society -Conservative authoritarian regimes, which had a long history in Europe, were limited in scope. Totalitarian states, however, made unprecedented "total claims" on the beliefs and behavior of their citizens.
The Black Shirts secured Benito Mussolini's seizure of power in what way?
By violently harassing Socialist establishments -The Black Shirts destroyed socialist newspapers, union halls, and party headquarters and also pushed the Socialists out of the city governments of northern Italy.
An "international brotherhood of workers" describes the vision of society for which twentieth-century political ideology?
Communism -The Communist utopia would be ruled by the revolutionary working class, economic exploitation would disappear, and society would be based on radical social equality.
What lessons did totalitarian leaders take from World War I?
Complete disregard for human life in favor of state control -Totalitarian leaders were inspired by the example of the modern state at war, including limiting individual liberties, direct intervention in the economy, and a callous disregard for human life.
Nazi ideas about "purifying" the German nation were based on which pseudoscience?
Eugenics -Eugenics is a pseudoscientific doctrine which maintains that the selective breeding of human beings can improve the general characteristics of a national population, which helped inspire Nazi ideas about "race and space" and ultimately contributed to the Holocaust.
According to the map, how did Germany's progress through the Soviet Union in 1941 compare to its progress in 1942?
Far more progress in 1941 than in 1942 -The Germans pushed deeply into the Soviet Union in the first year, reaching Leningrad and Moscow and gaining all of Ukraine, but in 1942, they gained only some land in the southern part of the front and lost territory in the northern half.
The idea of "totalitarianism" provides a model for comparing the shared characteristics of which two political ideologies?
Fascism and communism -One-party totalitarian states, whether Fascist or Communist, use violent political repression and intense propaganda to gain complete power and try to dominate the economic, social, intellectual, and cultural aspects of people's lives.
Which grouping represents Hitler's New Order racial hierarchy?
Germans at the top, French in the middle, and Jews on the bottom -Hitler's New Order was based on racial imperialism and gave preferential treatment to the Nordic peoples. The French, an "inferior" Latin people, occupied a middle position, and Slavs and Jews were treated harshly as "subhumans."
The 1936 Italian victory in Ethiopia resulted in close ties between Italy and which other European state?
Germany -After a visit to Berlin in the fall of 1937, the Italian dictator pledged support for Hitler.
The following is an excerpt from Hilde Marchant's description of life in London during the Blitz (Evaluating the Evidence 27.3). Here, an air raid warden named Mr. Smith describes his job, and Marchant comments on Smith's account: "'You see, how we look at things now is like this. If they're alive you work like the devil to keep 'em alive and get 'em out. . . . If they're dead there's nothing we can do. Getting upset hampers your work.' So Smith learned not to over-indulge his sensitivity on seeing death, or torn limb and flesh. His job was with the spark of life that survived." According to both Smith and Marchant, what was required for an air raid warden to do his job?
Get used to sight of death and serious injury -In order to give everything he could to those who were alive or who might be saved, he had to get used to the sight of death and serious injury.
Why did Adolf Hitler sign a nonaggression pact with Joseph Stalin in 1939?
He could then invade Poland without fear of Soviet retaliation. -After signing the pact, everything for Hitler was set. On September 1, 1939, German armies and warplanes smashed into Poland from three sides.
How did the Beer Hall Putsch of 1923 change Adolf Hitler's approach to taking power in Germany?
He determined that the only way to seize power was through electoral competition. -Hitler reinvented the Nazi Party to broaden its electoral base, vowing to fight communism and de-emphasizing the anticapitalist elements of National Socialism, in the hopes of gaining power democratically.
What had Adolf Hitler achieved in World War II by July 1940?
He ruled or collaborated with the rulers of most of continental Europe. -In 1940, Italy, Romania, Hungary, and Bulgaria were all German allies; the Soviet Union, Spain, and Sweden were friendly neutrals; and almost all the rest of continental Europe was in Hitler's hands.
Why did Joseph Stalin agree to sign a nonaggression pact with Adolf Hitler in 1939?
He saw a chance to gain land. -Stalin agreed to the deal because he remained distrustful of Western intentions, and Hitler offered immediate territorial gain.
Why was Benito Mussolini expelled from the Italian Socialist Party?
He wanted Italy to join World War I. -Mussolini began his political career before World War I as a Socialist Party leader and radical newspaper editor, but he was expelled from the party in 1914 for urging Italy to join the Allies.
What ideas did Adolf Hitler express in Mein Kampf?
His basic ideas on racial purity and territorial expansion -Hitler claimed that Germans were a "master race" that needed to defend its "pure blood" from groups he labeled "racial degenerates," that the German race was destined to triumph and grow, and that it needed Lebensraum ("living space").
Why was the German action in Czechoslovakia in 1938 so disturbing to Great Britain?
Hitler was seizing non-German lands. -After being granted the right to the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia because it was home to ethnic Germans, Hitler ordered his armies to invade and occupy the rest of that country. The effect on Western public opinion was electrifying. This time, there was no possible rationale of self-determination for Nazi aggression, since Hitler was seizing ethnic Czechs and Slovaks — not Germans — as captive peoples.
Where was the Battle of Britain mainly fought?
In the air -Up to a thousand German planes a day attacked British airfields and key factories, dueling with British defenders high in the skies.
What was the result of the moderate rise in the standard of living, the sharp increase in business profits, and the adoption of massive public works projects that decreased unemployment to 2 percent in Germany between 1932 and 1938?
It stabilized popular support for the Nazis as they had made good on their promise for economic recovery. -Work began on superhighways, offices, gigantic sports stadiums, and public housing, which created jobs and instilled pride in national recovery.
Which statement describes the anti-Semitism of the decades surrounding World War I?
It was European-wide, rooted in both Christian superstition and pseudoscientific racial biology. -Christianity in Europe had long stigmatized Jews, and in the nineteenth century, "biologists" and eugenicists legitimized existing prejudices against Jews and other ethnic groups.
Why was the Battle of Stalingrad so important in World War II?
It was a major German defeat that shook support for the war effort there. -The German downfall in the Soviet campaign came at the Battle of Stalingrad when, in November 1942, the Soviets surrounded and systematically destroyed the entire German Sixth Army of 300,000 men. In January 1943, only 123,000 soldiers were left to surrender. Hitler, who had refused to allow a retreat, suffered a catastrophic defeat. For the first time, German public opinion turned decisively against the war.
The following is an excerpt from an address given by Joseph Stalin to the First Conference of Soviet Industrial Managers (Evaluating the Evidence 27.1). In it, he explained why the Soviet Union could not afford to slow down in its push toward industrialization: "To slacken the tempo would mean falling behind. And those who fall behind get beaten. But we do not want to be beaten. No, we refuse to be beaten! One feature of the history of old Russia was the continual beatings she suffered because of her backwardness. She was beaten by the Mongol khans, . . . the Turkish beys, . . . and the Japanese barons. All beat her — because of her backwardness, cultural backwardness, political backwardness, industrial backwardness, agricultural backwardness. They beat her because to do so was profitable and could be done with impunity. . . . Such is the law of the exploiters — to beat the backward and the weak. It is the jungle law of capitalism. You are backward, you are weak — therefore you are wrong; hence you can be beaten and enslaved. You are mighty — therefore you are right; hence we must be wary of you. That is why we must no longer lag behind." According this excerpt, why did Stalin think Russia was repeatedly defeated in the centuries leading up to the Russian Revolution?
It was backwards. -Stalin argued that only through modernization could the Soviet Union hope to avoid the fate of "old Russia."
What happened to the Communist Party after Joseph Stalin's purges of the 1930s?
It was revitalized with a new generation of technically educated, committed Communists. -This group, the children of the first communist generation of workers, would serve Stalin effectively until his death, and they would govern the Soviet Union until the early 1980s.
What brought the United States into World War II in 1941?
Japan attacked American battleships. -Japanese expansion from 1937 to 1941 evoked a sharp response from U.S. president Franklin Roosevelt, and Japan's leaders came to believe that war with the United States was inevitable.
Adolf Hitler signed a nonaggression pact with which world leader in August 1939?
Josef Stalin -Each dictator promised to remain neutral if the other became involved in open hostilities, to which Stalin agreed because he remained distrustful of Western intentions, and Hitler offered immediate territorial gain.
As evidenced by the recent opening of the Soviet archives, who was the main proponent and perpetrator of the terror and purges in the Soviet Union during the 1930s?
Josef Stalin -Stalin and his allies used the harshest measures against their political opponents — real and imagined — in order to maintain their control of the Soviet Union.
Why are liberal values incompatible with totalitarian dictatorships?
Liberal values include championing individual rights, and totalitarian dictators believe that individualism undermines equality and unity. -Liberal values and democracy are rejected by totalitarian dictators, who seek to establish control over the economy, state, and society through messages of unity and a one-party system.
Why was Benito Mussolini unable to establish complete totalitarian control of Italy?
Mussolini had to compromise with conservative elites to maintain control. -Mussolini was willing to compromise with the traditional elites that controlled the army, the economy, and the state. He left big business to regulate itself, made no land reforms, and drew increasing support from the Catholic Church.
What explains why, as shown on the map, there were more sites of mass killing in the Soviet Union than in other occupied areas?
Nazi racial ideology came into play. -German disregard for Poles, Slavs, and Jews living in both Poland and the Soviet Union made them more likely to commit massacres there than in areas like France or Belgium.
The National Socialist German Workers' Party is commonly known by what name?
Nazis -"National Socialism" is commonly shortened to "Nazism," but the appeal of a "national" and "socialist" party in Germany was all too evident in the Nazis' quick rise to electoral power.
In June 1944, General Dwight Eisenhower led American and British forces into what region in an amphibious invasion that sealed the Allied victory on the Western front?
Normandy -On June 6, 1944, American and British forces under General Dwight Eisenhower landed on the beaches of Normandy, France, in history's greatest naval invasion. In a hundred dramatic days, more than 2 million men and almost half a million vehicles broke through the German lines and pushed inland.
What reason has been given to explain why people were willing to work in the Nazi "killing machine"?
People caved in to peer pressure. -Along with the desire for self-advancement and the need to prove one's worth under the brutal violence of wartime, giving in to peer pressure explains why average Germans became reluctant killers.
In the decades before Benito Mussolini came to power, what was Italy's political situation?
Problematic, neither a liberal government by anti liberal revolutionary socialists, conservatives, Catholics, and property owners
In the decades before Benito Mussolini came to power, what was Italy's political situation?
Problematic, with a liberal government undermined by anti liberal revolutionary socialists, conservatives, Catholics, and property owners -Serious problems, from extreme poverty to severe class differences and the inability of the government to make good on land and social reforms, plagued Italian politics in the wake of World War I.
The following is an excerpt from Fedor Belov's description of life on a collective farm in the Soviet Ukraine during the famine of the early 1930s (Evaluating the Evidence 27.2): "By late 1932 more than 80 per cent of the peasant households in the raion [district] had been collectivized. . . . That year the peasants harvested a good crop and had hopes that the calculations would work out to their advantage and would help strengthen them economically. These hopes were in vain. The kolkhoz workers received only 200 grams of flour per labor day for the first half of the year; the remaining grain, including the seed fund, was taken by the government. The peasants were told that industrialization of the country, then in full swing, demanded grain and sacrifices from them. That autumn the 'red broom' [government agents who requisitioned grain] passed over the kolkhozes and the individual plots, sweeping the . . . 'surpluses,' [and] everything was collected. . . . As a result, famine, which was to become intense by the spring of 1933, already began to be felt in the fall of 1932." According to Belov, what caused the Ukrainian famine of 1932-1933?
Soviet policies -According to Belov, the Soviets took the vast majority of the harvest, leaving the Ukrainians to starve.
What contributed to Joseph Stalin, rather than Leon Trotsky, emerging as Vladimir Lenin's successor?
Stalin rose to the position of general secretary of the party's Central Committee in 1922. -Stalin's ability to navigate the political back roads of the Bolshevik party gave him an advantage that Trotsky could not match.
By destroying socialist newspapers, union halls, and Socialist Party headquarters, which group succeeded in pushing the Socialists out of the city governments of northern Italy to secure Benito Mussolini's seizure of power?
The Black Shirts -In 1920, the Black Shirts, under Mussolini's direction, grew increasingly violent, creating an atmosphere of chaos into which Mussolini stepped as the savior of order and property.
The Lateran Agreement of 1929 was between Benito Mussolini and what group?
The Catholic Church -Through the Lateran Agreement, Mussolini recognized the Vatican as an independent state, and he agreed to give the Roman Catholic Church significant financial support in return for the pope's support.
Which statement describes Germany's occupation of eastern Europe?
The Nazis implemented a program of destruction and annihilation to create room for Germans to settle. -Across the east, the Nazi armies destroyed cities and factories, stole crops and farm animals, and subjected conquered peoples to forced starvation and mass murder, all in an effort to create a "mass settlement space" for racially pure Germans.
Why did the Warsaw Uprising of 1944 fail?
The Poles tried to take the city for themselves, but the Red Army refused to enter the city to aid them. -Citing military pressure, Stalin and Soviet leaders allowed the Germans to destroy the Polish insurgents before ordering a decisive attack on German troops.
Which group was ultimately given control of the political police and the concentration camp system in Nazi Germany?
The SS -The SS ultimately superseded the SA and, under its methodical, ruthless leader Heinrich Himmler (1900-1945), took over the political police and the concentration camp system.
Why were Great Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union reluctant allies in 1942?
The Soviets did not trust capitalist Great Britain and the United States. -Disagreements between the Soviets and the capitalist powers during the course of the war sowed mutual distrust.
How can their respective visions of how to order a new society help us differentiate between fascism and communism?
The Soviets strove to create an international brotherhood of workers, and the Nazis sought to build a new community on a national level. -The Communist utopia would be ruled by the revolutionary working class, economic exploitation would disappear, and society would be based on radical social equality. Extreme nationalists and often racists, Fascists saw the nation as the highest embodiment of the people and the powerful leader as the materialization of the people's collective will.
By 1943, the industry of which country was outproducing all others involved in World War II?
The United States -The United States harnessed its vast industrial base to wage global war, and in 1943, it outproduced not only Germany, Italy, and Japan but all the rest of the world combined.
What was common to both Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP) and Stalin's five-year plans?
The goal of industrial and agricultural growth -The NEP was implemented after the economic devastation of World War I, while the first five-year plan was implemented after economic recovery stalled in 1927 and 1928. The two plans took different approaches to trying to modernize and improve the Soviet economy.
Which statement reflects an impact of the Nuremberg Laws?
The marriage of a Christian German and a Jewish German was not recognized. -The Nuremberg Laws outlawed marriage and sexual relations between Jews and those defined as Germans.
What was life like for Soviet citizens in the 1920s and 1930s?
There was a lack of material goods but an abundance of optimism about their role as the world's first socialist society. -Many believed in the ideology and idealism of communism during the early years of the Soviet Union.
Why have some scholars moved beyond the totalitarian model for comparing fascism to communism?
They argue that the differences between the two systems are more important than the similarities. -These scholars consider the way that the guiding political philosophy of each system was linked to the use of state-sponsored repression and violence to understand how the different systems actually operated.
Why were leaders of the Nazi storm troopers, or SA, executed in 1934?
They were a radical branch of Nazism that Adolf Hitler had to eliminate to maintain order. -The SA leaders expected top positions in the army. Some radicals even talked of a "second revolution" that would create equality among all Germans by sweeping away capitalism. Now in power, however, Hitler was eager to win the support of the traditional military and maintain social order. He decided that the leadership of the SA had to be eliminated.
What was the relationship of the Nazi Party and the pre-existing German government bureaucracy in 1934?
They were constantly in competition with one another. -Hitler played the established bureaucracy against his personal party government and maintained dictatorial control.
How were Benito Mussolini's Nazi-inspired anti-Jewish racial laws of 1938 received in Italy?
They were largely unpopular, and extreme anti-Semitism did not come until Nazi occupation. -Though the laws were unpopular, Jews were forced out of public schools and dismissed from professional careers. Nevertheless, extreme anti-Semitic persecution did not occur in Italy until late in World War II, when Italy was under Nazi control.
Why were the kulaks targeted when Stalin implemented the first five-year plan?
They were wealthy rural peasants, and the first five-year plan rejected capitalist wealth. -The five-year plans were Stalin's answer to implementing a socialist economy for the Soviet Union, and the kulaks were identified as capitalists for the wealth they accumulated under the New Economic Policy.
From 1938 to 1940, the first Nazi mass murder campaign was targeted at which groups?
Those who were physically or mentally disabled -Some seventy thousand people with physical or mental disabilities were forced into special hospitals, barracks, and camps and then murdered under the guise of a euthanasia campaign. The staff involved in carrying out these murders took what they learned in implementing this program with them to the extermination camps the Nazis would soon build in the east for Jews and other racial inferiors.
Why did U.S. president Harry Truman decide to drop two atomic bombs on Japanese cities in August 1945?
To end the war without the need to invade Japan -American commanders decided not to invade because they believed the invasion and conquest of Japan itself might cost 1 million American casualties and claim 10 to 20 million Japanese lives.
Based on Joseph Stalin's use of terror and purges to maintain loyalty to the Communist Party through fear, how might Stalin's Soviet Union best be described?
Totalitarian -Some scholars argue that terror is a defining characteristic of the totalitarian state, which must always fight real or imaginary enemies.
How do totalitarian states and classical liberal states view individualism?
Totalitarian states reject individualism, and liberal states celebrate it. -Totalitarian dictatorships reject liberal values like individualism as well as parliamentary government.
The following is an excerpt from an address given by Joseph Stalin to the First Conference of Soviet Industrial Managers (Evaluating the Evidence 27.1). In it, he explained why the Soviet Union could not afford to slow down in its push toward industrialization: "Why does the international proletariat support us? How did we merit this support? By the fact that we were the first to hurl ourselves into the battle against capitalism, we were the first to establish working-class state power, we were the first to begin building socialism. By the fact that we are engaged on a cause which, if successful, will transform the whole world and free the entire working class. But what is needed for success? The elimination of our backwardness, the development of a high Bolshevik tempo of construction. We must march forward in such a way that the working class of the whole world, looking at us, may say: There you have my advanced detachment, my shock brigade, my working-class state power, my fatherland; they are engaged on their cause, our cause, and they are working well; let us support them against the capitalists and promote the cause of the world revolution." According to this excerpt, what did Stalin think the Soviet Union needed to do in order to earn the support of workers around the world?
Transform itself into an industrial power -Stalin argued that Soviet industrialization would inspire workers around the world to join the fight for global communism.
Ultimately, how did Benito Mussolini come to power in 1922?
Using the legal framework of the Italian constitution -After widespread violence and the threat of armed uprising, Mussolini seized power using the legal framework of the Italian constitution.
Which Soviet leader implemented the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, in an attempt to rebuild agriculture and industry?
Vladimir Lenin -In 1921, in the face of economic disintegration, riots by peasants and workers, and an open rebellion by previously pro-Bolshevik sailors, Lenin replaced War Communism with the NEP, which re-established limited economic freedom in an attempt to rebuild agriculture and industry.
Terror such as that perpetrated by Joseph Stalin might be considered a defining characteristic of a totalitarian state because such a state must always
fight enemies, real or imaginary. -In the Stalinist terror, party members were compelled, through this constant sense of terror and fear of being accused, to always demonstrate their commitment to the party.
After the conquest of Poland in 1939, Jews who lived in Polish cities were forced into urban districts called
ghettos. -In walled-off ghettos in cities large and small, hundreds of thousands of Polish Jews lived in crowded and unsanitary conditions without real work or adequate sustenance.
The famine in Ukraine in 1932 and 1933 largely resulted from
the violence of Stalin's forced collectivization of agriculture. -Ukraine was one of the most important food-producing regions in the Soviet Union, and collectivization was pushed even when it meant leaving the Ukrainians without food.
On the eve of World War II, the governments of the Soviet Union, Germany, and Italy could be described as
totalitarian. -These states made unprecedented "total claims" on the beliefs and behavior of their citizens. One-party totalitarian states used violent political repression and intense propaganda to gain complete power.
