Chapter 28 - Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World

Describe the three estates that made up French society and the political power dynamics they exerted.

1. Roman Catholic Clergy (100,000 people). Gave religious outlook. 2. Nobles (400,000 people). Gave noble outlook. 3. Everybody else - peasants, merchants, etc. Had the most delegates and demanded plenty of political and social reform. Although some others agreed with their reforms, they never really took action.

What happened alongside the victory of the National Assembly?

1st and 2nd Estates decide to grant equal political power to the commoners and peasants of 3rd Estate (National Assembly) Draft Declaration of Rights of Man- equal justice,freedoms of speech and religion (except women!) "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" Still no happily ever after ending...

Bastille Significance

A Parisian riot and raid that inspired insurrections in many other cities.

gens de couleur

A class of free people of color. Some fought in the American revolution and brought back revolutionary ideas, particularly the desire for political rights.. Mostly mulattoes (of mixed race), some black. Made up of artisans, domestic servants, overseers, and some landowners.

Saint Domingue

A colony on Hispaniola, an island with plantations to cultivate sugar. The society was divided into three groups: the small white colonial class, les gens de couleur (free people of color), and slaves, which took up 90% of the population. The colony where the Haitian revolution took place - ended up becoming the Republic of Haiti.

Universal suffrage

A goal of John Stuart Mill. Establishing a people's democratic legitimacy and political sovereignty. The right or privilege to vote.

Robespierre

A lawyer in training known as "the Incorruptible". Dominated the committee of Public safety and served as executive authority of the Republic under the Convention. The Convention was a new legislation declaring France a republic.

Directory

A new conservative post-Jacobin rule. Tried to find a middle way against the excesses of convention. Executed Robespierre and brought a new constitution after unstable revolutionary leadership.

Directory Significance

A new conservative rule that tried to find a middle way against the excesses of the Convention.

National Assembly Significance

A new governmental order that worked under "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity". Made France a constitutional monarchy. Made a program of social-political reform.

What were the radical steps that the new legislative body, the Convention, took?

A new legislation declaring France a republic. Drafted many for war, and invented the Guillotine (which was used on Louis and Marie Antoinette). Dominated by the committee of public safety, declared war on Austria and Prussia due to their support of l'ancien regime. Jacobins used terror campaigns to eliminate Christian influence.

Miguel Hidalgo

A parish priest (1753-1811) who rallied indigenous peoples and mestizos against colonial rule. Contemporaries saw it as warfare against the elite. Invoked the name of the Virgin of Guadalupe and pledged for the death of the Spaniards. Conservative creoles captured and executed him. Became the symbol of Mexican independence. Revolt began on September 16th, 1810.

Olympe de Gouges Significance

A popular feminist figure from the era of the French Revolution.

Civil (Napoleonic) Code

A revised civil law that affirmed equality of all men. Napoleon also established a merit-based society, protected private property, allowed aristocrats back to France, pushed revolution, but passed over radicalism.

According to Mazzini, what is the purpose of revolution?

A revolution is meant to embody the spirit of a specific principle that a majority of citizens believe in. It particularly must be a principle that the authority fails at embodying, therefore, a revolution is meant to reject the existing order and work to create a new constitution.

Bastille

A state prison that is located on the east side of Paris and was stormed on July 14th 1789

What does a successful revolution look like and a failed one (According to Mazzini)?

A successful revolution embodies a principle and unites a people. It can be gradual. A failed revolution, however, is one in which it nothing but a series of riots and violence. If the people cannot work together, then it has failed.

Concordat

A treaty made between Napoleon and the pope, ensuring that France would keep the church's land, but the government would pay the church's salaries and declare Roman Catholicism the main religion.

Nation

A type of community that people can associate themselves with. Often with common language and customs. Inspires nationalism, believing that the nation must be the focus of political loyalty. Cultural nationalism sought a deepened appreciation for historical events, relishing folk culture and literature. An expression of national identity. Political nationalism demanded loyalty and solidarity of the national group. Minorities sought the right to become independent as their own nation.

Nation Significance

A type of community within a region that people can associate themselves with - often with common language and customs.

Would Mill agree or disagree philosophically with Adam Smith?

Adam Smith's view of specialization - allowing people to use their best qualities to make the best quality goods would probably be one that Mill would be in favor in. It allows people to do their best and make the best potential outcome.

Civil (Napoleonic) Code Significance

Affirmed the equality of all adult men.

How did the National Assembly reconfigure French society by 1791?

After seceding from the Estates General. Made a program of social-political reform. Declared rights to liberty, property, and security within the "Declaration of the Rights of the Man and Citizen". Reconfigured France under pursuits of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity. Abolished old feudal system and decreased power of church. Changed France to a constitutional monarchy where men of property could vote.

Why would Mazzini (and Garibaldi) be disappointed with what happened to Italy- How did things deteriorate though after the jubilation of unification?

After they united Italy, the South faced economic issues due to to North, industry became less mobile, those disillusioned by the state of things were hunted down as brigands, and the North seeks secession from the rest of Italy.

What has been Europe's failed experiment according to Mazzini?

Although Mazzini considers the French Revolution to be a successful insurrection, but the lack of thought towards reconstruction caused it to fail. The air of suspicion was horrendous, and the sheer violence made it an example of what not to do.

What were the limits to Napoleon's Enlightenment ideals?

Although Napoleon supported peace and equality of all adult men, he was not exactly a fan of representative government or intellectual freedom. His secret police force spied on and arrested political opponents, and he restricted freedom of speech and press.

How were Napoleon's military campaigns both key to his and French success, but also their downfall?

Although Napoleon was incredibly strong and his army conquered far and wide, conquering is a surefire way to give yourself enemies. He completely dominated Austria and Prussia and fought the British, but his failure in Moscow served as a huge embarrassment. He captured Moscow, but the tsar fled without surrendering and burned the place down. This event led to a coalition between Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, eventually forcing Napoleon to abdicate the throne.

What were the benefits and drawbacks to nationalism?

Although nationalism was a great way to bring a community together, it also instilled a sense of paranoia towards minorities. People became suspicious of minorities, as minorities often sought the right to become independent as their own national communities. An extremely prominent example of this throughout history is anti-semitism.

What were the major factors leading to French revolution?

American Revolution already happened, enlightenment already happened. Vast inequality (Estates). Extreme French debts led to high taxes, meaning the burden fell onto the 3rd estate. Power consolidated in top two estates. Corrupt leader (King Louis XVI) spending too much. Failed harvests led to starvation Lost recent wars and territories, leading to a decline in nationalism.

Napoleon's non-Achievements

American landholdings as well as Saint-Domingue lost under Napoleon's rule due to wars in Europe Sold Louisiana to gain money and help the Americans (thereby hurting Britain)

Holy Alliance

An alliance formed by czar Alexander I of Russia. Meant to create a world of justice and charity. (Russia, Austria, Prussia)

John Stuart Mill

An early liberal (1806-1873) who tirelessly pushed for individual freedom in intellectualism and the economy. Didn't want the wealthy to undermine the voices of the poor, but didn't want the majority undermining the minority. Wanted universal suffrage (considered it the best way to advance individual freedom. Also taxed the rich so they could not threaten individual liberties. Advocated for women's rights.

John Stuart Mill Significance

An early liberal who championed individual rights.

Toussaint Louverture Significance

An important general of the Haitian slave revolt who led to many victories.

Significance of Estates General

An important government system of l'Ancien regime.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

An important paper of the National Assembly. Articulated guiding principles of social reform program. Proclaimed equality of all men and sovereignty of the people. Rights to liberty, property, and security.

What were the main impediments/challenges to nationalism? (Israel)

Anti-semitism roamed rampant, and lots of people wanted to claim the promised land. Constant persecution in Europe.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen Significance

Articulated guiding principle of the National Assembly's social reform program. Proclaimed equality and sovereignty of the people.

Who were the major players in the Congress of Vienna?

Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia

Was the reform of the French Revolution peaceful or violent?

Both

How were the unifications of Italy and Germany similar?

Both the unification of Italy and Germany were unification of areas once divided into many different states, provinces, and kingdoms. Both proved that nationalism can seriously mobilize kinships, especially when political leaders harnessed nationalist beliefs.

Great Britain in the Congress of Vienna

Castlereagh. Doesn't want another revolution, thinks that reestablishing former borders is good. Wants Prussia to have Poland instead of Russia. Does not want Russia to keep gaining territory and becoming more powerful.

Cavour and Garibaldi Significance

Cavour - united northern Italy. Garibaldi - united southern Italy. Both sought unification of the Italian peninsula.

Caudillos

Charismatic strongmen who were granted military authority. Power granted by creoles in Brazil. One leader put in a position due to military leadership. Like a military-backed dictator.

Herzl & Judenstaat Significance

Claimed that the only freedom from anti-semitism would come from migration to a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

What were the main impediments/challenges to nationalism? (Italy)

Control of Austrians and others. Having to regain territory from many different countries. Lack of common language. Austria, Prussia, and France messed with Italian sovereignty.

Cavour and Garibaldi

Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861)was the prime minister of King Vittore Emmanuele. Combined forces with nationalists seeking independence. A cunning diplomat with lots of power. Expelled Austrian authorities from northern Italy. Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) was a passionate nationalist controlling Southern Italy and leading the southern ITalian unification movement. Gave Southern Italy to Vittore Emmanuel, and the monarchy eventually absorbed surrounding territories.

How was it that little had changed at the societal level following independence movements in Latin America?

Creoles still dominated Brazilian society despite being a monarchy instead of a Republic. Peninsulares returned to Europe, but Latin American society was as divided as ever. Independence still allowed slavery, Roman Catholic Church was an authority, and repression of the lower class remained. Mostly croles benefited from independence.

What happened in France immediately following the revolution?

Directory in charge - temporary, place-holding government supposed to restore stability. More conservative Fresh off "The Terror", many deaths Fresh off wars - low morale and nationalism Terrible finances Conflict with the church New constitution but many rights had been suspended Divided populace (émigres abroad)

Prussia in the Congress of Vienna

Doesn't like Russia because they want Poland. Want to repress nationalism - would gladly become a part of Austria. Granted equality to Jewish people.

How does Mill define Utilitarianism?

Doing what will be best for the majority of people.

Robespierre Significance

Dominated the Committee of Public Safety.

Who were the reactionaries of the French revolution?

Emigres: far right (reactionary), wealthy who wanted return to Old Regime

Declaration of Rights of Man

Equal justice,freedoms of speech and religion (except women!

Universal suffrage Significance

Establishing a people's democratic legitimacy and political sovereignty.

What was a common complaint (such as in political cartoons) about France's Three Estates?

Estate 1: Clergy and Estate 2: Nobles rode on the back of Estate 3: Everybody else. Peasants are carrying the country and yet the first two estates do absolutely nothing and mooch off of them.

Concert of Europe

Europe is together and collaborating with each other. Does not exactly prevent war and revolutions, though.

What were the main impediments/challenges to nationalism? (Greece)

Financial misfortune and the placement of Bavarian rule. Large division of population. Reduction in history.

maroons

Former slaves who escaped and ran away. Made many maroon societies, living on their own and sometimes attacking plantations. Assisted the revolting slaves.

maroons Significance

Former slaves who escaped and ran away. Made many maroon societies, living on their own and sometimes attacking plantations. Assisted the revolting slaves.

Arguments that were given against suffrage

Fragility of women Trying to keep political status "Women are meant to stay home and be mothers" Considering others to be less than women Only 'smart people' should vote

The Containment of France

France got to keep Corsica but went back to pre-Napoleonic borders Put a monarch back in France

Toussaint Louverture

François-Dominique Toussaint (1744-1803). Led many victories of the Haitian revolution. Called Louverture from "l'ouverture", meaning "the opening". Created an opening in enemy ranks. Once a well educated son of slaves, he got his freedom, relocated his former masters for their safety, and joined the rebels. An expert organizer who built a strong army. Played French, Spanish, and British troops against each other while fighting for his own power. Created a constitution granting equality for all of Saint-Domingue, but didn't want to declare independence due to not wanting to be attacked by Napoleon. Despite this, Napoleon still attacked and arrested Toussaint. Toussaint died of maltreatment in jail.

How did the British help lead the way to end of the slave trade and its eventual abolition?

Freed slaves critiqued slavery, and European Christian moralists also began to oppose the notion. Gained momentum after revolutions. William Wilberforce was a major spokesman who attacked slavery on moral and religious grounds. Some supporters joined out of fear that continued trade would lead to more revolts, and parliament ended the slave trade in 1807, pressuring others to end it as well. The end of the slave trade doomed slavery in the Americas, and Wilberforce launched campaign to fully abolish slavery. Parliament compensated for slave owners and abolished slavery after Wilberforce's death. Legal freedom was given for former slaves, but not political equality. They were still poor, and many had to take up subordinating, low-paying work. Few actually owned land.

What are some examples of how Napoleon took a careful, balanced moderate position in his reforms?

From youth, Napoleon always tried to moderate between two standpoints. Although he supported the revolution, he also defended the Directory. After becoming emperor, he became less extreme, gaining support from the people who supported change but not the radicalism of the revolution. He made sure that rights and treaties were made and granted, but restricted the freedom of speech and press.

Napoleon's Achievements

General at 24 (expert strategist who won many battles) Took complete leadership - would not submit to anyone or anything Conquered all of Europe except Britain Conquered egypt Concordat Civil Code Defeated Austria Created meritocracy Increasing France's finances

What were the main factors driving nationalism in your case? Relatedly, what were the circumstances favorable toward nationalism? (Germany)

German confederation formed to unite against Prussia. States eventually tied together. Going against oppressive states of the North.

Mazzini & Young Italy

Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) was a nationalist activist who formed Young Italy - a group seeking Italian independence from Spain and Austria. Wanted an Italian national state. Likened the nation to a family and the land as the house. Mazzini lived a lot of his life in exile, but always encouraged national movements.

After nationhood was achieved, what steps did leaders take to continue to solidify nationalism and bring the new country together? (Greece)

Greece was largely divided after being formed, so creating a national identity was essential. Athens was chosen to be the capital to celebrate Greek history. German king on the throne, rebuilding ancient architecture and relics. Returns drachmas, streets named after greek symbols. Idealism of ancient language. Created legends of Greek history.

According to Mazzini, what steps must Italy (and Europe) take to improve society? Would he agree with John Stuart Mill?

He believed that rights must be prioritized over privilege and that no one class hold overpower another. People must work together for the sake of their beliefs, and by that, he means that the country must realize that society is made up of workers, and by all collaborating, these said workers will rid themselves of all internal issues and truly unite. He would likely agree with John Stuart Mill, as both seek a way for the class system to be undermined, allowing those who were once down in power gain rights and privileges.

What are the parallels he establishes with U.S. history, but how is Italy's independence almost more impressive?

He compares the "Lega Nord" to the Boston Tea Party, and strikes bewilderment into readers' hearts when he states that having a Lega Nord walk out on the national anthem is like if a member of the Virginia Senate left due to hearing the Star Spangled Banner. He then compares the Civil War to Italy's Risorgimento, in which the South gladly joined the North. Also states how intense the Italian unification was, as unlike the American revolution, there were multiple enemies that they had to battle.

Clergy perspective of Napoleon

He gave the Roman Catholic Church power and standing as the official religion of Napoleonic France and paid all their dues and salaries, but he did not believe very much in education for those of high standing. Many different mixed feelings.

How has Italy changed in the 50 years since it celebrated the centennial of the country?

In 1961, Italy was optimistic: shooting upwards in an economic miracle, facing successful trade, and being utmostly optimistic. However, in 2011, the "Lega Nord" seek secession despite being essential to governmental stability.

Who were the moderates of the French revolution?

Jean Necker: Financial overseer who was popular with the people. Tried to make enough for everyone while supporting the king. Girondins

Who were the conservatives of the French revolution?

King Louis XVI - Hesitated to make changes and sign the declaration of rights of man. Tried to escape government and rebellion. Raised price of bread, leading to riots. Called the Estates Marie Antoinette - Likely didn't pay attention to riots. Aided conservative Austrian relatives. She and Louis played a double-game. Bernard deLoné 1st and 2nd estates Duke of Brunswick Other European monarchies Charlotte duCote

Describe how the Assembly gained more power

King Louis reluctantly signs new constitution,reduces his power. New Legislative Assembly has power to make laws and approve or reject war. Factions- Emigres: far right (reactionary), wealthy who wanted return to Old Regime Sans-Culottes: far left (radical), little guys w/o power, want lower food prices and more food

Louis XVI Significance

King of France and advocate of l'ancien regime.

Describe Louis's dilemma in the french war with Austria & Prussia

Leaders believed that if Louis XVI lost his position, they too might lose theirs. Louis blamed for the war and is imprisoned w/ family by mob of 20,000

How did Haiti eventually gain its independence?

Les gens de couleur brought back revolutionary ideas from helping out in the American revolution, and slaves wanted independence. After these sparks ignited the revolution, slaves destroyed plantations and brought a war between all 3 of the main societal groups. Foreign armies tried to intervene, but Toussaint always managed to play them against each other. After a bit, Napoleon's troops attacked, sending Toussaint to die in prison. However, over time, French occupants of Saint-Domingue died of yellow fever, and the revolting armies drove the rest out. They claimed independence in 1802, and established the Republic of Haiti in 1804. Haiti - land of mountains. Became the second independent western republic.

Merchant perspective of Napoleon

Like Napoleon a lot. Before, a war was being fought, but now they are able to trade with more people. However, having this big empire kind of absorbed trade partners. Not a fan of blockade Britain.

Peasant perspective of Napoleon

Like him more than others, people are not starving and there's a renewed sense of national pride.

What leads humans toward inferior or selfish pleasures versus what leads them to more noble selfless pleasures (According to Mill)?

Locke vs. Hobbes. Selfish or good? Would say that we might be selfish at times, but we have to abandon that nature in order to help others.

Olympe de Gouges

Marie Gouze, famous writer and actress, women's rights activist, worked with Marie Antoinette, then was executed for the advocation of her rights

What does Mill pinpoint as the debate over pleasure-seeking?

Mill believes that humans should take care of people's basic needs. Pleasure is having your basic necessities, and policies should promote having this type of pleasure.

Describe the Fall of the Church

N.A. takes over Church lands and declares that clergy and priests must now be elected N.A. starts to sell some Church lands to pay off national debt This backfires w/ peasants, who support the Church.

What were the main factors driving nationalism in your case? Relatedly, what were the circumstances favorable toward nationalism? (Italy)

Napoleon created the kingdom of Italy, only for it to be reverted back after his reign ended. Italians wanted freedom. German nationalism helped.

How did Napoleon position himself through successes to rise to power?

Napoleon had lived an incredibly successful life. He became a general of the royal army at 24, defending the Directory and supporting the revolution. Over time, he overthrew and replaced the directory, declaring himself emperor of the consulate. After this, he made his treaties and established respect towards him, then built up his army and nearly conquered the entire European continent. He always pushed forward.

Consulate

Napoleon overthrew the directory and replaced it with the consulate. Despite there being two other consuls, Napoleon was the one truly in charge, declaring himself to be consul for life. Crowned himself emperor in 1802.

100 Days

Napoleon was forced to abdicate the throne by the British, Austrian, Prussian, and Russian coalition, sent into exile to Elba. However, he later returned to France, rebuilt his army, and ruled for 100 more days before being banished.

Why did new nations emerge from the Council of Vienna?

Nationalism makes people want their own homelands.

What heightened nationalism?

Nationalism was the belief that the nation must be the focus of political loyalty. Cultural nationalism deepened appreciation for historical events. (ex. Johann Gottfried von Herder sang praises to the German language). Relished the uniqueness of communities, and used folk culture and literature to illustrate national spirit (Volkgiest). Cultural nationalism was an expression of national identity. Political nationalism demanded loyalty and solidarity of the national group. Minorities often sought the right to become independent as a national community. Often heightened by victories at war and common symbols.

How does Mill view a healthy, fully developed society based on the principles of Utilitarianism?

One where everything is for the greatest good and everybody's needs are provided for.

Bismarck & Second Reich

Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) was the prime minister of Russia. A master of real-politiks, the politics of reality. Reformed and expanded the Prussian army - provoked wars with Denmark, Austria, and France. Swiftly won all wars, giving an overwhelming sense of pride and nationalism. The Prussian King eventually proclaimed self as emperor of the Second Reich - the Second German Empire (after the Holy Roman)

Social order of Haiti

Peninsular -> Creole (a few generations down. More white passing) -> Mestizo (Mixed-caucasian + Indigenous) -> Mulatto (Biracial) -> Indigenous -> Slaves

Caudillos Significance

People with control due to military influence.

France in the Congress of Vienna

Prince Charles. Wants to restore borders and get back to the stability that was established before the revolution.

How did the radical leaders take things too far, eventually leading to their own demise?

Radicalism and the Jacobin reign of terror caused many fellow radicals to fall out of favor with Robespierre and Jacobins. This instability ended up undermining confidence in the regime itself, paving the way to the Directory.

Soldier perspective of Napoleon

Really like Napoleon. Towards the beginning, renewed moralization and respect for him.

After nationhood was achieved, what steps did leaders take to continue to solidify nationalism and bring the new country together? (Israel)

Religious union, a national anthem (the Hatikvah). England was a major driving force behind creation. Many went happily to Israel as it was created after the Holocaust. Provided a sense of sanctuary.

Popular sovereignty

Relocating sovereignty to the people. Locke considered government a contract between the ruler and the ruled. Believed in the right to replace bad rulers.

Legitimacy

Restoring the legitimate rulers who had been overthrown. Put a monarch back on the throne. Weeding out Napoleon's family.

Who were the radicals of the French revolution?

Robespierre - Demands new freedoms and ways of rule (freedom of press) Jean-Paul Marrou - a paranoid revolutionary who loathed the royalty. (Led march to Versaille) National Assembly L'ami du peuple Jacobins Cops

Robespierre & the C.O.P.S.

Robespierre becomes head of Committee of Public Safety Leads period called "Reign of Terror" 1793-94 Execute over 3,000, many with a quick trial and almost no evidence (includes Marie Antoinette) and some or Robespierre's former associates and now rivals Finally, people have had enough and turn on Robespierre, beheading him in 1794

Who lead the "Reign of Terror"

Robespierre, head of Committee of Public Safety

What were the main ideas behind liberalism?

Saw all change as natural. Thought of conservatism as a means to justify the privileges of the rich. Saw political and social theory as a vehicle meant to progress for the good of all society and called for equal voices, freedom, and equality. However, it saw voting as a privilege instead of a right. Switched perspectives in the 19th century to look more for governmental advice than from all of society. John Stuart Mill was a popular early liberal who tirelessly pushed for individual freedom in intellectualism and the economy.

Significance of Haitian revolution

Second revolution in all of the Americas Inspired other holdings under Spanish rule to revolt Had deep effects in the United States - white people were vastly outnumbered by the slaves

Describe French revolution rule by mob violence

Sept. Massacres- Parisians kill royalists, nobles and clergymen. Jacobins- most radical group Try Louis for treason, find him guilty by narrow margin- "Off with his head!" Declare France a republic- all adult males may vote or hold office

To what extent was Bolívar successful in his and other Creoles' goals for South America?

Simón Bolivar was a creole elite born in Caracas (Venezuela) who sought independence. Inspired by Washington, he fought Spanish rule (1811). Despite being exiled twice, he later crashed the Spanish army in Colombia. Collaborated with other creole leaders. José de San martin in Argentina, Bernardo O'Higgins in Chile, people in Venezuela, Ecuador, and Peru. Deposed and replaced Spanish rule. Wanted to make a large confederation similar to the United States. This was the Gran Colombia - made up of Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. He tried to add Peru and Bolivia, but political differences dissolved it. He ended up dying of tuberculosis en route to self-imposed European exile.

Arguments that were given in favor of slavery

Social Darwinism Paternalism Slavery within Africa Benefited the economy

Mazzini & Young Italy Significance

Sought Italian independence from Spain and Austria. Wanted an Italian national state.

Jacobins Significance

Supported the restructuring of France and sought to eliminate Christian influence in government.

Austria in the Congress of Vienna

THE major player. Metternich. Wanted to get rid of nationalism and revolutionaries in order to establish order in Europe. Would like to take over Italy and Germany.

100 Days Significance

The 100 days Napoleon ruled before being banished again.

What were the goals of the Congress of Vienna, and to what extent did it achieve these goals?

The Congress of Vienna was made up of the powers that defeated Napoleon (Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) in order to restore pre revolutionary order. Metternich was a leader of the Congress of Vienna - an influential foreign minister of Austria. Successfully restored sovereignty to royal families as well as diplomatic order based on balance of power preventing states from dominating each other. Metternich wanted to repress nationalism, but this was widely unsuccessful (despite censorship of nationalist publications).

Agreed Outcomes from Congress of Vienna

The Containment of France, Balance of Power, and Legitimacy

gens de couleur Significance

The Saint Domingue class of free people of color.

Waterloo Significance

The battle that ended Napoleon's 100 day rule

Waterloo

The battle where a British army defeated Napoleon and his army at Waterloo, Belgium, ending his 100 day rule and banishing him to the island of St. Helena.

Saint Domingue Significance

The colony where the Haitian revolution took place.

Who were the liberals of the French revolution?

The crowd of poor women protesting lack of bread - wanted to hold the government accountable Guillotine - invented his execution method that would make all equal in method of death. Sans-Culotte - detested the aristocracy and their corruptness George Danton - a loud speaker and motivator for people to join the army Olympe de Gouge

Committee of Public Safety Significance

The executive authority of the Convention's Republic.

Committee of Public Safety

The executive authority of the Convention's Republic. Heavily dominated by Maximilien Robespierre. Declared war on Austria and Prussia due to their support of l'ancien regime.

Consulate Significance

The government structure under Napoleon

Louis XVI

The king who called sovereign taxes because he wasn't able to raise revenue during the financial crisis. Money spent on war debts, later was executed.

Metternich Significance

The leader of the Congress of Vienna who sought to restore pre revolutionary order.

Metternich

The leader of the Congress of Vienna. An influential foreign minister of Austria. Through the Congress of Vienna, restored order and sovereignty to royal families. Installed diplomatic order based on balance of power - preventing states from dominating each other. This succeeded for a century. Also wanted to repress nationalism. This had limited success.

Miguel Hidalgo Significance

The man who became a symbol of Mexican independence. Rallied against colonial rule.

Ancien regime

The old method of rule. Without much enlightened thinking, in control of royals and nobles. Lack of popular sovereignty.

Ancien Regime Significance

The old way of government and opponent of popular sovereignty.

How does revolution seem almost inevitable in Saint Domingue given the population?

The population was divided into three groups: the white colonials who only made up a small portion of society, free people of color who wanted political rights, and slaves who made up 90% of the population and wanted freedom. Gens de couleur brought back enlightenment ideals (freedom, equality, and popular sovereignty), and due to the tensions brought by surrounding revolutions and the large ratio of slaves to colonials, revolution was inevitable.

What were the main factors driving nationalism in your case? Relatedly, what were the circumstances favorable toward nationalism? (Greece)

The rebirth of the great Greek empire.

Popular Sovereignty Significance

The relocation of sovereignty to the people.

Concordat Significance

The treaty that brought France back to good terms with the Roman Catholic Church

Herzl & Judenstaat

Theodor Herzl was a viennese journalist of the Dreyfus trial, in which a Jewish officer was accused of spying for Germany. Feared that assimilation could not end anti-semitism. Herzl published Judenstaat, a pamphlet claiming that the only freedom from anti-semitism would come from migration to a Jewish homeland. Herzl organized the first Zionist congress in Basel, Switzerland. Chose Palestine as the location of the Jewish homeland. Israel was founded in 1948, but conflicts over land persist.

Nobility perspective of Napoleon

Think that he's pretty nice. Allowed them to come back and get their stuff, but they hold great concern over his intents and purposes concerning the treatment of nobility. Seems more like a military man - more power than money. Could help him by funding him.

After nationhood was achieved, what steps did leaders take to continue to solidify nationalism and bring the new country together? (Italy)

Unification of language, economy, and immigration. Uniting to take down countries that dare to oppose them.

Bismarck & Second Reich Significance

United and brought Nationalism to Germany. Made the Second German Empire.

After nationhood was achieved, what steps did leaders take to continue to solidify nationalism and bring the new country together? (Germany)

United in wars. If divided internally, find a common enemy.

What were the main ideas behind conservatism?

Views society as an organism that changes slowly over generations. Edmund Burke was a conservative who believed society was a compact for years and generations. Hated radical and revolutionary change, seeing it as anarchy. Approved of the American revolution as it was a natural progression of North American society. Hated the French revolution because it was chaos.

What were the main factors driving nationalism in your case? Relatedly, what were the circumstances favorable toward nationalism? (Israel)

Wanted a Jewish state as a form of defense and evasion from anti-semitism. Herzl was sparked after the Dreyfus trial, in which a Jewish man was accused of spying for Germany.

Russia in the Congress of Vienna

Wanted to restore balance of power (but also wanted Poland). Formed the Holy Alliance with Austria and Prussia. Not a fan of Britain.

What were the main impediments/challenges to nationalism? (Germany)

Wars and division, debates over how Germany should be united. Catholic south, Protestant north. Many Germanic states made their own constitutions

In what sense would the French Revolution be more radical than its predecessor, the American Revolution?

With events such as the raid of Bastille, it became a bit more violent, but overall, the leadership was much less stable. They had very little experience in self-governing, meaning that it went from l'ancien regime to the National Assembly to the Convention to the Directory. Power and constitution constantly shifted, unlike the stable USA.

What were some of the steps that national states took to foster a greater sense of a national community?

With strong politics, diplomacy, and military, nationalism became incredibly powerful. Flags were adopted to install a sense of unity, as well as national anthems and holidays. National statistics of birth rates, population, and political beliefs also became popular. Schools taught patriotism as well.

How far had women's rights come following the Enlightenment and revolutions in France and the Americas?

Women were inspired by the push for slave rights, as they also had little educational access, limited jobs, and were not allowed to vote. Philosophes had conservative views towards women's roles. Mary Astell thought that absolute sovereignty was no more appropriate in a family than a state. Mary Wollstonecraft was a popular feminist author who wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women. Many women took supporting roles in revolution, but some participated in protests. However, with Olympe de Gouges's fate, it was evident that there was a lack of prospect for women's roles. After the French revolution, women were given some rights, but Napoleon pushed them back. Elizabeth Cady Stanton was a prominent figure in the feminist movement. Started a movement after being barred from an anti-slavery protest. There was limited success.

What is Mill's position on the same debate Voltaire posed in Candide?

Would approve of the garden concept - being content having enough to eat and having all of your needs provided for.

What was Zionism and how was it a nationalist reaction of sorts?

Zionism was the sense of Jewish nationalism in response to anti-semitism. Believed that the best way to escape anti-semitism and persecution was to have a Jewish nation to go to, as there was not one at the time. Jewish people were mainly dispersed throughout Europe with no real national identity.

National Assembly

a French congress established by representatives of the Third Estate on June 17, 1789, to enact laws and reforms in the name of the French people

Sans-Culottes

far left (radical), little guys w/o power, want lower food prices and more food

Jacobins

member of a radical political club during the French Revolution