Chapter 3 A&P

Hydrolytic enzymes

"Hydrol" break brown - enzymes that will help break down substances that a cell ingests

Perteolytic enzymes

"Proteo" means proteins "Lytic" means breakdown - they breakdown proteins

Nucleolus

(Nucleoli: plural) - condensed chromatin that specifically is programmed to make rRNA - rRNA is one of the building blocks for ribosomes so there are ribosomal proteins that will be made. rRNA and proteins will aggregate tougher and form the large and small subunit which will exit and they will assemble in the cytoplasm or attach in the ER

Facilitated diffusion

- needed for charged ions and hydrophilic, polar, water soluble molecules (Glucose, amino acids, nucleotides) Two types: - carrier - channel

cytosol

- intracellular fluid - mostly water dissolved in solutes, inclusions or store molecules, and proteins - the site of many important chemical reactions

Which kind of protein fibers are very prominent in the skin epidermis and give the skin permanent structural integrity? 1. Intermediate filaments 2. Microfilaments 3. Microtubules

1. Intermediate filaments

We _____________ the nucleotide to ______________ the DNA

- hydrolyze - polymerize

The four basic processes of cells

(They are common to all cell types) - cell metabolism - transport of substances - communication - cell reproduction

6 functions of the plasma membrane

(in order for things to pass through the membrane, there needs to be something in place for them to pass) - carriers - channels - receptors - enzymes - structural support - linking adjacent cells

Pinocytosis

- "cell drinking" - process where cells engulfs water droplets from ECF - same thing happens here as does in phagocytosis, the molecules come in contact with the coated pit that it recognizes and then starts a process to bring it into the cell

Phagocytosis

- "cell eating" - cells ingest large particles like bacteria or dead/damaged cells or parts of cell - is in place to get large particles, dead or damaged cells, or bacteria to come into the cell where they will be used (or destroyed by the cell if its a bacteria) - they do this by the bacterium binding to a receptor and when that happens it starts the invagination process (invagination means to bring in) - once it brings it in, it will have to be broken down by merging with a lysosome, a protyalitic enzyme that helps break down bacteria, large molecules, etc (the cell cannot use things that are large)

Tonicity

- Compares the osmotic pressure outside the cell and inside the cell there are three possibilities of tonicity or tonic solutions: - hypertonic - hypotonic - isotonic

4th step of DNA synthesis

- DNA polymerase proceeds in opposite directions along each strand as helicase separates them; RNA primers are eventually removed and replaced with DNA nucleotides by DNA polymerase - the end result is two identical double helices, each with one old and one new strand; called semiconservative replication; cell then proceeds into G2 phase (They separate, the original strands are there but they have opposite codings and thats why we call this a semiconservative replication process)

Step one of DNA synthesis

- DNA strands are separated by the enzyme helicase **way to remember: helicase unwinds a double helix**

S phase of the cell cycle

- DNA synthesis or replication occurs in S phase; chromatin unwinds and each base pair is duplicated using an existing DNA strand as a template to build a new strand; proceeds

Concentration gradient

- Drives many types of passive transport - core principle: moving from higher to lower concentration until equilibrium is reached

Three basic components of the cell

- plasma membrane - cytoplasm - nucleus

Matrix of mitochondria

- In the inner membrane of the mitochondria - contains mitochondrial DNA, proteins, and enzymes specific for breakdown of organic fuels by oxidative catabolism (requires oxygen) to produce ATP - the energy from the electrons for oxidative catabolism is then used to make ATP from ADP, an inorganic phosphate

Does equilibrium mean there are equal amounts on both sides?

- No - it can depend on things like pressure, channels, etc. - therefore it might not be exactly the same on both sides

Resting membrane potential

- RMP - membrane potential when the cell is at rest, not doing anything - measured in millivolts (mV) - the value is negative, meaning that the inside of the cell is more negative than the surrounding ECF

endomembrane system

- Series of organelles that all function together - the plasma membrane, the nuclear envelope, and these organelles (rough and smooth ER, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes) - the organelles form vesicles - connected as one continuous structure, although we learn the organelles as distinct things, they are all related together

Cell metabolism (cell process)

- Sum of all chemical reactions that a cell Carries out to maintain life - three types: anabolic reactions, catabolic reactions, and oxidation reduction reactions

Membrane potential

- The electrical potential found across plasma membrane

How is cyclin produced?

- The growth factor or hormone from the signal of G1 signaled the cell to start producing through the signal transduction pathway In other words - a growth factor binds to a receptor on a cell, or some other signal is received by a cell - this activates a signal transduction pathway that ultimately results in cyclin formation

Cyclins and Cyclin dependent kinases

- cyclins come first (examples: cyclic amp, protein kinases) - step 4 and step 5 of the signal transduction pathway - at phase G2, you have to have enough cyclins and cyclin dependent kinases to occur (most checkpoints are in G1 but there is a checkpoint in G1 to make sure there are enough cyclins and cyclin dependent kinases to proceed)

Cystic fibrosis

- The number one genetic recessive disease in humans (genetically determined recessive disorder) - causes deficient chloride ion transport in lungs and digestive and integumentary system; results in abnormally thick mucus; blocks airways, causes digestive enzyme deficiencies, and very salty sweat - this mutation causes chloride channel protein to misfiled slightly in the rough ER; proteins are therefore destroyed even though it would be functional if inserted into membrane - in short, the disease is caused by an overactive rough ER - the body destroys the chloride channel because it is not perfect. But, from research, if the chloride channel was actually left where it is, it would work (treatment now is trying to get some way for our body to not destroy the chloride ion protein channel)

Hypertonic

- There is more solute outside the cell than inside the cell - Therefore there will be more water inside the cell than outside - water leaves the cell, causing the cell to crenate (shrink)

How vesicles form

- They form from the phospholipid bilayer if they are being brought into the cell. - They form from the rough ER and Golgi if they are begin exported outside the cell. (This is how they become enclosed in a phospholipid bilayer)

Nuclear envelope

- a double phospholipid bilayer (so it can have double control on what goes in and out of the nucleus so it can be isolated to do what it needs to do) that surrounds and encloses the entire nucleus - there are ribosomes on the outside because messenger RNA comes out of the nucleus - it is continuous with the ER - the inner membrane is where the intermediate filaments are located called the nuclear lamina (without the lamina it would not have a round shape)

Active transport differs from passive diffusion because...

- active transport moves substances against its concentration gradient and requires ATP - passive is a "passive" process, it does not require energy therefore it moves substances along its concentration gradient

The cell cycle

- all cells are regulated precisely until death but they divide at different rates - cells that remain in the G1 phase after they've matured and never proceed are in the G0 phase (examples: neurons, skeletal, and cardiac)

Primary Active transport: Sodium potassium pump

- also called sodium potassium ATPase (ase measn enzyme, this tells us that, besides acting as a pump, it will also act as an enzyme to catalyze the hydrolysis of ATP - Na+ is greater in the ECF than the cytosol (we use the term extracellular for sodium as the ion) - k+ is greater in the cytosol than in the ECF (we use the term intracellular for the potassium ion) - we create an unequal distribution of these ions (we have 3 Na+ out by the pump to 2 k+ into the cell against the concentration gradients for every ATP molecule hydrolyzed - both ions carry a positive charge so therefore we end with a general positive charge on the outside compared to the inside where there is a negative charge - the pump maintains - five steps

oxidation reduction reaction

- any chemical change in which one species is oxidized (loses electrons) and another species is reduced (gains electrons); also called redox reaction - converts the energy in chemical bonds into a form of energy that the cell can use to fuel its processes (ATP)

catabolic reactions

- breaks down macromolecules into small molecules (big to small) - does not require energy, it releases it - releases energy

Nucleus, the control center

- called the "control center" of the cell because what a cell does is dictated by the DNA - directs activities of the other cellular components - determines the type of proteins and the rate at which the cell makes them - the DNA will make RNA and the RNA will go to a ribosome where it will make proteins - one gene, one protein - the DNA that makes up that one gene will be transcribed into a messenger/transfer/ribosomal RNA and then it will make a protein specific for that gene - genes within the DNA are transcribed into three different types of RNA to build a wide variety of proteins (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA)

With passive transport, _________ and _________ are used, with active transport, ________ are used

- carriers, channels - pumps

DNA lygase

- chromatin is huge and very long - DNA replication occurs at many sites all along - those sites have to be spliced together in the end (especially the lagging strand) - DNA lygase will splice together the separated strands of DNA

Chromatin

- composed of DNA - have a nucleosome: strand of DNA coiled around a group of histone proteins - histones: the proteins specific to decrease the length of the DNA when they wind, making it a little bit shorter - during cell division they condense into chromosomes - found only in cells not dividing

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

- connected together with the roughER but doesn't have ribosomes so it has different functions four functions: - stores calcium ions in a storage sac (S.R., sarcoplasmic reticulum, a special form of smooth er) - biggest detoxification center in cells (gets rid of anything the cell or your body sees as poisonous or toxic) detoxification of drugs, alcohol, etc. a cell full of smooth ER has toxins in it. A drug addict will have this in their cells, if they stop it will go back to normal but if they pick it back up again, their cells will quickly return to that state - lipid synthesis - carbohydrate synthesis

cytoplasm

- consists of both the fluid cytosol and the organelles and cytoskeleton embedded within it

Electrical gradient

- core principle gradient - created by the separation of charges on the two sides of the membrane - provides energy to do work

Centrioles

- critical for cell division - produce spindle fibers - flagella and cili original in spindle fibers

"Exo" means ______ and "endo" means ____

- out - in

Osmosis

- diffusion of water across the plasma membrane from where there is more water to where there is less water (where there is less solute to where there is more solute) (solute dissolves in solvent) - can be based on the solute concentration (if there is more water outside the cell, there will be less solute there. If there is less water inside the cell, there will be more solute there - yes, water is polar but it still moves freely across the membrane through this process. This is because water is very small (very small things can pass through. Urea can do the same thing) - as water molecules move from side B to side A, side A will have more volume - passive process

Microvilli

- finger-like extensions of plasma membrane with micro (actin) filaments that help maintain shape - increase the surface area of cells for absorption - formed from microfilaments made of actin

DNA and associated proteins

- found in a loose structural arrangement known as chromatin

Chromosomes

- found only in dividing cells - humans contain 23 pairs (23 maternally, 23 paternally) 46 TOTAL - once they form and are replicated, they are held together at the centromere (in the middle). Each bar is called a sister chromatid

Lysosomes

- fuse with endocytosis vesicles (vesicles brought into the cell with stuff) (the cell cant use that "stuff" until it is broken down into the things it can use). So, the vesicles are brought in and immediately fuse with a lysosome. They fuse with the vesicles to digest proteins, polysaccharides and lipids - enzymes are located here - they are proteolyitc and hydrolytic (they will break Down what comes in) - digest phagocytized bacteria (that process is called phagocytosis) - "recycling center"—they digest worn out organelles (the worn out organelles will be broken down and the parts will be reassembled and recycled into new organelles)

Cilia

- hairlike projections composed of microtubules and motor proteins - move in unison to propel substances past the cells/past the membrane - structurally similar to centrioles In the upper respiratory tract: - the cilia move down so the mucus can go down In the lower respiratory tract: - the cilia move up so the mucus can move up

The rough endoplasmic reticulum

- has ribosomes bound to its membrane - produces protyalitic enzymes for lysosomes - secretory proteins are placed into vesicles made of a phospholipid bilayer - proteins are sent to the plasma membrane fore export - produces membrane components for the plasma membrane: integral and peripheral proteins

Nuclear pores

- large - made of protein to allow hydrophilic, water soluble, polar molecules like rRNA, mRNA, - go through the outer and extend to the inner making a large channel

Cytoskeleton

- made of protein filaments - contains three types of protein filaments that are composed of smaller protein subunits that allow for rapid disassembly and reassembly Four functions: - gives the cell shape and size by creating an internal framework - they provide strength, structural integrity, anchoring sites for plasma and nuclear membranes as well as organelles (things need to anchor to the nuclear membrane, the plasma membrane, and the organelles) (they are not just floating around in a cell, the cytoskeleton keeps them where they need to be) - allow movement by motor proteins - helps us perform phagocytosis by macrophages and contraction by muscle cells (actin and myosin are involved in helping us contract our muscle cells)

Mitochondria

- membrane bound organelles involved in chemical energy production (ATP) - has its own DNA, enzymes, and ribosomes (for protein synthesis) - its membrane is a double bilayer structure with a smooth outer membrane and an inter membrane that is highly folded into cristae

Centrosome

- microtubles extend out from here - it is a gel matrix with tubulin subunits and a pair of centrioles - this is where microtubules are formed and organized - when the cell is not dividing, centrosome is a microtuble organization center - contains a pair of centrioles critical for cellular division - contains basal bodies (flagella and cilia originate from)

Cellular extensions

- microvilli - cilia - flagella

Cyclins cause enzymes involved in ____________ to be activated

- mitosis One of the proteins activated by cyclin is an enzyme that will destroy cyclin activity by the end of mitosis Other checkpoints occur during mitosis to allow it to proceed

Membrane bound organelles

- most common - have a membrane because they are fluid-filled (mitochondria, lysosome, Golgi apparatus)

cytoskeleton

- network of protein filaments - has three components: actin (microfilaments), intermediate filaments, and microtubules - creates and maintains shape, holds the organelles in place, and acts as transport lines or highways within the cell

Simple diffusion

- non polar - hydrophobic - lipid soluable Molecules or chemicals (oxygen, carbon dioxide, lipids, hydrocarbons) - they dont need a protein, they can pass directly through

Ribosomes

- non-membrane bound organelles - protein synthesis takes place here, they are a "protein factory" - composed of large two subunits: large and small (made up of ribosomal proteins and rRNA) - two types: free and bound (they have completely different functions of the proteins that they make)

There is a ___________ charge outside the membrane in the ECF and a __________ charge inside the membrane in the cytosol

- positive - negative This is set up by the sodium potassium pump, putting three sodium's out and two potassium's in

Active Transport

- primary (ATP pump) - secondary (ATPase pump)

2nd step of DNA synthesis

- primate builds an RNA primer on the unwound DNA strands

Lysosome storage disease

- problems breaking down certain things that are brought into the cells - the most common: Tay-Sachs disease Tay -Sachs: - glycolipids are brought into brain cells - we don't have the proper enzymes and lysosomes to break down those glycolipids into usable forms for brain cells so they accumulate in their vesicles inside the brain cell (BAD), you would have a brain cells full of vesicles that noting can digest - death by age 4 to 5 - prevalent in the Eastern European descent, jewish population - a homozygous recessive disease (the child got one recessive gene from the mom and one recessive gene from the dad)-(if both the mom and dad carry it, they have a 25% chance of their child contracting the disease)

Golgi apparatus

- proteins and lipids are packaged for export - filled with enzymes - the proteins and lipids made by the rough ER are modified, sorted, and packaged for export out of the cell here - the enzymes that are packaged here become lysosomes - phospholipids and proteins become incorporated in the plasma membrane the products that are packaged in this endomembrane system cab be: - secreted from the cell by exocytosis - become part of the plasma membrane - a lysosome

Free ribosomes

- proteins that are needed for the cell itself

Which of the following is produced by the nucleolus? - DNA - mRNA - rRNA - tRNA

- rRNA

Active transport

- requires energy in the form of ATP to move solutes against their concentration gradient from lower to higher concentration - this is how we can get more of a substance in a cell where its needed - we do this by the hydrolysis of ATP into ADP (an inorganic phosphate). When we break that bond, energy is released that will then allow changes in shape Two types; - primary - secondary

mitochondria have their own _______, ______, and _______

- ribosomes - DNA - enzymes

Rough ER has_________ and the smooth ER has ______ and _________

- ribosomes - lipids and carbohydrates

Receptor mediated endocytosis

- similar to pinocytosis - uses receptors to fill vesicles with a specific molecule - here, besides having the pit, there are also receptors present that recognize a ligand or molecule - the molecules bind to the organic molecule (protein) on the cell membrane. (All of the receptors are proteins because they are on the outside of the cell) - when the ligand or molecule binds to the receptor, it starts the reaction of the ligand or molecule going into the cell - this is the most specific form of endocytosis

Passive transport

- simple diffusion - facilitated diffusion - osmosis

anabolic reactions

- small molecules bond together to form macromolecules (small to big) - takes a net input of energy (needs energy to happen)

Flagella

- solitary; longer than cilia - composed of microtubules - found only on sperm cells - propel entire cell (unlike cilia who propel materials past the plasma membrane) - structurally similar to centrioles

nucleus

- surrounded by a phospholipid bilayer called the nuclear envelope - the nuclear envelope has pores that allow substances in and out of the cell - it contains DNA - it produces RNA (DNA and RNA are necessary for coding and synthesizing proteins)

Plasma membrane

- surrounds each cell, isolating its internal structures and processes from the external environment (protects the inside from the outside) - within you will find a nucleus (largest organelle in most cells) which is found within the cytoplasm - functions: provides structural support, communicates with other cells and its surroundings, and used for cell identification (it is how sperm cells know that the oocyte is an egg) - it acts as a barrier, separating the intracellular fluid (ICF) or cytosol from the extracellular fluid (ECF)

3rd step of DNA synthesis

- the enzyme DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to RNA primer; necessary as the enzyme is only able to add to an existing chain of nucleotides (adenine, guanine, thymine) - in opposite directions (one goes in one direction while the other goes in the other direction)

Cristae

- the folds of the inner membrane of mitochondria - increase the surface area - they give a place to house enzymes to help make the ATP

Osmotic pressure

- the force exerted by the solute molecules - allows the water molecules to move

What two organelles have a double phospholipid bilayer

- the mitochondria - the nucleus (the nuclear envelope)

Electrophysiology

- the positive charges line the outside of the membrane in the ECF and the negative charges line the inside of the membrane in the cytosol (this got set up by the sodium potassium pump, three sodium ions out, two potassium ions in) ( if there is more positive outside and less positive inside, the inside would be negative ) - this separation of charges creates an electrical gradient (core principle gradient) provides energy to do work - the study of membrane potential - membrane potential: setting it up to have different amounts inside and outside the membrane will allow us to propagate voltage changes along our membranes, set up as a potential energy - when a cell is at rest, we call it the RMP (resting membrane potential). It's measured in millivolts (mV). it is negative (meaning that the inside of the cell is more negative than the surrounding ECF

Isotonic

- the same concentration of solutes inside and outside of the cell and therefore the same amount of water (no net movement) Two values nurses HAVE to know: - 0.9% NaCl is normal saline - 5% glucose traveling through your blood

Endomembrane system functions

- the smooth ER or the rough ER produces vesicles that then merge with the golgi (two steps: rough ER or smooth ER to the Golgi apparatus) ——they are formed by vesicles in the smooth and rough ER and then packaged in the Golgi apparatus - some come off of the rough ER perfectly and don't have to be packaged but most have to be packaged

Hypotonic

- there is a lower solute concentration inside the cell than outside - therefore there is more water inside the cell than outside - water is pulled inside the cell causing it to grow and lyse (rupture)

G proteins

- these are how hydrophilic, polar substances can initiate a response inside the cell because it cant get in - relay of messages when a chemical signal (like a hormone) binds to a receptor protein - it does it through what is called as "G protein signal transduction"

Peroxisomes

- they get their name because they contain hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (in hair dyes) - they use oxygen to carry out several chemical reactions that produce H2O2 - H2O2 oxidizes toxic chemicals into less toxic chemicals that can then be eliminated from our body before they cause damage - they break down fatty acids when we need to use fats for energy - make some of the phospholipids, plasma membranes that are necessary for every cell

organelles

- they have very specific functions - some are kept in place by the cytoskeletal elements - they separate damaging chemical reactions from surrounding cell structures - "mini organs"

Spindle poisons

- they screw up a spindle - they inhibit the assembly and disassembly of spindle fibers - when a spindle is messed up, a cell cant divide - you can still replicate the DNA but you cant proceed through mitosis Examples: - vincristine and vinblastine: used to treat cancer - Colchicine: treats gout (a waste product that chrystilizes in the joint, its Uric acid that builds up) - griseofulvin: inhibits function/assembly of microtubules in fungi (anti fungal agent for skin, hair, and nails) - taxol: treats cancer ( mostly breast cancer) These examples have Adverse effects (bad effects) (worse than side effects) - they effect your good cells as well (most likely the cells that divide fast like blood cells, red and white) - nausea (the lining of your gut turns over rapidly) and diarrhea (the lining of your gut, simple columnar epithelium, is very sensitive to these drugs - hair loss (your hair cells divide rapidly, any cells that divide rapidly will be effected) - rashes (your skin cells divide rapidly) - sperm count will go down

Transcytosis

- type of exocytosis - this also includes endocytosis (molecules are brought in) - we have to bring the molecules from one side of the cell, transport it across to the other side and release them on that side - this is how we bring nutrients from our gut into our blood stream

Diffusion

- type of passive transport because it does not require energy to move molecules - movement of molecules from high to low concentration - when moving from high to low concentration, the molecules move down, along, or with their concentration gradients until equilibrium is reached types: - simple - facilitated - osmosis

Primary active transport

- uses ATP directly - involves a pump in the plasma membrane that binds and transports solute against its concentration gradient using energy from hydrolysis of ATP

Secondary active transport: ATPase

- uses ATP indirectly to power transport pump - we have to use a sodium or a sodium potassium pump to set up a gradient to help pull some other molecule against its concentration gradient to increase the amount in the cells - the number one secondary active transport: sodium glucose symport ("sym" at the beginning of a word means together) (a port is a door) (it is door that things will move in together, specifically a transport protein. - things that move in by this type of transport: glucose, nucleotides, and amino acids The run down: - sodium has already been set up by the sodium potassium pump directly - but, we need to pull lots of glucose into our cells because all of our cells need lots of energy - so, a lot of our cells have this transport present

Osmosis is the movement through the plasma membrane of what?

- water from higher to lower concentration (it is a passive process therefore it does not require energy)

Oxidative catabolism

- when organic fuel is broken down that requires oxygen to produce ATP - breaking down oxygen

Exocytosis

- where things produced in the cell need to come out of the cell such as hormones, antibodies, etc (things that we need a lot produced of and then put into our bodies) - this is secretion - these are produced in the cell and then they will fuse with the membrane because they are both made of a phospholipid bilayer (like likes like) and then it will be released outside

________ % NaCl

0.9% NaCl This number means that the solution is isotonic to the salt concentration in your blood or plasma

Which of these statements is not true about ribosomes? 1. They are produced in the cytoplasm 2. They are made of protein +RNA 3. They are the site of protein synthesis 4. They can be attached to ER or free in the cytoplasm

1. (Ribosomes are produced in the nucleus and assembled in the cytoplasm)

G protein signal transduction (5 steps involved when activated)

1. Membrane protein (specific for a chemical signal), when a membrane protein binds to something it changes shape and activates a G protein 2. G protein: gets its energy from GTP (guantesine triphosphate). The G protein then activates a membrane enzyme 3. Membrane enzyme: they will catalyze the formation of a second messenger (the most common second messengers is cAMP, cyclic AMP). Cyclic AMP will then activate what is are called protein kinases 4. Protein Kinases: enzymes (because they end in "ase"). They are enzymes for proteins. When they activate, something happens to proteins in the cell which then effects what the cell can. This is called G protein signal transduction unlabeled figures chapter 3 doc

What type of cytoskeletal element makes up spindle fibers? 1. Microtubules 2. Microfilaments 3. Microvilli 4. Intermediate filaments

1. Microtubules

Which of the following passive membrane processes utilizes a Chanel protein? 1. Simple diffusion 2. Facilitated diffusion 3. Osmosis

2

Channel proteins allow diffusion of what kind of chemical(s) into the cell? 1. Hydrophobic 2. Hydrophilic 3. Ions 4. #1 and #3 5. #2 and #3

2 and 3 (hydrophilic substances and ions) (they are both polar)

Which of the following is NOT true of diffusion? 1. It is a passive process 2. It involves movement of chemicals from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher concentration 3. It involves movement of chemicals Down their concentration gradient 4. It does not require to use ATP as energy

2. It moves chemicals from higher to lower

Comparing the chromosome number ratio in the daughter cell to the parent cell, it is... 1. 46 to 23 3. 46 to 46 3. 23 to 46 5. 23 to 23

2. 46 to 46 You have 46 chromosomes in each cell. when the cell copies, the copy will also have 46

What will happen if there is a mutation in the cell that prevents the production of the enzyme that destroys cyclin activity? 1. Cell will not be able to divide 2. Cell will divide continuously 3. There will be no effect on mitosis

2. Cell will divide continuously

The enzymes in DNA replication that positions new nucleotides and binds them together: 1. Helicase 2. DNA polymerase 3. DNA ligase 4. Replica se

2. DNA polymerase

What type of membrane protein is involved with cyclin when cells are ready to divide? 1. Open channel protein 2. G protein 3. Co-transport protein (secondary active transport) 4. Gated channel protein

2. G protein

All of the following are composed of microtubules except.... 1. Cilia 2. Microvilli 3. Flagella 4. Mitotic spindles 5. None of the above

2. Microvilli (made of microfilaments)

A pancreatic cell produces (and releases) many digestive enzymes; you would expect this cell to have a lot of: (more than one answer) 1. Smooth ER 2. Rough ER 3. Golgi complex 4. Lysosomes 5. Mitochondria

2. Rough ER 3. Golgi complex 5. Mitochondria By producing enzymes, you're producing proteins (the things needed to produce enzymes are rough ER, golgi complex) (producing enzymes takes a lot of energy—mitochondria)

Mistakes can occur during the process of DNA replication, resulting in a "mutation." Given what you know about DNA structure, what do you think is the most likely part of DNA where a mistake will result in a significant consequence? 1. Phosphate 2. Sugar 3. Base

3. Base Mutations occur to the base which screws up the triplet thats going to be coded and causes problems

Which process does NOT take particles into the cell? 1. Endocytosis 2. Pinocytosis 3. Exocytosis 4. Phagocytosis

3. Exocytosis

Which of these statements is NOT TRUE about cell division? 1. It will occur if a signal is received by a cell is G1 phase 2. It will occur if a growth factor stimulates a cell in G1 phase 3. It will occur if the surface area to volume ratio of a cell is high ' 4. It will occur if certain hormones stimulate a cell in G1 phase

3. It will occur if the surface area to volume ratio of a cell is high

Spindle fibers that align and separate chromosomes during mitosis are: 1. Intermediate filaments 2. Microfilaments 3. Microtubules

3. Microtubules

A chemical (like colchicine) stops spindle fiber formation and is therefor use to arrest (stop) cells in the stage of mitosis where chromosomes are spread throughout the cell. That stage is: 1. Anaphase 2. Metaphase 3. Prophase 4. Telophase 5. Interphase

3. Prophase (spindle fiber formation) If it stops the disassembly of spindle fibers, it would effect telophase

The phase of the cell cycle in which DNA replication occurs is the _____ phase 1. G1 2. G2 3. S 4. M

3. S

We are studying cells within A&P because cells are: 1. The basic structural units of the human body 2. The basic functional units of the human body 3. Responsible for the biochemical activities of human bodies 4. All of the above

4. All of the above

The phospholipid bilayer off a cell is NOT permeable to: 1. Steroid hormones 2. Oxygen gas 3. Fat soluble vitamins 4. Protein hormones 5. alcohol (a lipid soluble chemical)

4. Protein hormones - the phospholipid bilayer is freely permeable to hydrophobic, lipid soluble, non polar molecules - proteins are hydrophilic - steroids are fats - gases are hydrophobic

Which of the following is true of chromosomes but not chromatin? 1. Made up of protein and DNA 2. Contains "genes" 3. Found when the cell is not dividing 4. Found only when the cell is dividing

4.Chromosomes are found only when the cell is dividing

______% glucose

5% glucose This amount is traveling through your blood at any given time

The chemical found in the highest concentration in a cell's cytosol is 1. Glucose 2. Triglyceride 3. Peptide 4. ATP 5. None of the above

5. None of the above (its water)

Checkpoints

Act as stop and go signals for the cell; the most important one is G1

When red blood cell count is down

Anemia

What kind of cells inhibit the formation of the enzyme to stop cyclin activity?

Cancer cells

Communication (cell process)

Cells have to communicate with themselves, their environment, and other cells. They can communicate through chemical and electrical signals

Cell reproduction (cell process)

Cells reproduce by cell division (a process that is necessary fro growth and development and for replacement of old and damaged cells)

Apoptosis

Cells that cannot pass through checkpoints cannot be repaired or undergo a process of programmed cell death or "cellular suicide" - normal to occur in development - this is why were not born with flippers, gills, and a tail (the webs between the fingers and toes in embryos die to separate the fingers and toes) -

Dynamic

Changing or always changing In terms of filaments: Disassembled and reassembled in needs for the cell

Nucleus, components

Consists of three components - DNA - nucleoplasm containing water, nucleotides, enzymes, proteins, DNA, and RNA - nuclear envelope

Semiconservative replication process

DNA replication — the semiconservative is because they each have one original strand

If you have plenty of surface area to get the the interior of the cell, the cell doesn't need to ____________

Divide

Non membrane bound organelles

Don't have a membrane because they are not fluid filled - ribosomes - centrosomes - centrioles - cytoskeleton

Transport of substances (cell process)

Either transporting things produced by the cell and secreted outside or transporting nutrients and other compounds that are ingested by the cells and brought in

The separation of charges in electrophysiology creates an electrical gradient known as an ___________ potential that can provide energy to do work

Electrical

Synthesis is an _____________ reaction

Endergonic (it needs energy to build)

True or false: all cells in the body divide on a fairly regular basis

FALSE **all is not usually right**

If a cell is not stimulated to divide, it will enter the ______ phase

G0

__________ is the main checkpoint

G1

K+ concentration is ___________ in the cytosol than in the ECF

Greater

Na+ concentration is ___________ greater in the ECF than in the cytosol

Greater

Due to uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, a patient has a blood glucose concentration of 6%. What is this concentration of glucose called relative to body cells?

Hypertonic - normal glucose is 5%

During strenuous exercise the ECF becomes____________ in relation to cells

Hypertonic - when you work out, you sweat (when you sweat you lose water and electrolytes) - your ECF becomes hypertonic, drawing water out of the cells by osmosis - sweat is over 99% water

Sports drinks should be ____________ to replenish your cells after exercise

Hypotonic - your body fluids want to be isotonic, so, when your cells are hypertonic, you take a hypotonic solution to make your ECF mildly hypotonic to cells causing water to move back into the cells until normal cytosol concentration is restored - sports drinks are a mixture of water, electrolytes, and carbohydrates

What are broken down in lysosomes?

Intracellular macromolecules

Spindle fibers connect to _____________

Kinetochore (specific place on the centromere where spindle fibers attach during cell division)

Microtubules

Largest of all of the structures Location: near the nucleus (centrally) Made of: tubulin, cylindrical Function: needed in cell division, maintain internal architecture of cell and keep organelles in alignment The motor proteins dynein and kinesin allow for vesicles to be transported along them like a monorail Dynamic - cilia - flagella - spindle fibers - centrioles

When white blood cell count is down

Leukopenia

Biggest detoxification organ

Liver People with alcoholism get sorosis of the liver is The body will produce TONS of smooth ER in the liver cells of a body with alcoholism almost to the point that there is not room for other organelles because they see alcohol as death

Intermediate filaments

Location: everywhere throughout the cell Function: help give the nucleus its round shape (form the framework of the cell, structural integrity), and anchor organelles in place, helps organelles and nucleus maintain shape and size, helps cells and tissues withstand mechanical stresses Made of: keratin, rope-like/yarn/twisted/intertwined Static (permanent) - neurofilaments (the specific protein found in neurons) - nuclear lamina

The electrical potential found across a plasma membrane is known as a ___________ potential

Membrane

These cytoskeletal fibers are made of the protein actin; they cause the cell membrane to invaginate during cell division

Microfilaments

We use the term "net movement" because:

Molecules are always moving

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is continuous with the ___________ in two forms:

Nucleus - smooth ER (still connected/continuous with nucleus) -rough ER

Oxygen is present in blood passing by muscle cells at a level of 90mmHg. Oxygen is present in the muscle cells at a level of 40mmHg. How will oxygen (O2) diffuse in this situation?

O2 will diffuse from the blood into the muscle cells - pressure gradient - 90 is higher than 40 and with diffusion, molecules go from higher concentration to lower concentration

The cytosol is composed of mainly water. What is the second most common component?

Protein

Static

Stays the same/permanent Once they're there they are there until the cell dies

The cell cycle control

The cell responds to a variety of extracellular signals; may not proceed with division if the following conditions are not favorable: - not enough nutrients available in the ECF to support cell division - low surface area to volume ratio is bad (low surface area means that the cell will divide) (if there is a high surface area, there is no need for the cell to divide, things can get through) - proteins called growth factors must be secreted and then bind to a cell during G1 phase into the ECF by other cells to stimulate cell division and then go to S phase (example of growth factor: growth hormones) - high density of cells in tissue (Cell inhibition- if there is no room for cells to divide, they're not going to) - if the cells are anchored well they cant divide

Ribosomes are made in the __________ and assembled in the _____________

nucleus; cytoplasm

What is the relationship between ribosomes and the nucleolus?

The nucleolus is where rRNA is made

Microfilaments

Thinnest filament Location: the periphery of the cell (outer part) nearest the plasma membrane Made of: actin, twisted chains of beads Function: they make the contractile ring which is only necessary during cell division, they provide structural support, bear tension, and maintain cell shape. Involved in cellular motion when combined with the motor protein myosin Dynamic - microvilli - contractile ring in cytokinesis - endo and exocytosis

Active Transport via vesicles

Two processes - endocytosis (consists of phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor mediated) - exocytosis (transcytosis) These are only for large, polar, macromolecules because large polar molecules cant get through the membrane without help. They cant use carriers because carriers are for small, hydrophilic, water soluble molecules. Therefore, we have to form vesicles. Enclosed in a phospholipid bilayer which allows them to fuse with or be formed from the plasma membrane or other membrane bound organelles This is an active transport process that requires ATP to proceed

Which of the following nucleotide bases is unique to RNA? 1. Cytosine 2. Guanine 3. Thymine 4. Uracil 5. Adenine

Uracil

The organelles of the endomembrane system form _________

Vesicles

How does water move?

Water moves in two ways: - freely through the phospholipid bilayer - through large protein channels called aquaporins Primary route for transfer of water: auquaporins Secondary route: directly through membrane

Due to uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, a patient has a blood glucose concentration of 6%. Because of a lack on insulin, glucose can't move into body cells. What affect will this have on cell water levels?

Water will leave the cells through osmosis - therefore, the cells in a body with diabetes mellitus will crenate

Lysis

When a cell excessively expands because the solution a cell is in (ECF) has a lower water concentration (higher solute) than inside the cell

Crenation

When a cell shrinks because the solution a cell is in (ECF) has a higher concentration of water (Lower solute) than inside the cell

Tumor

When changes in DNA of a cell cause loss of cell cycle control, uncontrolled cell division results and cells may form a growth or mass known as this - malignant: will spread or metastasis - Benign: literally means good but all tumors are bad

Male sex chromosome

XY

Types of filaments

allow for rapid disassembly and reassembly - micro filaments (actin) - intermediate filaments - microtubules

channel proteins

membrane proteins that act as channels that substances can pass through to enter or exit the cell

enzymes

membrane proteins that act as enzymes, catalyzing chemical reactions

receptor proteins

membrane proteins that act as receptors, binding to a ligand to trigger a change in the membrane protein or the cell. they have a gated channel

structural support proteins

membrane proteins that bind to other proteins in the ECF and/or ICF, supporting the cell

carrier proteins

membrane proteins that bind to substances and transport them into or out of the cell

linking adjacent cells proteins

membrane proteins that link adjacent cells in a tissue together

Bound ribosomes

produce proteins for three things: - export outside the cell (making protein hormones) - export into lysosomes (staying in the cell, protyolitic enzymes) - insertion into the membrane: the ones that become the proteins and channels within the plasma membrane (made in the rough ER, sent to the golgi, and then are dispersed throughout the membrane)

How do the rough ER, smooth ER, and golgi interact with each other?

the nuclear envelope is connected to the rough and smooth ER which will then bud off vesicles which will merge and incorporate in the Golgi apparatus and then leave as three things: - vesicles for export - plasma membrane proteins - lysosomes

Chloride ion channels

very important for determining the viscosity of secretions - viscosity: thickness Without chloride ion channels, the mucus secretion in the lungs becomes very thick (mucus cant be expelled easily, bacteria get inhaled, lung infections are common) (cystic fibrosis) Chloride channels in mucus also changes in the GI tract (patients with cystic fibrosis have a problem with digestion as well)

Double phospholipid bilayer of mitochondria

— the outer membrane is made up of a phospholipid bilayer — the inner membrane has folds called cristae — within the inner membrane is the cell matrix