Chapter 3: Argument

claim

also called assertion or proposition, a claim states the argument's main idea or position. A claim differs from a topic or subject in that a claim has to be arguable

Toulmin model

an approach to analyzing and constructing arguments created by British philosopher Stephen Toulmin in his book "The Uses of Argument". Can be stated as a template: Because (evidence as support), therefore (claim), since (warrant/assumption), on account of (backing), unless (reservation)

Rogerian arguments

developed by psychiatrist Carl Rogers, are based on the assumption that having a full understanding of an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating

classical oration

five-part argument structure used by classical rhetoricians (introduction, narration, confirmation, refutation, conclusion)

reservation

in the Toulman model, explains the terms and conditions necessitated by the qualifier

rebuttal

in the Toulman model, gives voice to possible objections

backing

in the Toulmin model, backing consists of further assurances or data without which the assumption lacks authority

warrant/assumption

in the Toulmin model, expresses the assumption necessarily shared by the speaker and the audience

qualifier

in the Toulmin model, uses the words like usually, probably, maybe, in most cases, and most likely to temper the claim, making it less absolute

quantitative evidence

includes things that can be measured, cited, counted, or otherwise represented in numbers ex) statistics, surveys, polls, census information

narration (narratio)

provides factual information and background material on the subject at hand or establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing

ad populum (bandwagon appeal)

this fallacy occurs when evidence boils down to "everybody's doing it, so it must be a good thing to do." ex) You should elect Rachel Johnson - she has a strong lead in the polls!

confirmation (confirmatio)

usually the major part of the text, the confirmation includes the proof needed to make the writer's case

post hoc ergo propter hoc

"after which therefore because of which," meaning that it is incorrect to always claim that something is a cause just because it happened earlier. One may loosely summarize this fallacy by saying that correlation does not imply causation

ad hominem

Latin for "against the man," this fallacy refers to the specific diversionary tactic of switching the argument from the issue at hand to the character of the other speaker. If you argue that a park in your community should not be renovated because the person supporting it was arrested during a domestic dispute, then you are guitar of this

claim of value

a claim that argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong ex) There's a plague on all our houses, and since it doesn't announce itself with lumps or spots or protest marches, it has gone unremarked in the quiet suburbs and busy cities where is has been laying waste (Anna Quindlen)

claim of fact

a claim that asserts that something is true or not true ex) The number of suicides and homicides committed by teenagers, most often young men, has exploded in the last three decades...(Anna Quindlen)

claim of policy

a claim that proposes a change ex) Yet one solution continues to elude us, and that is ending the ignorance about mental health, and moving it from the margins of care into the mainstream where it belongs (Anna Quindlen)

begging the question

a fallacy in which a claim is based on evidence or support that is in doubt. It "begs" a question whether the support itself is sound

hasty generalization

a fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence ex) Smoking isn't bad for you; my great aunt smoked a pack a day and lived to be 90

either/or (false dilemma)

a fallacy in which the speaker presents two extreme options as the only possible options ex) Either we agree to higher taxes, or our grandchildren will be mired in debt

circular reasoning

a fallacy in which the writer repeats the claim as a way to provide evidence ex) You can't give me a C; I'm an A student!

straw man

a fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea

faulty analogy

a fallacy that occurs when an analogy compares two things that are not comparable

deduction

a logical process whereby one reaches a conclusion by starting with a general principle or universal truth (a major premise) and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise). The process is usually demonstrated in the form of a syllogism. Major premise: Exercise contributes to better health. Minor premise: Yoga is a type of exercise. Conclusion: Yoga contributes to better health

induction

a logical process whereby the writer reasons from particulars to universals, using specific cases in order to draw a conclusion, which is also a generalization ex) Regular exercise promotes weight loss. Exercise lowers stress levels. Exercise improves mood and outlook. Exercise contributes to better health.

syllogism

a logical structure that uses the major premise and minor premise to reach a necessary conclusion

logical fallacy

a potential vulnerability or weakness in an argument. Often arises from a failure to make a logical connection between the claim and the evidence to support it

argument

a process of reasoned inquiry; a persuasive discourse resulting in a coherent and considered movement from a claim to a conclusion

closed thesis

a statement of the main idea of the argument that also previews the major points the writer intends to make

open thesis

a thesis that does not list all the points the writer intends to cover in an essay

conclusion (peroratio)

brings the essay to a satisfying close

first-hand evidence

evidence based on what the writer knows, whether its from personal experience observations, or general knowledge of events

second-hand evidence

evidence that is accessed through research, reading, and investigation. It includes factual and historical information, expert opinion, and quantitative data

introduction (exordium)

introduces the reader to the subject under discussion

appeal to false authority

this fallacy occurs when someone who has no expertise to speak on an issue is cited as an authority. A TV star, for instance, is not a medical expert, even though pharmaceutical advertisements often use celebrity endorsements