Chapter 4 (Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity)

What are the key criticisms of evolutionary explanations of human sexuality, and how do evolutionary psychologists respond?

(1) Evolutionary psychologists start with an effect and work backward to an explanation. (2) Evolutionary psychologists try to explain today's behaviors based on decisions our distant ancestors made thousands of years ago, nothing that a better, more immediate explanation takes learned social scripts into account. (3) Does this kind of explanation absolve people from taking responsibility for their sexual behavior? Evolutionary psychologists respond that understanding our predispositions can help us overcome them. They recognize the importance of social and cultural influences. but they also cite the value of testable predictions based on evolutionary principles.

Behavior genetics are most interested in exploring ___________________ (commonalities/differences) in our behaviors. Evolutionary genetics are most interested in exploring ___________________ (commonalities/differences) in our behaviors.

differences; commonalities

Concept of 'Life-task' in individualism?

discover and express one's uniqueness

An individual who is born with sexual anatomy that differs from typical male or female anatomy has __________ __________ _________ _________.

disorder of sexual development

What are psychological influences to individual development?

gene-environment interactions; neurological effect of early experiences; responses evoked by our own temperament, gender, etc.; beliefs, feelings, and expectations

Concept of 'Self' in individualism?

independent (identity from individual traits)

Concept of 'Self' in collectivism?

interdependent (identity from belonging)

Concept of 'Life Task' in collectivism?

maintain connections, fit in, perform role

Concept of 'Relationships' in individualism?

many, often temporary or casual; confrontation acceptable

Concept of 'What Matters' in individualism?

me- personal achievement and fulfillment; rights and liberties; self-esteem

What are social-cultural influences to individual development?

parental influences; peer influences; cultural individualism or collectivism; cultural gender norms

What are the three main criticisms of the evolutionary explanation of human sexuality?

(1) It starts with an effect and works backward to propose an explanation. (2) Unethical and immoral men could use such explanations to rationalize their behavior toward women. (3) This explanation may overlook the effects of cultural expectations and socialization.

Primary sex characteristics relate to________________; secondary sex characteristics refer to_________________. a. ejaculation; menarche b. breasts and facial hair; ovaries and testes c. emotional maturity; hormone surges d. reproductive organs; nonreproductive traits

d

Concept of 'Morality' in individualism?

defined by individuals (self-based)

Concept of 'Morality' in collectivism?

defined by social networks (duty-based)

When the mother's egg and the father's sperm unite, each contribute 23_________________.

chromosomes

What are biological influences to individual development?

shared human genome; individual genetic variations; prenatal environment; sex-related genes, hormones, and physiology

On average, girls begin puberty at about the age of_________, boys at about the age of __________.

11; 12

1. Epigenetics 2. Molecular behavior genetics 3. Behavior genetics a. Study of the relative effects of our genes and our environment on our behavior b. Study of how the structure and function of specific genes interact with our environment to influence behavior c. Study of environmental factors that affect how our genes are expressed

1c, 2b, 3a

How does culture affect our behavior?

A culture is an enduring set of behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group and transmitted fro one generation to the next. Cultural norms are understood rules that inform members of a culture about accepted and expected behaviors. Cultures differ across time and space.

What is the selection effect, and how might it affect a teen's decision to drink alcohol?

Adolescents tend to select out similar others and sort themselves into like-minded groups. This could lead to a teen who wants to experiment with drinking alcohol to seek out others who already drink alcohol.

How do sex hormones influence prenatal and adolescent sexual development, and what is a disorder of sexual development?

Both sex chromosomes and sex hormones influence development. Biological sex is determined by the father's contribution to the twenty-third pair of chromosomes. The mother always contributes an X chromosome. The father may also contribute an X chromosome, producing a female, or a Y chromosome, producing a male by triggering additional testosterone release and the development of male sex organs. During puberty, both primary and secondary sex characteristics develop. Sex-related genes and physiology influence behavioral and cognitive differences between males and females. Disorders of sexual development are inherited conditions that involve unusual development of sex chromosomes and anatomy.

How do evolutionary psychologists use natural selection to explain behavior tendencies?

Evolutionary psychologists seek to understand how our traits and behavior tendencies are shaped by natural selection, as genetic variations increasing the odds of reproducing and surviving in their particular environment are most likely to be passed on to future generations. Some variations arise from mutations (random errors in gene replication), others from new gene combinations at conception. Humans share a genetic legacy and are predisposed to behave in ways that promoted our ancestors' surviving and reproducing. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution is an organizing principle in biology. He anticipated today's application of evolutionary principles in psychology.

What are gender roles and what do their variations tell us about our human capacity for learning and adaptation?

Gender roles are social rules or norms for accepted and expected behavior for females and males. The norms associated with various roles, including gender roles, vary widely in different cultural contexts, which is proof that we are very capable of learning and adapting to the social demands of different environments.

How do gender roles and gender identity differ?

Gender roles, the behaviors a culture expects from its males and female,s vary across place and time. Social learning theory proposes that we learn gender identity- our sense of being make, female, or some combination of the two- as we learn other things: through reinforcement, punishment, and observation. Critics argue that cognition also plays a role because modeling and rewards cannot explain gender typing. Some children recognize themselves into "boy worlds" and "girl worlds"; other prefer androgyny. Transgender people's gender identity or expression differs from their birth sex. Their sexual orientation may be heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, or asexual.

What are chromosomes, DNA, genes, and the human genome? How do behavior geneticists explain our individual differences?

Genes are the biochemical units of heredity that make up chromosomes, the threadlike coils of DNA. When genes are "turned on" (expressed), they provide the code for creating the proteins that form our body's building blocks. Most human traits are influenced by many genes acting together. The human genome is the shared genetic profile that distinguishes humans from other species, consisting at an individual level of all the genetic material in an organism's chromosomes. Behavior geneticists study the relative power and limits of genetic and and environmental influences on behavior.

What are some benefits and risks of prenatal genetic testing?

Genetic tests can now reveal at-risk populations for dozens of diseases, and the search is on to discover the markers of genetically influenced behaviors. But prenatal screening poses ethical dilemmas. For example, testing an offspring's sex has enabled selective abortions, which in some cultures has resulted in millions more male births. And future screening for vulnerability to psychological disorders could deprive the world of great talents.

_______________is the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes.

Heritability

What is heritability, and how does it relate to individuals and groups?

Heritability describes the extent to which variation among members of a group can be attributed to genes. Heritable individual differences (in traits such as height or intelligence) need not imply heritable group differences. Genes mostly explain why some people are taller than others, but not why people are taller today than they were a century ago.

Would the heritability of aggressiveness be greater in Belyaev and Trut's foxes, or in a wild population of foxes?

Heritability of aggressiveness would be greater in the wild population, with its greater genetic variation in aggressiveness.

_______________twins share the same DNA.

Identical

How does the meaning of gender differ from the meaning of sex?

In psychology, gender is he socially influenced characteristics by which people define men and women. Sex refers to the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define males and females. Our gender is this the product of the interplay among our biological dispositions, our development experiences, and our current situation.

What is included in the biopsychosocial approach to development?

Individual development results from the interaction of biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences. Biological influences include our shared human genome; individual variations; prenatal environment; and sex-related genes, hormones, and physiology. Psychological influences include gene-environment interactions; the effect of early experiences on neural networks; responses evoked by our own characteristics, such as gender and temperament; and personal beliefs, feelings, and expectations. Social-cultural influences include parental and peer influences; cultural traditions and values; and cultural gender norms.

How do individualist and collectivist cultures differ?

Individualists give priority to personal goals over group goals and tend to define their identity in terms of their own personal attributes. Collectivists give priority to group goals over individual groups and tend to define their identity in terms of group identifications.

How does the biopsychosocial approach explain our individual development?

It considers all the factors that influence our individual development: biological factors (including evolution and our genes, hormones, and brain), psychological factors (including our experiences, beliefs, feelings, and expectations), and social-cultural factors (including parenting and peer influences, cultural individualism or collectivism, and gender norms).

How might an evolutionary psychologist explain male-female differences in sexuality and mating differences?

Men tend to have a recreational view of sexual activity; women tend to have a relational view. Evolutionary psychologists reason that men's attraction to multiple healthy, fertile-appearing partners increases their chances of spreading their genes widely. Because women incubate and nurse babies, they increase their own and their children's chances of survival by searching for mates with the potential for long-term investment in their joint offspring.

How is molecular genetics research changing our understanding of the effects of nature and nurture?

Molecular genetics research on structure and function of genes is building new understandings of how teams of genes influence many human traits. One goal of molecular behavior genetics, the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior, is to find some of the many genes that together orchestrate complex traits (such as body weight, sexual orientation, and impulsivity). Environments can trigger or block genetic expression. The field of epigenetics studies the influences on gene expression that occur without changes in DNA.

How do early experiences modify the brain?

Our genetic predispositions and our specific environments interact. Environments can trigger gene activity, and genetically influenced traits can evoke responses from others. As a child's brain develops, neural connections grow more numerous and complex. Experiences then prompt a pruning process, in which unused connections weaken and heavily used ones strengthen. Early childhood is an important period for shaping the brain, but throughout our lives our brain modifies itself in response to our learning.

How are Belyaev and Trut's breeding practices similar to, and how do they differ from, the way natural selection normally occurs?

Over multiple generations, Belyaev and Trut selected and bred foxes that exhibited a trait they desired: tameness. This process is similar to naturally occurring selection, but it differs in that natural selection normally favors traits (including those arising from mutations) that contribute to reproduction and survival.

In what ways do parents and peers shape children's development?

Parents influence their children in areas such as manners and political and religious beliefs, but not in other areas, such as personality. As children attempt to fit in with their peers, they tend to adopt their culture- styles, accents, slang, attitudes. Bu choosing their children's neighborhoods and schools. parents exert some influence over peer group culture.

How do researchers use twin and adoption studies to learn about psychological principles?

Researchers use them to understand how much variation among individuals is due to genetic makeup and how much to environment factors. Some studies compare the traits and behaviors of identical twins (same genes) and fraternal twins (different genes, as in any two siblings). They also compare adopted children with their adoptive and biological parents. Some studies compare traits and behaviors of twins raised together or separately.

How do twin and adoption studies help us understand the effects and interactions of nature and nurture?

Studies of identical (monozygotic) twins versus fraternal (dizygotic) twins, separated twins, and biological versus adoptive relatives allow researchers to tease apart the influences of heredity and environment. Research studies on separated identical twins maintain the same genes while testing the effects of different home environments. Studies of adoptive families let researchers maintain the same home environment while studying the effects of genetic differences. Heritable individual differences (in traits such as height and weight) do not necessarily explain gender of ethnic group differences. Shared family environments have little effect on personality.

What have psychologists learned about temperament?

The stability of temperament, a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, from the first weeks of life suggests a genetic predisposition. The genetic effect appears in physiological differences such as heart rate and nervous system reactivity.

A fertilized egg will develop into a boy if it receives a/n __________ chromosome from its father.

Y

How do evolutionary psychologists explain sex differences in sexuality?

They theorize that females have inherited their ancestors' tendencies to be more cautious, sexually, because if the challenges associated with incubating and nurturing offspring. Males have an inherited an inclination to be more casual about sex, because their act of fathering requires a smaller investment.

Concept of 'What Matters' in collectivism?

Us- group goals and solidarity; social responsibilities and relationships; family duties

What are some ways in which males and females tend to be alike and to differ?

We are more alike than different, thanks to our similar genetic makeup- we see, hear, learn, and remember similarly. Males and females do differ in body, fat, muscle, height, age of onset puberty, life expectancy, and vulnerability to certain disorders. Men admit to more aggression than women do, and they are more likely to be physically aggressive. Women's aggression is more likely to be rational. In most societies, men have more social power, and their leadership style tends to be directive, whereas women's in more democratic. Women focus more on social connectedness, and they "tend and befriend."

How do individualist and collectivist cultures differ in their values and goals?

Within any culture, the degree of individualism or collectivism varies from person to person. Cultures based on self-reliant individualism, like those found in North America and Western Europe, tend to value personal independence and individual achievement. They define identity in terms of self-esteem, personal goals and attributes, and personal rights and liberties. Cultures based in socially connected collectivism, like those in many parts of Asia and Africa, tend to value interdependence, tradition, and harmony, and they define identity in terms of group goals, commitments, and belonging to one's group.

Concept of 'Coping Method' in collectivism?

accommodate to reality

The threadlike structures made largely of DNA molecules are called___________________.

chromosomes

Adoption studies seek to understand genetic influences on personality. They do this mainly by a. comparing adopted children with nonadopted children b. evaluating whether adopted children's personalities more closely resemble those of their adoptive parents or their biological parents c. studying the effect of prior neglect on adopted children d. studying the effect of children's age at adoption

b

Gender roles refers to our a. personal sense of being male or female b. culture's expectations about the "right" way for males and females to behave c. birth sex-- our chromosomes and anatomy d. unisex characteristics

b

Individualist cultures tend to value_______________; collectivist cultures tend to value _________________. a. interdependence; independence b. independence; interdependence c. group solidarity; uniqueness d. duty to family; personal fulfillment

b

When the mother's egg and the father's sperm unite, each contributes a. one chromosome pair b. 23 chromosomes c. 23 chromosome pairs d. 25,000 chromosomes

b

Concept of 'Attributing Behavior' in individualism?

behavior reflects one's personality and attitudes

Concept of 'Attributing Behavior' in collectivism?

behavior reflects social norms and roles

Evolutionary psychologists are most likely to focus on a. how individuals differ from one another b. the social consequences of sexual behaviors c. natural selection of the fittest adaptations d. twin and adoption studies

c

Females and males are very similar to each other. But one way they differ is that a. females are more physically aggressive than males b. males are more democratic than females in their leadership roles c. girls tend to play in small groups, while boys tend to play in large groups d. females are more likely to commit suicide

c

Fraternal twins result when a. a single egg is fertilized by a single sperm and then splits b. a single egg is fertilized by two sperm and then splits c. two eggs are fertilized by two sperm d. two eggs are fertilized by a single sperm

c

Concept of 'Coping Method' in individualism?

change reality

Epigenetics is the study of the molecular mechanisms by which __________________ trigger or block genetic expression.

environments

Concept of 'Relationships' in collectivism?

few, close and enduring; harmony valued

When children have developed a ___________ ____________, they have a sense of being male, female, or a combination of the two.

gender identity

A small segment of DNA that codes for particular proteins is referred to as__________________.

gene

Put some of the following structures in order from smallest to largest: nucleus, gene, chromosome

gene, chromosome, nucleus

Those studying the heritability of a trait try to determine how much of the person-to-person variation in that trait among members of a specific group is due to their differing ____________.

genes

Adolescent is marked by the onset of___________________.

puberty

Psychologists define __________ as the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define males and females The socially influenced characteristics by which people define men and women is _____________.

sex, gender

From the very first weeks of life, infants differ in their characteristic emotional reactions, with some infants being intense and anxious, while others are easygoing and relaxed. These differences are usually explained as differences in_________________.

temperament