Chapter 4 Questions

One of the recommendations that therapists will make to people who suffer from insomnia is to spend less waking time in bed. Why do you think spending waking time in bed might interfere with the ability to fall asleep later?

Answers will vary. One possible explanation might invoke principles of associative learning. If the bed represents a place for socializing, studying, eating, and so on, then it is possible that it will become a place that elicits higher levels of arousal, which would make falling asleep at the appropriate time more difficult. Answers could also consider self-perpetuating cycle referred to when describing insomnia. If an individual is having trouble falling asleep and that generates anxiety, it might make sense to remove him from the context where sleep would normally take place to try to avoid anxiety being associated with that context.

Generally, humans are considered diurnal which means we are awake during the day and asleep during the night. Many rodents, on the other hand, are nocturnal. Why do you think different animals have such different sleep-wake cycles?

Different species have different evolutionary histories, and they have adapted to their environments in different ways. There are a number of different possible explanations as to why a given species is diurnal or nocturnal. Perhaps humans would be most vulnerable to threats during the evening hours when light levels are low. Therefore, it might make sense to be in shelter during this time. Rodents, on the other hand, are faced with a number of predatory threats, so perhaps being active at night minimizes the risk from predators such as birds that use their visual senses to locate prey.

Some people claim that sleepwalking and talking in your sleep involve individuals acting out their dreams. Why is this particular explanation unlikely?

Dreaming occurs during REM sleep. One of the hallmarks of this particular stage of sleep is the paralysis of the voluntary musculature which would make acting out dreams improbable.

Why are programs designed to educate people about the dangers of using tobacco products just as important as developing tobacco cessation programs?

Given that currently available programs designed to help people quit using tobacco products are not necessarily effective in the long term, programs designed to prevent people from using these products in the first place may be the best hope for dealing with the enormous public health concerns associated with tobacco use.

Healthcare professionals often work rotating shifts. Why is this problematic? What can be done to deal with potential problems?

Given that rotating shift work can lead to exhaustion and decreased mental efficiency, individuals working under these conditions are more likely to make mistakes on the job. The implications for this in the health care professions are obvious. Those in health care professions could be educated about the benefits of light-dark exposure to help alleviate such problems.

What advantages exist for researching the potential health benefits of hypnosis?

Healthcare and pharmaceutical costs continue to skyrocket. If alternative approaches to dealing with these problems could be developed that would be relatively inexpensive, then the potential benefits are many.

What types of studies would be most convincing regarding the effectiveness of meditation in the treatment for some type of physical or mental disorder?

Ideally, double-blind experimental trials would be best suited to speak to the effectiveness of meditation. At the very least, some sort of randomized control trial would be very informative.

________ is one way in which people can help reset their biological clocks.

Light-dark exposure

Differentiate the evolutionary theories of sleep and make a case for the one with the most compelling evidence.

One evolutionary theory of sleep holds that sleep is essential for restoration of resources that are expended during the demands of day-to-day life. A second theory proposes that our sleep patterns evolved as an adaptive response to predatory risks, which increase in darkness. The first theory has little or no empirical support, and the second theory is supported by some, though not all, research.

The negative health consequences of both alcohol and tobacco products are well-documented. A drug like marijuana, on the other hand, is generally considered to be as safe, if not safer than these legal drugs. Why do you think marijuana use continues to be illegal in many parts of the United States?

One possibility involves the cultural acceptance and long history of alcohol and tobacco use in our society. No doubt, money comes into play as well. Growing tobacco and producing alcohol on a large scale is a well-regulated and taxed process. Given that marijuana is essentially a weed that requires little care to grow, it would be much more difficult to regulate its production. Recent events suggest that cultural attitudes regarding marijuana are changing, and it is quite likely that its illicit status will be adapted accordingly.

How could researchers determine if given areas of the brain are involved in the regulation of sleep?

Researchers could use lesion or brain stimulation techniques to determine how deactivation or activation of a given brain region affects behavior. Furthermore, researchers could use any number of brain imaging techniques like fMRI or CT scans to come to these conclusions.

How is narcolepsy with cataplexy similar to and different from REM sleep?

Similarities include muscle atony and the hypnagogic hallucinations associated with narcoleptic episodes. The differences involve the uncontrollable nature of narcoleptic attacks and the fact that these come on in situations that would normally not be associated with sleep of any kind (e.g., instances of heightened arousal or emotionality).

Freud believed that dreams provide important insight into the unconscious mind. He maintained that a dream's manifest content could provide clues into an individual's unconscious. What potential criticisms exist for this particular perspective?

The subjective nature of dream analysis is one criticism. Psychoanalysts are charged with helping their clients interpret the true meaning of a dream. There is no way to refute or confirm whether or not these interpretations are accurate. The notion that "sometimes a cigar is just a cigar" (sometimes attributed to Freud but not definitively shown to be his) makes it clear that there is no systematic, objective system in place for dream analysis.

________ is loss of muscle tone or control that is often associated with narcolepsy.

cataplexy

An individual may suffer from ________ if there is a disruption in the brain signals that are sent to the muscles that regulate breathing.

central sleep apnea

________ cycles occur roughly once every 24 hours.

circadian

Symptoms of ________ may be improved by REM deprivation.

depression

Cocaine blocks the reuptake of ________.

dopamine

If theories that assert sleep is necessary for restoration and recovery from daily energetic demands are correct, what do you predict about the relationship that would exist between individuals' total sleep duration and their level of activity?

hose individuals (or species) that expend the greatest amounts of energy would require the longest periods of sleep.

Research suggests that cognitive processes, such as learning, may be affected by ________.

hypnosis

________ is most effective in individuals that are very open to the power of suggestion.

hypnosis

The body's biological clock is located in the ________.

hypothalamus

The ________ plays a role in controlling slow-wave sleep.

hypothalamus thalamus

The ________ content of a dream refers to the true meaning of the dream.

latent

________ has its roots in religious practice.

meditation

________ is a hormone secreted by the pineal gland that plays a role in regulating biological rhythms and immune function.

melatonin

The most common treatment for ________ involves the use of amphetamine-like medications.

narcolepsy

Meditation may be helpful in ________.

pain management stress control

Growth hormone is secreted by the ________ while we sleep.

pituitary gland

________ refers to drug craving.

psychological dependence

LSD affects ________ neurotransmission.

serotonin

________ occurs when there is a chronic deficiency in sleep.

sleep debt

________ appears to be especially important for enhanced performance on recently learned tasks.

slow-wave sleep

________ is another word for sleepwalking.

somnambulism

Sleep spindles and K-complexes are most often associated with ________ sleep.

stage 2

________ is(are) described as slow-wave sleep.

stage 3 and stage 4

________ occurs when a drug user requires more and more of a given drug in order to experience the same effects of the drug.

tolerance