chapter 4. social & cultural foundations

195. Sex role stereotyping would imply that a. a counselor would only consider traditional feminine ca- reers for his female client. b. a male counselor would rate a female client's emotional status differently than he would a male client's. c. female clients are treated the same as male clients. d. choices a and b.

According to studies, counselors are prejudiced toward women. Prejudice means that we are negative or have a rigid inflexible attitude toward a given group of people and can often act on our unfavorable thoughts. Moreover, the prejudiced individual often "prejudges" others without substantial evidence. Choices "a" and "b" are illustrative of stereotyping in which the counselor has generalized feelings about a given group (in this case wom- en). Unfortunately, research would suggest that the response in choice "a" might well be a typical one. In a 1973 study by Schlossberg and Pietrofesa, counselor trainees were instructed to help a female counselee choose between an engineering and a teaching career. All the counselor trainees tried to steer her clear of engineering, typically a masculine career. Horrors! As for choice "b," I can only say "ditto." A 1970 study by Brover- man, Broverman, Clarkson, Rosenkrantz, and Vogel found that all the therapists who filled out a questionnaire used a different standard of mental health when rating men from the one they used for women. Women and other minorities are sometimes said to be victims of a "caste system." The term caste system implies that there are fixed layers of superiority and inferior- ity which you are born into and thus cannot escape. Hint: My guess is that in the coming years women's issues, men's issues, older adults, single-parent families, blended families, bereave- ment, and gay concerns will be important topics on the Social and Cultural Foundations area on your exam. Please make it a priority to keep up with the literature in these key areas. This guide is not intended to do justice to these topics. (d)

152. Parents who do not tolerate or use aggression when raising chil- dren produce a. less aggressive children. b. more aggressive children. c. passive-aggressive children. d. passive-dependent children.

Children who are abused by their parents are more likely to be abusers when they have children of their own. Remember that counselors are legally required to report child abuse, ne- glect, sexual abuse, or exploitation. (a)

181. Experts in the field of multicultural counseling feel that the counselor's training a. must come from an APA-approved graduate program. b. must come from a CACREP-approved graduate pro- gram. c. should be broad and interdisciplinary. d. need not include REBT.

Choice "d," REBT or rational-emotive behavior therapy, cer- tainly can be helpful when counseling clients from another cul- ture because it does not stress mental illness. The perception of the REBT practitioner as a "teacher" makes the process of helping more palatable to some populations. Choice "c" is the best answer. An adept multicultural helper ideally would study topics which go beyond traditional counseling theory. Some educators have even suggested that an exchange program in which coun- selors study in foreign universities could be beneficial. (c)

133. All of these statements are ethnocentric except a. you can't trust anyone over the age of 40. b. Americans are generous. c. Blue-collar workers are mean and selfish. d. the Gross Domestic Product in the United States exceeds the figure in Mexico.

Ethnocentrism is based on opinion while choice "d" is fact. Eth- nocentrism was clearly expressed in the World War II joke which suggested that Hitler couldn't build a race of supermen because Superman could only be an American. (d)

192. According to Charles Osgood and Percey Tannenbaum's con- gruity theory, a client will accept suggestions more readily if a. the client likes the counselor. b. the client dislikes the counselor. c. the client distrusts the counselor. d. the counselor is in a higher economic bracket.

Here again, the tendency is based on "balance theory." If you like your counselor, your tendency to accept a suggestion would be balanced (i.e., consistent with your opinion). If you did not like or trust the counselor, then accepting his or her suggestions would produce an imbalance (i.e., an inconsistent attitude). (a)

137. Balance theory postulates a. a move from cognitive consistency to inconsistency. b. a move from cognitive inconsistency to consistency. c. a tendency to achieve a balanced cognitive state. d. b and c.

Here's a minireview: Inconsistent thoughts are often re- ferred to as "dissonance." Most counselors agree that dis- sonance is a distasteful state of mind which the individual will attempt to change. (d)

171. The statement, "All humans, from all cultures, all races, and all nations, are more alike than different," is based on the a. emic viewpoint. b. alloplastic viewpoint. c. etic viewpoint. d. autoplastic viewpoint.

If you chose an alternative other than "c," then you need to re- read answers to questions 169 and 170. (c)

157. A(n) client would most likely have the most difficulty with self-disclosure when speaking to a Caucasian counselor. a. middle-class Caucasian female b. upper-class African-American female c. lower-class African-American male d. upper-class Caucasian male

Males in general have difficulty expressing feelings. African- American males are especially hesitant about revealing them- selves to Caucasians. (c)

151. Cognitive dissonance research deals mainly with a. attraction. b. cognition and attitude formation. c. cognitions and emotion. d. none of the above.

The notion is that the discrepancies or inconsistencies that cre- ate tension are caused by cognitions and attitudes. (b)

147. The statement, "Even though my car is old and doesn't run well, it sure keeps my insurance payments low," a. is displacement. b. is an attempt to reduce dissonance via consistent cogni- tions. c. is projection. d. would never reduce dissonance in an individual.

This also could be described as the "sweet lemon" variety of rationalization (see the Helping Relationships section of this book). (b)

185. In 1908, books by helped to introduce social psychol- ogy in America. a. Moreno and Yalom b. Holland and Roe c. Barber and Salter d. McDougall and Ross

William McDougall wrote Introduction to Social Psychology, which expounded on his "hormic psychology" position that in- dividual as well as group behavior is the result of inherited ten- dencies to seek goals. Edward Alsworth Ross authored Social Psychology. Other famous names noted in the alternatives include Jacob Moreno, who pioneered psychodrama and coined the term group therapy; Irvin Yalom, an existentialist, well known for his strides in group work; John Holland, who stressed that a person's occupational environment should be congruent with his or her personality type; Anne Roe, who postulated that jobs can compensate for unmet childhood needs; T. X. Barber, who espoused a cognitive theory of hypnotism; and Andrew Salter, a pioneer in the behavior therapy creating a paradigm dubbed conditioned reflex therapy, and a behavioristic theory of hypnosis, and autohypnosis. (d)

139. A counselor who works primarily with a geriatric population needs to be aware that a. African-American counselees make the best clients. b. Native Americans do not believe in cognitive interven- tions. c. surprisingly enough, attractiveness is a fine predictor of retirement adjustment. d. surprisingly enough, financial security and health are the best predictors of retirement adjustment.

Yes, an old adage which suggests that money can help buy (or at least abet) happiness might just have a grain of truth. Here's why. Approximately 9.8% of all Americans (about 3.5 million people) age 65 and older have an income below the poverty lev- el! The prevailing feeling is that counselors of the future will be increasingly forced to deal with an older population as the U.S. population in general ages (the so-called "Age Wave"). In 1900 only 4% of the U.S. population was over 65; as of this writing the total is over 12% and growing, If I were you, another ques- tion I'd expect to see on my exam would relate to myths which impact upon counselors working with the aged. Two of the most popular myths are that (a) intelligence declines in old age (in re- ality only 8% of the aged are truly senile) and (b) the elderly are incapable of sex. In regard to the former, some exam questions could disagree with this generalization slightly, as the theory of "terminal drop" or "terminal decline" postulates that a dramatic decrease in intellectual functioning does occur, but even according to this theory, it only occurs during the final five years of life. Counseling older adults will be- come more common in the future: the human life expectancy has almost doubled since the turn of the century. Are you old if you have reached the big four-O? Certainly not in my estima- tion; however, employment agencies often view those who are over 40 as "older" and thus those who fit into this age bracket experience longer periods of unemployment than folks who are under 40. (d)

113. Carol Gilligan was critical of Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development a. as she felt it was too psychoanalytic. b. as she felt it was too behavioristic. c. as she felt it was not applicable to African Americans. d. as she felt it was more applicable to males than females.

According to Gilligan, Kohlberg's theory did not delineate the fact that women place more emphasis on caregiving and personal responsibility than do men, who focus more on individual rights and justice. (d)

134. Ethnocentrism a. is not universal. b. promotes a sense of patriotism and national sovereignty. c. promotes stability and pride, yet danger in the nuclear age. d. b and c.

According to researchers Levine and Campbell you can scratch off choice "a," because ethnocentrism is truly a universal phenomenon in which the ethnic group tries to prove it is superior. Our government (as well as others) engages in choice "b" (a form of ethnocentrism) deliberately. Choice "c" reminds us of the ultimate danger in trying to prove sovereignty in a nuclear age. Key concept: Expect to see the term ac- culturation on exams related to multicultural studies. The term suggests that ethnic and racial minorities integrate or adopt cultural beliefs and customs from the majority or dominant culture. Assimilation is said to occur when the individual has such a high level of acculturation that he or she becomes part of the dominant, macro, or majority culture. (d)

165. An African-American client tells a Caucasian counselor that things are "bad" though she literally means something is good. The counselor's misunderstanding could best be described as a a. client of color error. b. cognitive dissonance error. c. connotative error. d. confounding variable.

According to some experts in this field, the three major barri- ers to intercultural counseling are culture-bound values (men- tioned earlier), class-bound values, and language differences. Connotation applies to the emotional content of a word, which is different from the true or dictionary definition. The tendency for words to convey different connotations is often referred to as a "semantic differential." Choice "d," a confound- ing variable, is an extraneous variable which is not purposely introduced by an experimenter conducting research. This dif- ficulty is inherent in correlational data. One more quick quip here: The phrase "people of color" refers to Asian Americans or Asian Pacific Americans, Hispanic or Latino/a Americans, Afri- can Americans, and Native Americans. During the 21st century these groups will eventually outnumber Whites of European de- scent in the United States. (c)

142. In terms of diagnosis, a. a client's behavior could be sane and appropriate in one culture, yet disturbed and bizarre in another. b. culture is irrelevant in children under 14. c. culture is an issue with males, but not with females. d. culture is an issue with females, but not with males.

Again, the concept of "cultural relativism" implies that one's be- havior can only be evaluated in relation to the culture. Behavior in one culture cannot be judged by that which is consid- ered normal in another culture. Behavioral scientists have thus attempted to create "cultural free" diagnostic instruments, but as of this date none has been totally effective. (a)

101. America has been called the most diverse country on the face of our planet. Counseling a client from a different social and/or cultural background is known as a. cross-cultural counseling. b. multicultural counseling. c. intercultural counseling. d. all of the above.

Although "b" is the term we hear most often, choices "a," "b," and "c" are roughly synonymous and hence mean approximate- ly the same thing when you encounter them in the literature. Some research indicates that clients from minorities have been misdiagnosed, misunderstood, and found counseling less helpful than those from the majority culture. Clients from minority cultures tend to seek out counseling less and drop out sooner. Nevertheless, a culturally competent counselor can be successful regardless of the client's back- ground. Thus, this is an important area of study. The ACA division that deals explicitly with this topic is the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD). The divi- sion is intended to raise cultural, racial, and ethnic understand- ing and empathy. Multicultural counseling—that emphasizes respect for differences—has been dubbed as the "fourth force of counseling theory." Key exam hint: The term multicultural implies that we champion the idea of celebrating diver- sity. Some exams use the term cultural pluralism in an identical manner; however, some students are thrown a curve ball when they discover that cultural pluralism can also imply that a certain group (e.g., women, the disabled, senior citizens etc.) has special needs. (d)

144. According to the cognitive dissonance theory of Leon Festinger, a man who buys a $20,000 platinum watch would most likely a. feel intense guilt. b. read test reports after the purchase to justify his behav- ior. c. harbor severe hatred regarding his mother. d. harbor severe hatred regarding his father.

Although all the choices are plausible, choice "b" best expresses the tendency to justify behavior to create a state of "consonance" (a fancy word for harmony) between attitudes and behavior. Hence, if a test report states that the watch is a good buy, the be- lief and the behavior are consistent. In case you haven't picked it up yet, I'm betting you'll see at least one question regarding cognitive dissonance on your exam. (b)

179. Good multicultural counselors are a. flexible. b. rigid. c. utilize Eric Berne's transactional analysis (TA), Fritz Perl's Gestalt therapy and/or William Glasser's reality therapy in nearly every case. d. generally behavioristic.

Although choices "c" and "d" are not the best choices, a case could certainly be made for using these modalities in an inter- cultural helping relationship. Transactional analysis (TA), reality therapy, and behavioral interventions all stress "contracting." The process of contracting has its merits in cross-cultural situations because it keeps the counselor from shoving a dose of his or her own cultural values down the clients throat (i.e., the client has input before signing or agreeing with the contract). Furthermore, TA has been praised for illuminating cultural and ethnic injunctions. On the other hand, TA lingo is often complex for a client with a different background. Quite unlike behaviorism, Gestalt is a superb modality for cultures that need to liberate their feelings. In addition, it is helpful when working with a population which emphasizes nonverbal communication. The danger in utilizing Gestalt comes from pushing techniques (i.e., trying to insist upon them before clients are ready for them) that emphasize the expression of feelings on a cultural or ethnic group which views the expression of feelings as a sign of weakness. Practitioners are warned that behaviorism (choice "d") is not a panacea in multicultural work inasmuch as some cultures do not value assertiveness. Every brand of therapy has its merits and its disadvantages: It is therefore best if the multicultural counselor remains flexible. (a)

176. Positive transference is to love as negative transference is to hos- tility, and as ambivalent transference is to a. anger. b. hate. c. uncertainty. d. admiration.

Ambivalent transference, a term popular in multicultural coun- seling settings, occurs when the client rapidly shifts his or her emotional attitude toward the counselor based on learning and experiences related to authority figures from the past. The "Helping Relationship" section of this book goes into more depth regarding the notion of transference. (c)

150. In a traditional culture which places a high premium on author- ity figures, a. passivity on the part of the counselor would be viewed in a negative manner. b. a client would be disappointed if he or she did not receive advice. c. assigning homework and teaching on the part of the coun- selor would be appropriate. d. all of the above.

An active-directive model works best with persons who respond well to an authority figure. (d)

196. The statement, "Whites are better than Blacks," illustrates a. a weakening of the caste system in the U.S. b. racism. c. sexism. d. codependency.

Choice "a" is definitely wrong since the view that Whites are bet- ter than Blacks is indicative of a caste system mentality (see the answer to the previous question). Choice "d," codependency, is a term which grew mainly out of the chemical dependency move- ment. The word has various definitions, although it mainly refers to an individual who is emotionally involved with a chemically dependent person (perhaps even members of his or her fam- ily) and/or is addicted to a relationship with another person or drugs. "Racism," the correct answer, occurs when an assumption is made that some races are better than others. Hence, the race which feels superior can deny the other race rights and respect. Sexism is an analogous term. In sexism, one sex assumes that the other is inherently inferior. (b)

167. was a prime factor in the history of multicultural counseling. a. Frankl's experience in a concentration camp. b. Perl's use of the German concept of Gestalt. c. Freud's visits to the United States. d. The 1954 Supreme Court decision, Brown vs. the Board of Education, which outlawed public school segregation.

Choice "a" mentions Viktor Frankl, the Father of Logotherapy, an existential form of treatment which stresses "healing through meaning." Choice "b" mentions Fritz Perls, the Father of Ge- stalt Therapy, which attempts to ameliorate a mind/body split supposedly responsible for emotional distress. Gestalt is a Ger- man word which roughly means the "whole" form, figure, or configuration. The final alternative is correct. Desegregation created culturally different populations for school counselors. (d)

105. In the United States, each socioeconomic group represents a. a separate race. b. a separate culture. c. the silent middle class. d. a separate national culture.

Choice "a," race, refers to the identification of individuals via distinct physical or bodily (somatic) characteristics such as skin color or facial features. The assumption is thus made that a given race is based on genetic origin. Many racial groups can be distinguished from others by virtue of their looks. Social sci- entists have questioned whether race is indeed a valid concept since it is sometimes questionable as to what constitutes a given race. Choice "d," national culture, is a term used to describe the cultural patterns common to a given country. Nevertheless, keep in mind that in reality there is the "ideal culture," which is the way individuals are supposed to behave, as well as the "real culture," which encompasses all behaviors within the culture, even those which are illicit or frowned upon. When a group of persons vehemently opposes the values of the culture, they are said to be members of a "counterculture." (b)

122. A statistical norm measures actual conduct, while a cultural norm a. describes how people are supposed to act. b. has little to do with expectations. c. is irrelevant when counseling a client. d. all of the above.

Choice "b" is the direct antithesis of the correct alternative choice "a." Some multicultural practitioners suggest that culture is really a system of norms. Here is an important distinction: A statistical norm measures actual conduct, while a cultural norm describes the expectations of how one should act. (a)

188. The tendency to affiliate with others a. is highest in the middle child. b. is highest in dysthymics. c. is highest in firstborns and only children, d. is based on hormonal output.

Choice "b" refers to a diagnostic label from the DSM. Dysthy- mia—which might also be called "neurotic depression" or "de- pressive neurosis" on your exam—is a longstanding depressed mood; to qualify as dysthymic it should have existed for at least a year in children and adolescents or two years in adults. The depression from dysthymia is not as intense as that which oc- curs in clinical depression. In the behavioral sciences the word affiliation refers to the need one has to associate with others. Choice "c" correctly reflects the landmark research of Stanley Schachter, which concluded that the need to affiliate decreases for later-born children. (c)

182. Doing cross-cultural counseling a. makes counselors increasingly aware of cultural differ- ences. b. allows counselors to see that culture is merely a matter of semantics. c. is different since clients are more likely to return for help after the first session. d. allows counselors to ignore the concept of pluralism.

Choice "c" is incorrect. Preliminary studies, as I hinted at earlier, indicate that clients from other cultures do not use counseling as often as they could. Moreover, the dropout rate is premature, perhaps 20% higher after the initial session than relationships which are not intercultural. The concept of "pluralism" liter- ally means that an individual exists in more than one category. A condition known as "separatism" exists when a group of people totally withdraw from the political majority. Pluralism presents a less extreme option. Cultural pluralism occurs when persons of a cultural heritage retain their traditions and differences, yet cooperate in regard to social, political, and economic matters. In counseling per se, the term suggests that certain categories of individuals (e.g., women, older adults, minorities, alternative cultures, or the disabled) often need special services. An Asian American, for example, could feel torn between adhering to Asian culture while trying to become more Americanized. The counselor must show respect for these individuals in order to do effective treatment; hence, the notion of pluralism cannot be ignored. (a)

155. The literature suggests these factors as helpful in promoting therapeutic surrender: a. an analysis of cognitive dissonance. b. rapport, trust, listening, conquering client resistance, and self-disclosure. c. paradoxing the client. d. analyzing flight-to-health variables.

Choice "d" is an analytic concept which asserts that the client has improved too rapidly and the real difficulty (i.e., unconscious conflicts) has not been resolved. A similar term, flight from real- ity, is used when the client resorts to psychosis (i.e., losing touch with reality) to avoid dealing with current life difficulties. (b)

146. A counselor reading this book says, "I couldn't care less about passing the NCE or licensing exam." This a. is displacement. b. is an attempt to reduce dissonance via consistent cogni- tions. c. is an attempt to reduce dissonance by denial, thus mini- mizing tension. d. is projection.

Choices "a" and "d" are ego defense mechanisms. This topic is covered in the Helping Relationships section of this book. Choice "b" is incorrect since reading this book to pass the exam and not caring about passing are "inconsistent." (c)

193. An adept multicultural counselor a. generally believes in the melting pot concept. b. has a strong ethnocentric worldview. c. will not ask the client for information related to religion or level of faith development. d. usually supports the salad bowl model of diversity.

Choices "a," "b," and "c" are all characteristics of ineffective multicultural helpers leaving choice "d" as the lone hero. The melting pot concept—that different cultures assimilate or melt into the dominant culture—has been deemed a myth. The ethnocentric position holds that a given culture is the best or superior to others. The concept can also mean that the coun- selor falsely believes that the client views the world in the same manner as the helper. Efficacious helpers do attempt to elicit information regarding the client's religious and spiritual life. In the salad bowl analogy—preferred over the antiquated melting pot notion—people are mixed together, but like lettuce and to- matoes in a salad, they retain their unique cultural identity. (d)

189. A client tells his counselor that he has a choice of entering one of two prestigious PhD counseling programs. Kurt Lewin would call this an a. approach-avoidance conflict. b. approach-approach conflict. c. avoidance-avoidance conflict. d. avoidance vector.

Choices "a," "b," and "c" indicate the three basic categories of conflict which result in frustration. In the approach-approach format (suggested in this question) the individual is presented with two equally attractive options simultaneously. Of the three types, counselors believe that approach-approach is the easiest to help clients cope with since in most cases (unlike the situation presented in this question) the client can attempt both options: first one, then the other. Moreover, approach-approach conflicts typically instill less anxiety than the other two types. (b)

129. According to the foot-in-the-door technique, which has two dis- tinct steps, a counselor who needs to make a home visit to a resistant client's home a. should conduct the interview from the porch. b. should double-bind the client. c. should ask to come in the home. d. should exude accurate empathy, but never ask to enter the home.

Choices "a," "b," and "d" could be utilized; nonetheless, they do not describe the "foot-in-the-door" obedience technique. The phenomenon asserts that when a person agrees to a less repugnant request (step 1), then he or she will be more likely to comply with a request which is even more distasteful (step 2). Thus, a counselor who first asks to come in the house (a small request) and receives an answer of "yes," can then, for example, ask for medical information (a bigger request or so-called target request) related to a possible case of child abuse. Social science researchers report that trivial commitments lead to a so-called "momentum of compliance." The notion is generally related to a 1966 study by Freedman and Fraser in which housewives who were first asked to sign a safe driving petition were more apt to comply with the request to put a large "Drive Carefully" sign on their front lawns. The moral of the experiment is to always ask for a small favor and you'll have a better chance of getting a person to say "yes" when you ask for a bigger favor. Could a memory device which takes advantage of the fact that Freed- man and Fraser start with an "f" like the word foot help you to remember the researchers whose often-quoted studies support this principle? (c)

120. A popular balance theory in social psychology is cogni- tive dissonance theory. a. Dollard and Miller's b. Crites and Roe's c. Festinger's d. Holland and Super's

Choices "b" and "d" are names primarily associated with the career counseling movement. The concept of balance theory suggests that people strive for consistency/balance in terms of their belief systems. Simply put, individuals attempt to reduce or eliminate inconsistent or incompatible actions and beliefs. A state of incompatibility is known as "dissonance," which liter- ally means discord. Leon Festinger, in 1957, suggested that in- dividuals are motivated to reduce tension and discomfort, thus putting an end to the dissonance. A statement like, "I'd rather smoke three packs of cigarettes a day and enjoy myself than quit and live an extra year or two," would be an example of cognitive dissonance in action. The person in this example has "changed the balance" by making his or her thinking consistent. People don't like inconsistency in their thoughts. Dissonance is of- ten reduced using denial. Thus the individual who says, "Sure I smoke, but the research which suggests it is harmful is not ac- curate," is also practicing cognitive dissonance, since he or she is using a form of denial. (c)

125. A counselor who is part of a research study will be counseling clients in the Polar Regions and then at a point near the equator. Her primary concern will be a. universal culture. b. national culture. c. ecological culture. d. b and c.

Clemmont Vontress suggested that multicultural counselors would do well to remember that we are all part of a universal culture (choice "a"). We all have similar or universal needs (e.g., the hierarchy proposed by Maslow) and requirements for food, water, air, and sleep regardless of our cultural affiliation. Vontress noted that universal culture can be distinguished from national, regional, racioethnic, and ecological culture. Ecological culture implies that cultural norms are often the result of practical and survival behaviors related to the climate or the resources in a given physical or geological environment. Eating, drinking, clothing, and shelter behaviors would clearly be different in the Polar Regions than at the equator, desert region, or New York City. From a personal standpoint the counselor's primary con- cern would probably be the ecological culture, and choice "b" (national culture) would no doubt run a close second. (d)

162. To empathize is easiest with a. a client who is similar to you. b. a client who is dissimilar to you. c. lower-class Hispanic clients. d. upper-class Asian-American male clients.

Clients who have counselors of the same ethnicity tend to stay in counseling longer. See the last answer if this one seemed a tad difficult—ditto! (a)

177. The word personalism in the context of multicultural counseling means a. all people must adjust to environmental and geological demands. b. the counselor must adjust to the client's cultural mores. c. a counselor who personalizes the treatment is most effec- tive. d. biologically speaking, there is no reason why humans must adjust to environmental demands.

Culture must mold itself such that individuals can best thrive and survive in a given environment. Personalism implies that the counselor will make the best progress if he or she sees the cli- ent primarily as a person who has learned a set of survival skills rather than as a diseased patient. Fierce environmental condi- tions, such as living in a desert or a poverty-stricken neighbor- hood, cause individuals to cooperate with each other more and stick together as a group. This, nevertheless, can cause problems for the counselor who has never lived in a ghetto or a desert and hence is seen as an outsider. The "person," who has lived in the ghetto or the desert, will want to check out the counselor's authenticity as a "person," and a counselor who keeps his or her "professional distance" runs the risk of being seen as superficial. A comment such as, "You don't care about me, you just care about your paycheck (or "the agency," or "the court," or "your stupid report," etc.) indicates that the multicultural counselor is being perceived as remote and not very personal. This could create problems for the counselor since (a) in the United States "professionalism" is stressed more than "personalism" in the sense that a good counselor is not "supposed" to get very close to clients and if (b) the counselor has not necessarily grown up in a culture that stresses such a high level of interpersonal coopera- tion. (a)

121. Culture is really a set of rules, procedures, ideas, and values shared by members of a society. Culture is said to be normative. This implies that a. one culture will have norms which differ only slightly from another. b. culture excludes customs. c. culture provides individuals with standards of conduct. d. culture is never socially learned.

Cultures often differ markedly from each other, and most ex- perts would agree that the customs are nearly always learned and shared with members of the society. (c)

106. Which therapist was not instrumental in the early years of the social psychology movement? a. Freud b. Durkheim c. McDougall d. Berne

Eric Berne, the Father of Transactional Analysis (choice "d") is the only answer which makes sense here. Here's why. Freud (choice "a") is known for his influential 1921 book, Group Psy- chology and the Analysis of the Ego, which suggested that the group was held together by a bond between the leader and the group members that was seen as somewhat analogous to a hyp- notist and his or her subject. This is a bit far-fetched according to some, but clearly indicative of Freud's fascination with the power of hypnosis. The Frenchman Emile Durkheim (choice "b") is considered one of the founders of modern sociology. His principles were first outlined in his 1895 work, Rules of Sociolog- ical Method. He is also well-known for his research into suicide, which culminated in another literary work, Suicide, two years later. Durkheim is said to have taken group phenomena beyond the armchair speculation stage into formal research. William McDougall (choice "c") is the father of "Hormic Psychology," a Darwinian viewpoint which suggested that individuals in or out of groups are driven by innate, inherited tendencies. Although this approach began to lose ground after the behaviorist move- ment picked up steam, McDougall is well-remembered for his 1908 landmark work, Introduction to Social Psychology He also believed in the concept of eugenics or the notion that genetics (e.g., selective breeding of those with high intelligence) would improve the gene pool and the human condition. Unfortunately, this position has often viewed in a negative light and has been dubbed as "scientific rascism." (d)

128. In the 1920s, Emory Bogardus developed a social distance scale which evaluated a. socioeconomic trends. b. how an individual felt toward other ethnic groups. c. disadvantaged youth. d. language barriers between Blacks and Asians.

Ethnicity can be defined as that which pertains to a large group of individuals who are categorized by national, religious, linguis- tic, or cultural attributes. Measurement of attitudinal attributes began in the 1920s. The Bogardus data were indicative of nega- tive attitudes toward a number of groups, including Blacks, Jews, Mexicans, and Turks. A replication of the study in 1947 revealed that the negative attitudes still prevailed. (b)

198. Six persons attend a counseling group. After the group, five members praise the merits of a group activity assigned by the group leader. The sixth person, who has heard the opinion of the other five people, felt the activity was useless and boring. Ac- cording to studies on social behavior, about one third of the time the sixth individual would most likely tell the other five that a. he totally disagreed with their assessment. b. he too felt the group activity was very helpful. c. he really wasn't certain how he felt about the activity. d. a and c.

Experiments by Solomon Asch and Muzafer Sherif would pre- dict that the person would most likely "sell out" and agree with the other five. In one study Asch discovered that approximately 35% of the persons tested in a perceptual activity gave an answer which was clearly incorrect in order to conform! Social research- ers consistently have discovered that people will conform to an obviously incorrect unanimous decision one third of the time. Moreover, studies indicate that as few as three other people can abet conformity in a social setting. Who conforms the most? The answer includes individuals who are authoritarian and thus are heavily influenced by authority figures, people who are external approval seekers, and persons who feel that outside external fac- tors control them. (b)

114. helped to abet the multicultural counseling movement a. Arthur Jensen's views on IQ testing (also known as Jen- senism) b. The civil rights movement c. Jung's feeling that all men and women from all cultures possess a collective unconscious d. The Tarasoff Duty

First remember that intercultural counseling means the same thing as multicultural counseling. Jensen, choice "a," tried to prove that Blacks had lower IQs due to genetic factors, while the Tarasoff case mentioned in choice "d" resulted in the counselor's duty to warn an intended victim who might be the target of dan- ger or violence. (b)

124. was the first pioneer to focus heavily on sociocultural issues. a. Mark Savickas—a major figure in career counseling b. Alfred Adler—the Father of Individual Psychology c. Maxie Maultsby—the Father of Rational Behavior Ther- apy (RBT) d. Frank Parsons—the Father of Guidance, who wrote Choosing a Vocation

Frank Parsons and his associates are considered the first social reformers concerned with guidance in the United States. (d)

107. and would say that regardless of culture, humans have an instinct to fight. a. Maslow; Rogers b. Ellis; Harper c. Freud; Lorenz d. Glasser; Rogers

Freud believed that man was basically driven by the instincts of sex and aggression. Lorenz—partially basing his theory on the fact that certain tropical fish will attack an alternate target even when the actual target of aggression is removed—is another be- liever in the so-called "innate aggression theory." I find this logic a tad fishy when applied to the genus Homo sapiens. P.S. Mc- Dougall, mentioned in the previous question, could also join the ranks of Freud and Lorenz as an "instinct theorist." (c)

127. Early vocalization in infants a. is more complex in African-American babies. b. is more complex in Caucasian babies. c. is nearly identical in all cultures around the globe. d. is the finest indicator of elementary school performance.

From one side of the globe to the other, the initial sounds made by babies are very similar. The cultural environment then strength- ens certain verbalizations via the process of reinforcement. The first word usually is spoken after approximately one year of life. The child may use one- or two-word phrases (e.g., "me eat" or "I Betty") initially. These are known as "holophrases." Initially, the child's language is egocentric. By the fourth year most children can construct simple sentences. Children in middle-class homes usually have richer language patterns than those in lower socio- economic homes. Lack of environmental stimulation (referred to as an "unstimulating" environment on some exams) does in- deed hinder vocalization development. (c)

119. The frustration-aggression theory is associated with a. Albert Ellis. b. Robert Havighurst, who created the idea of the develop- mental task concept. c. Eric Berne, the creator of transactional analysis (TA). d. John Dollard and Neal Miller.

Frustration occurs when an individual is blocked so that he or she cannot reach an intended goal (or the goal is removed). The Dollard/Miller hypothesis asserts that frustration leads to ag- gression. Albert Ellis (note choice "a"), the Father of Rational- Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), does not agree with the theory. He feels that unfortunately many clients do indeed be- lieve that frustration causes aggression. Ellis maintains that this transpires due to the client's irrational thought process (i.e., actually believing it is true) rather than some automatic response pattern. Some social psychologists believe that when individuals lose their identity (sometimes called "deindividuation") they are likely to become aggressive or violent. It has been found that the presence of weapons raises the level of violence as well as the probability that it will occur. Counselors need to keep this in mind when dealing with suicidal and homicidal clients (e.g., an individual who owns a gun is more likely to turn his or her aggression against the self; firearms constitute the number one method of committing suicide in our country). (d)

145. A woman who is being robbed a. would probably get the most assistance in a crowd with a large number of bystanders. b. would find that the number of people who would respond to her distress actually decreases as the number of by- standers increases. c. would rarely have a bystander from a different race try to help her. d. none of the above.

Here is a principle which is often quoted: The number of people who will help a victim in distress decreases, and the time it will take to intervene increases, as the number of bystanders increas- es. Helping an individual in distress is generally called "altruism" in the literature. This same principle could conceivably apply in a psychological sense when you are working with groups and a client is the victim of scapegoating. (b)

103. Our culture is more diverse than in the past. Multicultural coun- selors often work with persons who are culturally different. This means the client a. is culturally biased. b. suffers from the diagnosis of cultural relativity. c. belongs to a different culture from the helper. d. presents problems which deal only with culturally charged issues.

Here is a very important distinction. Multicultural counselors work with the entire range of human difficulties just like other counselors. Yes, multicultural counselors do indeed deal fre- quently with cultural issues and therefore choices "a" and "b" could be true, but they are decidedly not the best answers. Choice "d" is easy enough to eliminate if you read it careful- ly and noted the word only. Let's zero in for a moment on the term noted in choice "b," cultural relativity, also described as cultural relativism on some exams. Cultural relativity connotes that a behavior cannot be assessed as good or bad except within the context of a given culture. The behavior must be evaluated relative to the culture. In the United States, for example, teen pregnancy prior to marriage is considered a negative behavior and viewed as a difficulty. In other parts of the world premarital pregnancy may be seen as something which is positive because it establishes the woman's fertility. Such a woman may even be de- scribed as more "marriageable." The multicultural counselor must assess the client's behavior based on the client's own culture—not merely based on the counselor's culture. The meaning or desirability of a given behavior, trait, or act is based on the culture. It is said that effective counselors must transcend the "culture-bound values" barrier in which the counselor is "bound" to his or her own values and tries to impose them on clients. (c)

200. A Japanese client who was reluctant to look you in the eye dur- ing her counseling session would most likely be displaying a. severe negative transference. b. positive transference. c. normal behavior within the context of her culture. d. ambivalent transference.

Here is where a knowledge of culture would come in handy. Asians are often brought up with the belief that it is a sign of respect to avoid eye contact with an authority figure. In addition, it is considered proper to talk no more than is necessary, which of course is not congruent with the way most Americans think. Moreover, many Asian clients have been taught that it is shame- ful to brag or to express one's own desires, ambitions, or strong feelings. This background could well present a roadblock for a counselor operating under a paradigm that stresses abreaction. Some Asians have been brought up to believe that all problems are solved only within the privacy of family meetings. If mental illness does exist, it is considered a genetic flaw and a family se- cret. Hence, Asians place a very high premium on self-control, which is an issue that can be examined in counseling. Thus, Sue and Sue suggested that Asian Americans respond best to brief therapy that is directive and structured with specific problem- solving goals. Often our somewhat scientific approaches to coun- seling really reflect what mainstream American society views as real or scientific. Hispanic Americans (meaning of Spanish ori- gin and sometimes referred to as Latinos or Latinas in some of the literature) often value folk healing which is very spiritual, such as going into a trancelike state and talking with God. (c)

170. A practicum supervisor who says to his or her supervisee, "You can deal with your Asian-American clients the same as you deal with anybody else," is espousing the a. emic viewpoint. b. alloplastic viewpoint. c. etic viewpoint, derived from the term phonetic referring to sounds that remain the same in any language. d. autoplastic viewpoint.

Here's help for those of you who came up empty-handed in terms of snaring a suitable memory device (and hence may have struggled with the question). I like to remember that "etic," which sports a "t," and sounds remarkably similar to "etiquette," is similar in the sense that when practicing etiquette we prac- tice good manners with all individuals whether they are Black, White, Asian, and so on. Likewise, counselors who espouse the etic viewpoint will use the same strategies and techniques on virtually any client. In this case, for example, the Asian client will be treated no differently from an American, a Native Ameri- can, a French Canadian, or for that matter anybody else. Actually the etic distinction also reminds me of the educational concept of "mainstreaming," which asserts that all children—even those with disabilities and handicaps—can benefit from placement in a regular classroom. But just when you thought the coast was clear you were confronted with another distinction or dilemma (see choices "b" and "d") for the multicultural helper. (c)

130. Most countries have an official language, a stated viewpoint, and a central government. This is reflected mainly by a. national culture. b. human culture. c. regional culture. d. ecological culture.

Hint: Although choice "b" is not the correct answer, don't let it throw you if your exam refers to "universal culture" as "human culture." The above statement best describes national culture. Big business and high-tech media are lessening the gap between national cultures. In this day and age an individual living on the opposite side of the earth could be wearing the same prestigious pair of designer jeans as you. Thus, some experts have suggested that traditional cultures will eventually be supplanted by a "uni- fied world culture" or a "unified global culture." As of late, the term third cultures has been used to describe financial markets, international law, and other elements which transcend national culture. (a)

108. believe that aggression is learned. Thus, a child who witnesses aggressive behavior in adults may imitate the aggres- sive behavior. a. Instinct theorists b. Innate aggression theorists c. Social learning theorists d. Followers of Erik Erikson

If you marked choices "a" or "b" then it's crystal clear that you are not reading the answers carefully enough. Review the last question. The social learning theory contradicts the "innate/in- stinct aggression theory" by emphasizing the environment rather than genetics or inborn tendencies. This model is generally associated with the work of Albert Bandura and his associates, who noted that children who viewed live or filmed aggression imi- tated the behavior. This is known as social learning theory or observational learning. The phenomenon is greatest when the adult is admired, powerful, or well-liked. Hmmm. I wonder how many television personalities, rock stars, and sports figures are keeping abreast of the findings in social psychology? Just for the record, adolescents often model angry or aggressive parents, even in homes where the parents discourage hostile behavior. (c)

143. In the United States, a frequent practice is to see a perfect stranger for therapy. a. This trend seems to be true in any area of the world. b. This is true for LPCs but not true for MSW therapists. c. This is true for LPCs and MSWs but not clinical psychol- ogists. d. However, in other cultures it would not be the norm to see a stranger and receive pay for providing help.

In E. Fuller Torrey's thought-provoking book, The Mind Game: Witch Doctors and Psychiatrists, he explains that in Nigeria, helpers have accepted a female client as a wife in lieu of a fee! He also notes that in other cultures a therapist cannot accept a fee unless the treatment is successful. (d)

158. According to assimilation-contrast theory, a client will perceive a counselor's statement that is somewhat like his or her own be- liefs as even more similar (i.e., an assimilation error). He or she would perceive any dissimilar attitudes as a. even more dissimilar (i.e., a contrast error). b. standardization. c. similar to his or her own. d. paraphrasing.

In any case, if a counselor is highly regarded and trustworthy, his or her statements will be better accepted than if the helper has poor credibility. (a)

118. A wealth of research demonstrates that a. surprisingly enough, African Americans generally request Asian counselors. b. surprisingly enough, Asians generally request African- American counselors. c. in most instances, clients prefer a counselor of the same race and a similar cultural background. d. in most instances, clients prefer a counselor of the same race, yet a different culture.

In multicultural counseling, "likes attract." Social psychologists who have studied attraction tell us that similarity increases at- traction. The phrase "in most instances" was intentional. Re- search demonstrates that if the other person is a member of a different nationality, race, or culture but is perceived as "similar" (i.e., more like you than someone of the same race and culture), then you still will be more attracted to the individual perceived as "similar" despite race or cultural barriers. (c)

_______is associated with obedience and authority. a. Stanley Milgram, a noted psychologist, b. Arthur Janov, who created Primal Scream therapy, c. A. T. Beck, a cognitive therapy pioneer, d. Robert Harper, a pioneer in the REBT bibliotherapy movement,

In one of the most shocking and frightening investigations of all time, Milgram discovered that people who were told to give oth- ers powerful electric shocks did so on command. Subjects were told that they were to punish a learner strapped to an electric chair when he gave an incorrect answer. Out of 40 experimental subjects, only 14 refused to go to the highest level of shock (i.e., in excess of 435 volts)! And get this—in some of the experiments the persons administering the shocks (which, unbeknownst to them, were unreal) were actually given a 45-volt shock them- selves so they could feel the intensity of this punishment. So much for accurate empathy! Even when the subjects heard the person receiving the shocks screaming they often continued to raise the level of voltage when told to do so. This principle is of- ten used to explain "obedience to authority" in social situations such as the Salem witch hunts or Nazi war crimes. Fortunately, follow-up research indicated that most of the individuals who participated in the Milgram experiment did not feel they were harmed by the experience. (a)

153. Overall, Rogerian person-centered counseling a. is rarely utilized in cross-cultural counseling. b. is too nondirective for intercultural counseling. c. a and b. d. has been used more than other models to help promote understanding between cultures and races.

In the 1970s, Rogers conducted workshops to enhance cross- cultural communication. People from all over the world par- ticipated. Person-centered techniques are popular in Japan. Person-centered therapy is nonjudgmental and thus is consid- ered a superb modality for multicultural/multiracial usage. The exception (mentioned earlier) could occur when counseling an ethnic or racial group that demands structure or authority from a helper. Lower-class clients generally view the helper as an ad- vice giver. Estimates indicate that approximately 50% of all eth- nic minority clients quit counseling after the first session feeling they will not secure what they want from the helper. (d)

169. Multicultural counselors often adhere to the emic viewpoint. The word emic a. is associated with the Supreme Court decision of 1954 outlawing segregation. b. suggests that all clients are alike regardless of culture. c. is associated with Rational Behavior Therapy (RBT). d. is a "culture specific" perspective, from the word phone- mic meaning sounds in a particular language.

J. G. Draguns suggested the emic-etic distinction in cross-cul- tural counseling. Emic can be defined as an insider's per- ception of the culture. A researcher or counselor using an emic frame of reference wants to know what somebody participating in the culture thinks. The emic viewpoint emphasizes that each client is an individual with individ- ual differences, while the etic view adheres to the theory that humans are humans—regardless of background and culture—thus, the same theories and techniques can be applied to any client the counselor helps. Hence, a counsel- or who values the "emic" view will try to help clients by under- standing the client's specific culture, while the "etic" counselor emphasizes the sameness among clients—a universalism perspective—that literally transcends cultural boundar- ies. Universal helping principles transcend culture. The "etic" counselor would not alter his or her technique when working with a client from a different culture or a minority group. Dis- tinctions such as etic/emic are often easiest to remember if you rely on a memory device. Can you come up with one? (d)

156. In terms of trust and therapeutic surrender, a. it is easier to trust people from one's own culture. b. lower-class people often don't trust others from a higher social class. c. lower-class clients may feel that they will end up as losers dealing with a counselor from a higher social class. d. all of the above.

Language barriers, on the part of the client or the counselor, intensify the difficulty of therapeutic surrender. One good tech- nique is to steer clear of slang or fancy therapeutic jargon and try to speak in a clear, concise, and direct manner. (d)

112. The term contextualism implies that a. multicultural counseling is the oldest subspecialty in the profession. b. behavior must be assessed in the context of the culture in which the behavior occurs. c. the notion of worldview is highly inaccurate. d. projective tests are more accurate than objective mea- sures when performing cross-cultural counseling.

Let's dispense of choice "a" by pointing out that although Frank Parsons, the Father of Guidance, acknowledged the significance of culture, it did not really begin to emerge as a true accepted subspecialty until the 1970s. A person's perception of his or her relationship to the world as a whole is often termed a worldview. Choice "b" is a textbook definition of contextualism. (b)

160. Counselors who have good listening skills a. facilitate therapeutic surrender. b. hinder therapeutic surrender. c. often have a monolithic perspective. d. are too nondirective to promote therapeutic surrender.

Let's place choice "c" under our trusty microscopes for just a moment. A monolithic perspective indicates that the coun- selor perceives all the people in a given group (say Afri- can Americans or Hispanic/Latino/a Americans) as being identical—hey, not a good thing folks! Counselors are urged to adopt an individualistic, rather than a monolithic perspective. Good listening facilitates any type of helping. (a)

110. Daniel Levinson proposed a theory with several major life tran- sitions. He a. is the Father of Multicultural Counseling. b. wrote the 1978 classic Seasons of a Man's Life and the sequel Seasons of a Woman's Life in 1997. c. postulated a midlife crisis for men between ages 40-45 and for women approximately five years earlier. d. b and c.

Middle-aged readers: listen up! Subsequent research indicates that Levinson's theory of a midlife crisis for men or for women doesn't really hold water. Levinson's theory, originally derived by interviewing middle-aged men from different backgrounds, suggested three major transitions. Levinson provides no statisti- cal analysis. The first transition is known as early adult transition and is said to occur between the ages of 17 and 22. In this stage the individual makes decisions about college, the military, and breaking away from one's parents. This is the "leaving the family stage." A dream of the ideal adult life is formulated. Next, he proposes the age 30 transition (ages 28-33) in which the person attempts to make the dream a reality. After this stage the man experiences a. settling down period. Next, comes the midlife transition (ages 40-45 or approximately five years earlier for women). This stage is seen as stressful. The person questions his dream and acknowledges that goals may not be met. Moreover, one's mortality becomes an issue (i.e., being young versus be- ing old). An age 50 transition occurs. The final transition is later adulthood (ages 60 to 65) where the individual makes peace with the world. (d)

166. A monolingual U.S. counselor a. speaks only English. b. speaks English and Spanish. c. works as a counseling interpreter. d. fits the definition of bilingual.

Mono literally means "one" or "single." Persons who are bilin- gual (i.e., speak two languages) can be employed as counselors or interpreters to facilitate efficacious intervention. In order to reduce the difficulty introduced by "semantic differential" and "connotative errors"—mentioned in the answer to the previous question—the bilingual individual would ideally be bicultural (i.e., have familiarity with the culture of the counselor and the client). (a)

123. Mores are beliefs a. regarding the rightness or wrongness of behavior. b. which should be the central focus in multicultural coun- seling. c. that are conscious decisions made by persons in power. d. that are identical with the folkways in the culture.

Mores—the plural of mos, which is rarely used in the literature—develop as a given group decides what is good and bad for the welfare of the people. People are generally punished for violating the mores. On an exam you may be asked to dis- tinguish "folkways" (see choice "d") from mores. Folkways, like mores, describe correct, normal, or habitual behavior. The difference is that breaking folkways generally results in embarrassment, while breaking mores causes harm to others or threatens the existence of the group. If, for example, you are an American and you drink a large bowl of soup directly from a soup bowl rather than using a spoon, then you have violated an American folkway. Your behavior won't really win you friends or positive- ly influence people, but you won't be asked to spend time in a maximum security correction facility either. If, on the other hand, you kill three people and rob a bank, you have violated mores and your behavior could indeed result in serious punishment. Some of the literature does not attempt to describe mores as a separate entity but rather as a type of folkway, and thus choice "d" isn't really that far off the mark. If you're looking for a simple memory device, why not try the fact that "mores" begins with an "m" as does the word "morals." Mores are behaviors that are based on morals. If you drink your soup out of a large bowl or pot, you may be in violation of an American folkway or in dire need of a course in etiquette, though I doubt whether your friends will classify you as immoral! Keep in mind that in other cultures a behavior such as this might not be in violation of a folkway. For example, in some Japanese cultures it is considered good table manners to drink soup out of a bowl as if it were a cup. As I pointed out earlier when I mentioned the concept of cultural relativism: a behavior can only be judged within the context of a person's culture. (a)

168. Multicultural counseling promotes a. eclecticism. b. rigidity. c. psychodynamic models. d. neurolinguistic programming.

Most experts would insist that choice "a" is best inasmuch as in- tercultural counselors need to be flexible. An "eclectic" position (i.e., selecting treatment intervention strategies from diverse counseling models) would generally come closest to meeting this requirement. (a)

135. Regardless of culture, the popular individual a. has good social skills. b. values race over ethnicity. c. dresses in the latest styles. d. never possesses a modal personality.

My best guess would be that most of you correctly chose the best alternative (choice "a") based on common sense. So save your money on clothes (choice "c") and fine tune your social skills! The only thing which might have made the question difficult was the introduction of the term modal personality in choice "d." The term—derived from the statistical concept of the mode, which is used to describe the score which occurs most frequent- ly—refers to a composite personality, which is the most typical profile of a given group of people. A modal personality is the personality which is characteristic or typical of the group in question. (a)

164. A client from another culture will a. talk to the counselor the same as he or she would to a peer. b. speak to the counselor differently from the way he or she would when speaking to someone of his or her own back- ground. c. generally use slang on purpose to confuse the counselor. d. generally play dumb to receive the counselor's sympathy.

Often individuals are courteous and polite with those who are of the same cultural origin, but are suspicious and don't trust outsiders. (b)

197. In terms of research related to affiliation a. misery loves miserable company. b. firstborns are more likely to affiliate than other children born later. c. people affiliate in an attempt to lower fear. d. all of the above.

Often the statement is made that misery loves more than com- pany; it loves miserable company. Stanley Schachter set up an experiment in which subjects were informed that they were go- ing to receive a very painful electrical shock (high anxiety), or a very weak one which would merely tingle. The subjects were told that they could wait alone for 10 minutes before receiv- ing the shock or wait with others participating in the study. Of those subjects who were told they would receive a mere "tingle" only one third chose to wait with others, while over 62% of the high-anxiety group decided to do so. Follow-up research seems to indicate that a person with high anxiety will not choose to be with others unless the other individuals are in a similar sit- uation. Samoff and Zimbardo discovered in a 1961 study that males placed in extremely embarrassing situations in which they would need to act like infants were much less willing to affili- ate with others going through the same thing. One interpreta- tion would be that individuals are more comfortable sharing real fear than anxiety which could result in embarrassment or shame. This research is somewhat similar to Leon Festinger's "Theory of Social Comparison," which postulates that people have a need to compare themselves with others to assess their own abilities and options. The theory further asserts that we will compare ourselves to others who are basically similar to us. Important reminder: Researchers in the field of counseling are some- what critical of most psychosocial experiments since the experimental situations are often artificial and the studies lack external validity, which is the ability to help under- stand behavior outside the experimental setting. (d)

159. When counseling a client from a different culture, a common error is made when negative transference a. is interpreted as positive transference. b. is interpreted as therapeutic resistance. c. is interpreted as White privilege. d. none of the above.

Okay, there are some terms you just have to know for this section of the exam and one of those terms (note choice "c") is White privilege. The term has been used to focus on the special advan- tages, privileges, and opportunities that nonwhites don't have. Since transference relates to incidents which occurred prior to treatment, such issues must be distinguished from the current helping relationship. This is sometimes difficult to accomplish. (b)

116. When a counselor speaks of what he or she believes must tran- spire from a psychotherapeutic standpoint, he or she technically is referring to a. recommendations. b. the diagnosis. c. the prognosis. d. the notion of transference.

One difficulty with formal diagnosis (i.e., using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of the American Psychiatric Asso- ciation) is that a given diagnosis does not imply or recommend a given treatment process. The DSM will not tell you, for example, to treat a major depression with reality therapy or an adjustment disorder with mixed emotional features using a client-centered approach. (a)

184. In social psychology, the sleeper effect asserts that a. sleep learning facilitates social skills. b. after a period of time, one forgets the communicator but remembers the message. c. after a period of time, one remembers the communicator but forgets the message. d. REM sleep facilitates insight.

Perhaps more importantly, the so-called sleeper effect asserts that when you are attempting to change someone's opinion the change may not occur immediately after the verbal exchange. In other words, when a counselor provides guidance to a cli- ent a delay may occur before the client accepts the message. The communication may have more impact after some time has passed. (b)

187. Milgram discovered that normal people would administer seem- ingly fatal electric shocks to others when instructions to do so were given by a person perceived as a. a peer. b. an equal. c. an individual from another culture. d. an authority figure.

Prior to the experiment, psychiatrists predicted that only 1% would administer the highest level of shock. In reality, 62% dished out "fatal shock punishment" in response to an incorrect answer. If the experimental authority figure was in the room, the tendency to obey was higher than if he or she was not physically present. In a related study by Bickman, individuals told to give a dime or a paper bag to a stranger did so twice as often when the person giving the orders was dressed as a guard rather than a peer. (d)

115. When a counselor speaks of a probable outcome in a case, he or she is technically referring to a. the prognosis. b. the diagnosis. c. the intervention. d. attending behavior.

Prognosis refers to the probability that one can recover from a condition. When dictating on cases the counselor would do well to discuss the length of treatment and the status expected at the end of treatment. (a)

111. The three factors which enhance interpersonal attraction are a. assertiveness, anxiety, ego strength. b. close proximity, physical attraction, similar beliefs. c. culture, race, assertiveness. d. ego strength, anxiety, race.

Proxemics, or the study of proximity, relates to person- al space, interpersonal distance, and territoriality. Leon Festinger discovered that friendship and attraction were high- est for apartment dwellers living next door to each other. Social psychologists refer to the tendency for people who are in close proximity (say working at the same office or living close) to be attracted to each other as propinquity. The attraction waned even among people living two or three doors away. Although we like attractive people, the research shows that we generally end up with mates who are on our own level of attractiveness. Studies have literally shown that voters prefer at- tractive candidates though they are unaware of their bias. I often do a mini-experiment in my classes in which I pass out a picture of a very attractive individual and one who is very plain. I then ask the class to rate both individuals in regard to IQ and salary. True to the research, my class generally gives the good-looking individual an inflated IQ and salary. Studies also indicate that at- tractive people fare better in legal altercations (yes, even when they have committed a crime). Moreover, they are more likely to receive help during a time of need, and they are better able to sway the opinions of an audience. Compliments, or what some of the literature refers to as "rewardingness" (a genuine caring), could also be added to the list of factors which helps to intensify attraction. (b)

136. Social exchange theory postulates that a. a relationship will endure if both parties are assertive. b. a relationship will endure if the rewards are greater than the costs. c. a relationship will endure if both parties are sexually at- tracted to each other. d. men work harder to keep a relationship strong.

Social exchange theory assumes that rewards are things or fac- tors we like, while costs are things we dislike. The theory assumes that a positive relationship is characterized by "profit": Reward minus cost equals profit. Some counselors are under- standably turned off by this "vest pocket definition of relation- ships" based on behavioral psychology and economic theory. A client who says to a family member, "As long as I pay the bills, you'll do your chores," is basing a relationship on rewards and costs. An alternative explanation of relationships is provided by the "complementarity theory," which states that a relationship becomes stronger as the two people's personality needs mesh. The word complementary indicates that one personality can make up what is lacking or missing in the other personality. For example, according to this theory, a dominant man and a non- dominant woman would have a fine chance of relating well to- ward each other. (b)

104. In order to diagnose clients from a different culture a. the counselor ideally will need some information regard- ing the specifics of the culture. b. the counselor will find the DSM useless. c. the counselor will find the ICD diagnosis useless. d. NBCC ethics prohibit the use of DSM diagnosis when counseling clients from another culture.

Some of the literature in this area distinguishes "material culture" (e.g., books, paintings, homes, and tools) from what is termed "nonmaterial culture" (e.g., customs, values, humor, social ideas, or traditions). Some exams will refer to material culture items as "artifacts." In any case, the current trend in counseling suggests that the counselor must understand cultural factors. This trend is known as "cultural awareness" and it is contrasted by a posi- tion of "cultural tunnel vision." A good cross-cultural counselor will not impose his or her values on a client from a different cultural perspective. Another term you may see on an exam is culture epoch theory which suggests that all cultures—like chil- dren—pass through the same stages of development in terms of evolving and maturing. In regard to choice "d," ethics stipulate that counselors must incorporate "culturally relevant techniques into their practice" and should acquire "cultural sensitivity" to client populations served. The appropriateness of a given DSM diagnosis is not specifically addressed. Nevertheless, experts seem to agree on the fact that the DSM is most applicable to those of European descent. (a)

194. A classic experiment in social psychology was conducted by the social psychologist Muzafer Sherif et al. at the boys' summer camp near Robbers Cave, Oklahoma. The important finding in this study was that a. most people cooperate in a social setting. b. competition plays a small role in most of our lives. c. a and b. d. a cooperative goal can bring two hostile groups together, thus reducing competition and enhancing cooperation.

Sometimes loosely called the "Robbers' Cave experiment," this study set up two distinct groups of 11-year-old boys who were hostile toward each other. The study concluded that the most ef- fective way to reduce hostility between groups was to give them an alternative goal which required a joint effort and could not be accomplished by a single group. (d)

132. Ethnocentrism a. uses one's own culture as a yardstick to measure all others. b. means race. c. is a genetic term. d. all of the above.

Statements like "superior race," "savages," "backward people," or "the chosen few" capture the essence of the concept of eth- nocentrism. In short, all societies are ethnocentric in the sense that they use their own view as a standard of reference and view themselves as superior. Again, ethnocentrism conveys the notion that one's own group is superior. (a)

163. In cross-cultural counseling, structuring is very important. This concept asserts that counseling is most effective a. when structured exercises are utilized. b. when a counselor takes an active-directive stance. c. when nondirective procedures are emphasized. d. when the nature and structure of the counseling situation is described during the initial session.

Structure has a number of meanings in the field of professional counseling (see the Groups section of this book for additional meanings). In the context of multicultural counseling, structure indicates that the counselor will explain the role of the helper as well as the role of the helpee. This helps ward off embarrass- ment and further enhances the effectiveness of the counseling process. The greater the social/cultural gap, the more impor- tant the need for structuring. Despite the merits of the Rogerian model, some would claim that it falls short of the ideal paradigm when a high degree of structure is the treatment of choice. As mentioned earlier, clients from other cultures can harbor gross misconceptions of what represents the helping process. (d)

140. Most experts would agree that a multicultural counselor's diag- nosis a. must be performed without regard to cultural issues. b. must be done within a cultural context. c. a and b. d. none of the above.

The "cultural approach to normality" suggests that the behavior of the majority of the people defines what is considered "nor- mal." An important point to note, however, is that deviant be- havior, such as in the case of a very powerful leader or a genius, may be lauded. (b)

172. A counselor is confronted with his or her first Native-American client. Native Americans (also called American Indians or In- dian Americans on exams) are descendents of the original inhab- itants of North America. After the initial session, the counselor secures several books which delineate the cultural aspects of Na- tive-American life. She discovers that there are over 560 feder- ally recognized tribes and that there are nearly 3 million Native Americans in the United States. This counselor most likely be- lieves in the a. emic viewpoint. b. alloplastic viewpoint. c. etic viewpoint. d. autoplastic viewpoint.

The "emic" view holds that an approach which is culturally spe- cific is generally the most effective. Exam hint: Native Ameri- cans are sometimes classified as American Indians or Alaskan Natives. (a)

109. The APGA, which became the AACD until 1992 and is now the ACA, contributed to the growth of cross-cultural counseling by a. the 1972 formation of the Association for Non-White Concerns in Personnel and Guidance, later known as the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Develop- ment. b. the 1972 ethic which made it unethical to see culturally different clients without three hours of relevant graduate work in this area. c. the 1972 ethic which required a 3,000-hour practicum in order to work with culturally different clients. d. urging nonwhites to take graduate counseling courses.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (P.L. 88-352) prohibiting discrimi- nation for reasons of gender, race, religion, or national origin was instrumental in terms of setting the stage for minority con- cerns. (a)

126. Biological similarities and sameness are indicated by a. ecological culture. b. mores. c. regional and national culture. d. universal culture.

The Human Genome Project has verified that biologically we are all more alike than different. The adept multicultural coun- selor will always keep in mind that he or she—like the client—is a product of universal culture. (d)

191. A male client tells his counselor that he is attracted to a gorgeous woman who is violent and chemically dependent. This creates an a. approach-avoidance conflict. b. avoidance-avoidance conflict. c. avoidance of life space. d. approach affiliation.

The approach-avoidance conflict presents a positive factor (a terrific-looking woman) with a negative factor (she is a substance abuser prone to violent behavior) at the same time. Most counsel- ors would agree this is the toughest type of conflict for the client to tackle as it generates the highest level of frustration. (a)

131. Whereas a culture is defined primarily via norms and values, a society differs from a culture in that a society a. is defined as a set of mores. b. has a distinct lack of norms. c. is a self-perpetuating independent group which occupies a definitive territory. d. none of the above.

The boundaries of a culture and a society are not the same. Cul- tures operate within societies; however, all members of a given society may not share the same culture. (c)

199. The client who would most likely engage in introspection would be a a. 52-year-old single African-American male school admin- istrator. b. 49-year-old Caucasian homeless male. c. 40-year-old divorced Caucasian female who is out of work and has three children. d. 19- year-old Hispanic mother on welfare with two chil- dren.

The key to this question is to focus on social class rather than acculturation (i.e., integrating one's own cultural beliefs and behaviors with the dominant culture), minority status, or sex. Clients in higher social classes have more time to "look within themselves" (introspect) since they need not dwell as much on external survival needs. (a)

178. A client whose counselor pushes the alloplastic viewpoint may believe his counselor is simply a. too Rogerian. b. attacking the system. c. too Freudian. d. too cognitive.

The salient point here is that generally a synthesis, rather than a pure alloplastic or autoplastic position, will be the most effec- tive. (b)

102. Culture refers to a. customs shared by a group which distinguish it from other groups. b. values shared by a group that are learned from others in the group. c. attitudes, beliefs, art, and language which characterize members of a group. d. all of the above.

The sum of choices "a," "b," and "c" add up to a wonderful little definition of culture. A person's culture can really be delineated by those customs which set him or her apart from another cul- ture. Immigrants or persons who must live in a culture which is different from their native culture often experience "culture conflict." By definition culture conflict manifests itself whenever a person experiences conflicting thoughts, feelings, or behaviors due to divided cultural loyalties (i.e., loyalty to two or more cul- tures). Culture conflict also can describe the difficulties which arise when persons of different cultures live in the same geo- graphical area. How will you know which definition of cultural conflict applies to a test question? Well, the only good answer is that you must read every question very carefully in order to fer- ret out the context of the question. Hint: The term macroculture or majority culture on com- prehensive exams refers to the dominant culture or the culture that is accepted by the majority of citizens in a given society. (d)

149. In the United States, middle- and upper-class citizens seem to want a counselor who a. will give them "a good talking to." b. gives a specific and steady stream of advice. c. helps them work it out on their own. d. is highly authoritarian and autocratic.

The theory here is that middle- and upper-class citizens are taught that independence is a virtue. The person would not want to be dependent on a therapist, parents, or others, as is implied in choices "a," "b," and "d." (c)

154. In intercultural/multicultural counseling the term therapeutic surrender means a. nothing—it is not a valid term. b. most therapists will give up in 16 sessions or less if prog- ress is not evident. c. the client psychologically surrenders himself or herself to a counselor from a different culture and becomes open with feelings and thoughts. d. the therapist assumes a passive therapeutic stance.

Therapeutic surrender occurs when a client is able to trust the counselor and self-discloses. Contrary to choice "a," the term is used frequently in intercultural counseling. (c)

175. African-American ghetto clients are generally a. very open and honest with their feelings. b. the most amenable group in regard to psychotherapeutic intervention. c. a and b. d. not very open with their feelings.

They are often taught not to trust the establishment. A lack of trust usually results in a lack of openness and self-disclosure.(d)

138. Most individuals believe that people whom they perceive as at- tractive a. are nonassertive. b. are aggressive. c. have other positive traits. d. are socially adept but not very intelligent.

This can cause the professional counselor difficulty if he or she tends to minimize a client's problems merely because he or she is good-looking. For example, a thought such as "with looks like that she is no doubt the life of the party" demonstrates how the counselor erroneously assumes that a woman who is goodlooking will have good social skills and feel comfortable at a so- cial gathering. Clients—like books—cannot be judged by their covers, yet this tendency is quite common. (c)

148. In the case of the individual who purchased the $20,000 watch, cognitive dissonance theory postulates that a. he or she might ignore positive information regarding other models and secure a lot of information regarding the $20,000 platinum model. b. he or she might sell the $20,000 watch immediately fol- lowing the purchase. c. he or she might focus heavily on negative information re- garding rival models. d. a and c.

This is a tough question since the alternatives are a bit complex. Remember: cognitive dissonance theory predicts that the person will look for things which are consistent with his or her behavior. Is choice "a" consistent? Of course; yet choice "c" is also possible since the individual could ignore positive at- tributes of the competition (i.e., choice "a") or maximize their negative features (i.e., choice "c"). Counselors should keep in mind that consistency is considered a desirable personality trait in most cultures. (d)

183. F. H. Allport created the concept of social facilitation. According to this theory, an individual who is given the task of memorizing a list of numbers will a. perform better if he or she is alone. b. perform better if he or she is part of a group. c. perform better if he or she has undergone psychotherapy. d. perform better if he or she is an auditory learner.

This is indeed an interesting phenomenon. The presence of oth- er persons (e.g., coworkers, other athletes, fellow students,) im- proves an individual's performance even when there is no verbal interaction! (b)

117. Some research suggests that very poor economic conditions cor- relate very highly with a. passivity. b. nonassertive behavior. c. a and b. d. aggression.

This is not a new phenomenon. Research indicates that in the late 1800s and the first 30 years of the 20th century lynchings in the South increased as cotton prices dropped! (d)

180. A client remarks, "Hey, I'm Black and it's nearly impossible to hide it." This is illustrative of the fact that a. race is not the same as ethnicity. b. African Americans struggle when expressing feelings. c. a connotative impediment exists. d. severe ambivalent transference exists.

This question attempts to see whether you can discern race from ethnicity. The assumption here is that you can generally see ra- cial differences since they are the result of genetics. If a client really made this type of statement, the counselor might wish to deal directly with the racial issue. The counselor could inquire, "In what way do you feel that the fact that I'm White and you're Black will affect the counseling process?" Experts often assert that such a question should be asked no later than the second session. Choice "d" would not be totally outlandish, although the question does not provide enough information to make it the best choice. (a)

173. An Asian counselor says to an African-American client, "If you're unhappy with the system, get out there and rebel. You can change the system." This is the viewpoint for cop- ing with the environment. a. emic viewpoint b. alloplastic viewpoint c. etic viewpoint d. autoplastic viewpoint

This question is testing your knowledge of the autoplastic/allo- plastic dilemma in intercultural helping. The "autoplastic" view asserts that change comes from within, while the "alloplastic" conceptualization is that the client can cope best by changing or altering external factors in the environment (as alluded to in this question). Memory devices, anyone? (b)

161. Counselors can more easily advise a. clients from their own culture. b. clients from a different culture. c. clients of a different race. d. clients utilizing ethnocentric statements.

To persuade someone is easiest when he or she has similar views, ideas, and background to one's own. It is entirely possible that a client of a different culture has been taught not to trust persons with the counselor's cultural background. (a)

174. A young Hispanic male is obviously the victim of discrimination. His counselor remarks, "I hear what you are saying and I will help you change your thinking so this will not have such a pro- found impact on you." In this case the counselor had suggested a. an alloplastic method of coping. b. an autoplastic method of coping. c. the emic-etic distinction. d. the emic viewpoint.

Try this memory device on for size. The word auto generally refers to changing the "self" rather than altering the environ- ment. Consider the technique of "autosuggestion" or "autohyp- nosis," or how about the act of writing an "autobiography?" In each of the aforementioned cases, the person works to create the project, solve the difficulty, or, simply put, change the self. In the "autoplastic" approach the counselor helps the client change him- or herself (as in this question). And if you think of a more elegant memory device—then I say "go for it!" It will come in mighty handy on the test date! (b)

141. A counselor who is seeing a client from a different culture would most likely expect social conformity than he or she would from a client from his or her own culture. a. less b. more c. the same d. more realistic

We demand more rigid standards from our own culture. (a)

190. When a person has two negative alternatives, it is called an a. approach-approach conflict. b. approach vector. c. avoidance-avoidance conflict. d. avoidance cohesiveness.

When a client says, "I don't know whether to pay the hefty fine or go to jail," he is struggling with an avoidance-avoidance conflict in which both choices are undesirable, to say the least. Clients in this position often daydream, flee from the situation, or regress instead of confronting the choices. The client also may waver or vacillate when he or she comes close to making a choice. (c)