Chapter 5: Learning

Model

an organism that engages in a response that is then imitated by another organism

Primary reinforcer

an unlearned reinforcer whose effectiveness is based on the biological makeup of the organism and not on learning

Orienting reflex

an unlearned response in which an organism attends to a stimulus

Law of effect

Thorndike's view that pleasant events stamp in responses, and unpleasant events stamp them out

Flooding

a behavioral fear-reduction technique based on principles of classical conditioning; fear-evoking stimuli (CSs) are presented continuously in the absence of actual harm so that fear responses (CRs) are extinguished

Systematic desensitization

a behavioral fear-reduction technique in which a hierarchy of fear-evoking stimuli is presented while the person remains relaxed

Higher-order conditioning

a classical conditioning procedure in which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the response brought forth by a conditioned stimulus by being paired repeatedly with that conditioned stimulus

Unconditioned response (UCR)

an unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned reinforcer

another term for a secondary reinforcer

Counterconditioning

a fear-reduction technique in which pleasant stimuli are associated with fear-evoking stimuli so that the fear-evoking stimuli lose their aversive qualities

Conditioned response (CR)

a learned response to a conditioned stimulus

Cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

a previously neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response because it has been paired repeatedly with a stimulus that already elicited that response

Shaping

a procedure for teaching complex behaviors that at first reinforces approximations of the target behavior

Positive reinforcer

a reinforcer that when presented increases the frequency of an operant

Negative reinforcer

a reinforcer that when removed increases the frequency of an operant

Fixed-interval schedule

a schedule in which a fixed amount of time must elapse between the previous and subsequent times that reinforcement is available

Variable-interval schedule

a schedule in which a variable amount of time must elapse between the previous and subsequent times that reinforcement is available

Fixed-ratio schedule

a schedule in which reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of correct responses

Variable-ratio schedule

a schedule in which reinforcement is provided after a variable number of correct responses

Continuous reinforcement

a schedule of reinforcement in which every correct response is reinforced

Classical conditioning

a simple form of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response usually evoked by another stimulus by being paired repeatedly with the other stimulus

Operant conditioning

a simple form of learning in which an organism learns to engage in behavior because it is reinforced

Reflex

a simple unlearned response to a stimulus

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

a stimulus that elicits a response from an organism prior to conditioning

Secondary reinforcer

a stimulus that gains reinforcement value through association with established reinforcers

Stimulus

an environmental condition that elicits a response

Partial reinforcement

one of several reinforcement schedules in which not every correct response is reinforced

Biological preparedness

readiness to acquire a certain kind of conditioned response due to the biological makeup of the organism

Reinforce

to follow a response with a stimulus that increases the frequency of the response

Latent learning

learning that is hidden or concealed

Learning

(1) according to behaviorists, a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience; (2) according to cognitive theorists, the process by which organisms make relatively permanent changes in the way they represent the environment because of experience

Describe principles and methods of classical conditioning.

Classical conditioning is a simple form of associative learning in which organisms come to anticipate or associate events with one another. When a neutral stimulus (like a bell ringing) and one that evokes a response (like dog food) are paired together repeatedly, the conditioned neutral stimulus will begin to trigger a response (like salivation) on its own. KIND OF LEARNING- Classical conditioning Major theorists: Ivan Pavlov (known for basic research with dogs); John B. Watson (known as the originator of behaviorism). WHAT IS LEARNED-Association of events; anticipations, signs, expectations; automatic responses to new stimuli. HOW IT IS LEARNED- A neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus (an unconditioned stimulus, or UCS) that elicits a response (an unconditioned response, or UCR) until the neutral stimulus produces a response (conditioned response, or CR) that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. At this point, the neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus (CS).

Define learning.

From the strict behaviorist perspective, learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that arises from practice or experience. The behaviorist perspective plays down the roles of cognition and choice. Cognitive psychologists define learning as the process by which organisms make relatively permanent changes in the way they represent the environment because of experience.

Discuss cognitive factors in learning.

Learning is often more complex than association and reinforcement; it involves searching for information, weighing evidence, and making decisions. Cognitive psychologists study mental structures, schemas, templates, and information processing to prove that learning can occur without conditioning. Latent learning—like a cognitive map of a maze—may not be revealed without motivation. Contingency theory suggests that learning occurs when a conditioned stimulus provides information about the unconditioned stimulus. Finally, observational learning makes It possible to acquire skills and knowledge by watching others rather than through direct experience. KIND OF LEARNING- Observational learning Major theorists: Albert Bandura; Julian Rotter; Walter Mischel. WHAT IS LEARNED- Expectations (if-then relationships), knowledge, and skills. HOW IT IS LEARNED- A person observes the behavior of another person (live or through media such as films, television, or books) and its effects.

Describe principles and methods of operant conditioning.

Operant conditioning is defined as a simple form of learning in which an organism learns to engage in certain behavior because of the effects of that behavior. Positive reinforcers increase the probability that a behavior will occur when they are applied. Food and approval usually serve as positive reinforcers. Negative reinforcers increase the probability that a behavior will occur when the reinforcers are removed. KIND OF LEARNING-Operant conditioning. Major theorists- Edward Thorndike and B. F. Skinner. WHAT IS LEARNED- Behavior that operates on, or affects, the environment to produce consequences. HOW IT IS LEARNED-A response is rewarded or reinforced so that it occurs with greater frequency in similar situations.

Operant behavior

behavior that operates on, or manipulates, the environment

Successive approximations

behaviors which are progressively closer to a target behavior

Generalization

in conditioning, the tendency for a conditioned response to be evoked by stimuli that are similar to the stimulus to which the response was conditioned

Discrimination

in conditioning, the tendency for an organism to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not forecast an unconditioned stimulus

Discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that indicates that einforcement is available

Observational learning

the acquisition of knowledge and skills through the observation of others (who are called models) rather than by means of direct experience

Extinction

the process by which stimuli lose their ability to evoke learned responses because the events that had followed the stimuli no longer occur (The learned responses are said to be extinguished.)

Spontaneous recovery

the recurrence of an extinguished response as a function of the passage of time

Operant

the same as an operant behavior

Contingency theory

the view that learning occurs when stimuli provide information about the likelihood of the occurrence of other stimuli