Chapter 5 Sociology
What are the three types of temperament?
1. Easy (40%): generally in a positive mood; readily adapt; easy to feed 2. Difficult (15%): negative in mood; does not tolerate well with hunger; difficult to feed and put to sleep; hard to comfort 3. Slow to Warm Up (10%): fussy but eventually warms up *The rest have no category/pattern and are indiscernible
What is the prime adaptive ego quality and the core pathology of this period?
1. Prime Adaptive Ego Quality = Hope 2. Core Pathology = Withdrawal
Define trust
1. Trust: an appraisal of availability, dependability, and sensitivity of another person; emerges as one person discovers those traits in another person; it is based on past experiences but also refers to faith about the future (will my need be met?)
What is the average length and weight of an infant at birth?
20 inches and 7 pounds
What is the average length and weight at 24 months?
32-36 inches and 30 pounds
What is a dendrite?
A dendrite is the part of the cell that receives impulses from axons; there are multiple dendrites per neuron; they link cells and are responsible for the thick network as more and more connections are made
Define Withdrawal
A general orientation of wariness toward objects/ why even try?
What is a neuron?
A neuron is a nerve cell responsible for brain activity; they send and receive signals from two parts of the cell—the axon and the dendrite
What is an axon?
An axon is a branch that protrudes out from the cell, it send information to other cells using an electrical impulse
Define Hope
An orientation that goal and dreams can be attained and events will turn out for the best; good place and I can explore
What theme related to temperament is illustrated in the case of the Cotton family?
Anna's temperament was a good fit with that of her parents, which made parenting more satisfying
What are the three types of attachment (four with Disorganized)?
Before attachment, there is synchrony (coordinated interactions; 'precursor to attachment') Attachment results from how you interact with an infant (respond to needs) 1. Secure 2. Avoidant 3. Ambivalent
8. Infants with an insecure-ambivalent attachment tend to...
Both seek comfort from the caregiver upon his or her return and avoid comfort from caregiver upon his or her return
What do we mean by development that is experience-dependent?
Brain functions that develop on particular experiences Example: How many languages you are exposed to depends on the experiences you are exposed to (what is a nonsense word—the context/environment affects auditory cortex which is different in a bilingual child vs. a monolingual child) Example: Rats who grew up not playing with their siblings became more aggressive since their brains did not develop to understand what "playing" is ***Exemplifies plasticity since our we can mold to our environment
What do we mean by development that is experience-expectant?
Brain functions that require basic, common experiences to develop; universal cross-cultures Example: we would all see babies being fed and taken care of in any society (feeding is an experience and we learn from those experiences)
When do we begin to see a wider repertoire of emotions?
By the end of the first year (ex: fear of strangers)
What is believed to be occurring when we enter REM sleep?
During REM sleep (or rapid eye movement), the brain is processing what was learned that day; infants are constantly in and out of REM sleep, and they are learning caregiver reactions
On average, how long is each sleep episode?
Each sleep episode is around 3-4 hours since their stomachs are really small and need to be fed very often
Examples of synaptic pruning?
Example: Plasticity Example: when you don't play the piano for a while, the connections that were established start to deteriorate—are pruned
Examples of stages of brain development
Example: can see the blood flow to different parts of the brain and how brain function changes; during adolescent stages, there is more blood flow to the limbic system which is responsible for a more emotional response (a reason why they engage more in fights); in adults, there is more blood flow to the cortex, which is more logical decision making Example: if early in life, you study and specialize to become an expert, the networks in a certain area are very strong, and at old age, they can still 'hang' with the young ones because of their strong neural networks
How does the attachment influence future relationships?
Example: secure attachment are more likely to go out and date Example: insecure attachment like to hang around adults
Describe the author of Peter Pan
He was very short and had immature testes because of his social stress (stress dwarfism)
What is the relative size of an infant (e.g., height, body weight, and brain weight) to an adult by 24 months?
In just first 2 years, we have reached 75% brain weight (due to new neuronal connections—not new neurons), 50% height, and 25% body weight
What is a synaptic gap?
It is the small gap between the sending axon of one neuron and the receiving dendrite of another axon
Describe shame vs guilt
Shame is worse than guilt and this is when they lie and say its someone else while guilt tries to find an approach to apologize
What is S.I.D.S.?
Sudden infant death syndrome
What is synaptic pruning?
Synaptic pruning is the process by which neurons that are frequently used are strengthened while the neurons or connections that are used very less deteriorate and are 'pruned'; some neurons wither away since they are not used and experiences have not caused dendrites to connect to axons
What is responsible for self-awareness and the ability to think about oneself and what month is that part the brain usually active?
The anterior cingulate gyrus 18 months
What effect do sweet-tasting substances have on newborns?
They have a calming effect
On average, how many hours do newborns sleep per day
They sleep about 16-18 hours per day
What are the two components of the psychosocial crisis of Erikson's first developmental period?
Trust, mistrust
What do we expect most of the children to experience in every culture?
We expect most children to experience seeing babies fed and be taken of, universal experiences
In rats? How did the handled and non-handled rats behave in a memory-swimming task? How does the role of touch affect the rat's performance?
Without touch, low levels of hormones resulted in dwarfism in many of the rats • The rats who were handled exhibited a greater memory capacity and cognitive skills—when they found the platform, they were able to find the platform again (with visual cues) very rapidly • The rats that were not handled swam aimlessly and sometimes found the platform; when they returned, they were still unable to find it for a significant amount of time • The hippocampus (responsible for learning and memory) cells were killed by stress • Short term separation and when longer away from the mothers, rats resulted in dramatic changes in growth along with less responsiveness
Describe the women vs men rxn to nurses
Women reacted positively to the nurses touching them. They had lower blood pressure and less anxiety. Men on the other hand were different
Temperament is defined as
a baby's characteristic patterns of responding to the world.
9. An infant that shows insecure-avoidant attachment shows
all of the above (does not engage with mom or caregiver to play together, shows little reaction upon caregiver return, and child explored freely)
Childhood attachment has been found to be associated with
all of these
7. Based on your text, temperament is _____________.
both biologically based and influences interactions with others
5. Toddlers have achieved 75% of their adult _________ and 25% of their adult ________.
brain weight; height
Define mistrust
can arise, during infancy, from at least 3 sources (infant wariness, lack of confidence in the caregiver, and doubt in one's own lovability/worth)
10. The ability if impulses varies from toddler to toddler. Which of the following is associated with differences in the ease or difficulty children have in controlling their impulses.
children with a secure attachment to their caregiver are better able to recognize their impulses
By the age of 3 months, most infants can
distinguish a parent's face from the face of a stranger
4. In the touch study, Tiffany Fields studied preterm infants, and those that were cared for in either the Neonatal intensive care unit developed 40% faster than those in the regular delivery ward with less intensive care
false (all infants in NICU studies—not Independent Variable)
During the second year of life there is an emergence in...
interpersonal emotions (pride, guilt, shame, and embarrassment); requires self-awareness; as they speak more and more, they become more self-aware (around 18 months or earlier); they also experience themselves as an object—develop an appreciation for reflective surfaces
What is the rougue test?
lipstick is put on the nose of an infant of 12 year and 18 months; the 18-month baby recognizes there is something on her nose and touches her own nose; the 12-month baby thinks it is another person in the mirror
In sum, based on the video discussion, a "mother's touch" is ___________ for optimal development.
necessary
What were some of the consequences of being touched deprived among the rats?
rats took longer to find a platform as they swam in a liquid tank and the stress killed cells in the hippocampus (not rats reproduced more frequently due to the lack of touch) *Note: the 3 groups were young rats (a lot of brain power), old rats that had been touched, and old rats that had no touch and only the old rats without any touch had a hard time to find the platform due to increased stress and due to glucocorticoids which killed the hippocampus cells that stores information
According to Piaget, the primary mechanism underlying the growth of intelligence during infancy is
sensorimotor adaptation
Plasticity means
sensory experiences can strengthen certain neural pathways; less used pathways may disappear.
The relatively stable characteristics of a child's response to the environment including activity level, sociability, and emotionality are called
temperament
The sensitive period is
the period of maximal readiness to achieve a behavior pattern or skill
The psychosocial crisis of infancy is
trust vs mistrust
Cultures such as Africa and Central America holds infants upright rather than lying them down in a crib. Infants in these cultures tend to
walk at an earlier age than western infants
How much of the infants sleep is spent in REM sleep?
• Approximately 50% of the sleep is REM sleep; as you get older, REM sleep decreases, sleep overall decreases, and walking/staying alert increases
How do synaptic pruning and myelination contribute to more efficient mental processing and changes in brain weight? (Recall images of stages of brain development Matsuzawa Study)
• Brain growth is due to the increase in size and complexity of dendrites for every neuron, increase in the number of connections between axons and dendrites, and myelination; synaptic pruning removes unnecessary connections that are rarely exercised, leaving only the stronger connections (efficient communication); myelination allows for quicker synaptic transmission • Frontal cortex (assists in planning, self control, and self-regulation; it is very immature in the newborn—decision making part of the brain), Cortex (the wrinkled outer layer of the brain), Auditory Cortex (hearing is quite acute at birth, the result of eavesdropping during the fetal period), and Visual Cortex (vision is the least mature part of the brain at birth because the fetus has nothing to see) • Matsuzawa Study: during 0-24 months, the most growth occurs for the gray matter, white matter, and the cerebrospinal fluid; the gray matter (composed of neurons) plateaus early while the white matter continues to develop due to myelination and the connections; the cerebrospinal fluid also plateaus but not as significantly as the gray matter
When do infants develop their working model of attachment?
• Infants develop their working model of attachment from 10-11 months till around 18 months • Attachment and internal working models influence expectations about the self, others, and the nature of relationships/ the child's ability to explore and engage the environment with confidence/ the formation of later relationships
What might be one of the (evolutionary adaptive) benefits of frequent REM sleep for infants in relation to S.I.D.S.?
• Infants who frequently experience REM sleep are less easily aroused and they will have successful mental processing and development • Infants are less likely to experience stress, infection, failure to develop, and other defects; additionally, this period is very critical for humans since there is rapid growth
How can this be challenging to parents/caregivers?
• It can be challenging since the parents have to enter an irregular schedule which places stressful demands on the parents (like waking up early in the night)
What do these physiological markers tell us about the key developmental tasks for an infant at this stage?
• It indicates that brain development is very critical for infants during this stage; the brain needs to increase in size and complexity of dendrites for every neuron; there is an increase number of connections between axons and dendrites in addition to myelination • Concept of Head-sparing: Infants within an environment of stress/no food or nutritional requirements direct all their resources to the head; they might end up developmentally small but their brain/head development will be okay • At 2 months, the head is approximately 50% of their height, but as an adult it is approximately 20% (or 1/5)
How does the concept of mutuality help an infant learn their working model of attachment?
• Mutuality is the central process • Mutuality is a characteristic of a relationship that is initially built on the consistency with which the caregiver appropriately responds to the infant's needs • The implications are that you cannot spoil an infant, always respond to calls for comfort and interaction, focus on being accurate on determining what exactly the infant needs at a particular time, and this can be challenging if an infant does not know how to fall asleep (teach with sleep intervals)
What is myelin and myelination?
• Myelin is the fatty substance that covers axons and they allow neurons to talk to each other much quicker after the process of myelination; it speeds up the efficiency and transmission of information up to 10-100 fold by its myelin sheath
What does this study [touch study] tell us about the role of human interaction in our biological development?
• Overall, it tells us that human interaction has a positive effect on the development of infants. In fact, for infants to develop to their full potential, a mother's touch is needed. These enriched environments not only changed behavior but also the brain through neurons and dendrites, which has a lifelong effect on the individuals
What happened in the 'touch' study with preterm babies?
• Premature infants in the NICU were either given periodic massages or not; the ones that were massaged gained more weight, were more active, were more alert (event in the future), and had better cognitive and motor development • The babies that were massaged for 45 minutes periodically, and of those babies massaged 47% gained more weight and had better development as a whole
How does this fit between temperament and parenting (responsive vs. nonresponsive) illustrate the epigenetic principle of development result from nature vs. nurture, as discussed in class?
• Responsive parenting reflective in long-term future; no matter what temperament the baby is born with, you have to adjust • We are born with genetically-influenced temperaments but responsive parenting can make a huge difference • Biological vs. Reinforced 'socialness' Example: If milk is not on time, how do we react will influence the situation and (how the baby reacts (applies to the situations below) Example: How do we react when a child falls? Example: How do we react after a child receives a shot?
How can we prevent SIDS?
• S.I.D.S increases when parents sleep with the baby therefore sleeping alone is beneficial and reduces the risk; placing the baby on its back is important; have nothing in the crib/don't use blankets; place the baby's feet at the end of the crib/it should reach no higher than the chest; tuck in the ends under the crib mattress to ensure safety • Never put the child face down! "Face up to wake up!" • Swaddle them if necessary; when dressing them to comfortable temperatures, put on one extra layer compared to what you are wearing • Babies are given "tummy time" to strengthen their neck muscles; also don't want the babies to have a flat head; when they first crawl they crawl backwards (army crawl)
What is the HPG (or HPA) axis shared by fish and humans and other animals?
• The HPG (HPA) refers to the endocrine system which is primarily based on a feedback loop system; it includes the Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, and the Gonads (or the Adrenal gland in humans); The hormones released by the hypothalamus stimulates the secretion of the pituitary gland; then the pituitary gland secretes hormones (like FSH and LH) which stimulate the gonads to secrete androgens and estrogens; all in all, these hormones' levels are maintained by the hypothalamus, which can also emit the release of hormones in release of hormones in response to their levels Example: during puberty, there is an awkward stage because there are different levels of hormones and the body is trying to adjust Example: menarche (preset in womb, but environment can influence when it is actually set off by controlling hormone levels)
How did the infants of each attachment style behave in relation to the caregiver, the stranger, and the physical environment (exploration and toys)?
• The caregiver Secure: Happy and safe with caregiver, distressed when separated; greets caregiver upon return Avoidant: Carefree, didn't care whether caregiver was present and upon return ignores or avoids caregiver Ambivalent: Upset upon separation, seeks and avoids comfort by caregiver; not sure what he wants • The stranger Secure: Avoidant, distressed Avoidant: Carefree, didn't care whether stranger was present Ambivalent: Wary • The physical environment (exploration and toys) Secure: Constructive and playful Avoidant: Explores freely Ambivalent: Resists exploring
How did the fish change physically in response to the social situation?
• The fish undergo a color change based on social environment; when the fish is territorial and a dominant male, it turns on certain genes using the hypothalamus, which drives on physiological changes (including having strong physiology, improving health, color change, bigger gonads, and stronger signals) • Additionally, if the fish loses to another dominant male fish, it loses its color, its gonads shrink and are lost (after 3 weeks), and the fish goes into a state of 'denial;' this emphasizes the concept of survival of the fittest as a fish can only pass on its genes if it is dominant (best physiology when in dominant state/status)
In humans? How did children's physical development change in and outside orphanages?
• The lack of affection can result in stunted growth and rate of growth; the result was psychosocial dwarfism which is dues to the lack of signals from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland to secrete growth hormones • In orphanages, the children's growth was significantly lower than their counterparts outside the orphanages; however, once the orphans were adopted they exhibited accelerated growth and grew up to par in a shorter period of time when compared to average children their age (overall effects can be reversed in a warm and affectionate environment)
How is the attachment style measured? What is the measure called?
• These attachment styles are measured by observing the infants' exploration and emotional reactions. This measure is called the "Strange Situation"
What are some of the consequences of being touch deprived?
•Additionally, the enzymes and hormones required for growth decreased. One important hormone ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) decreased significantly • We are "social animals" from the very beginning