Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules

examples of fats

Butter, lard, margarine, and salad oil

What are the three types of Polymers?

C - P - N Carbohydrates Proteins Nucleic Acids

Why do fats not mix with water?

Fat molecules do not mix with water because they have three long nonpolar hydrocarbon tails. Makint the tails hydrophobic.

saturated fat

Hydrocarbon chain of their fatty acids (tails of fat molecule) are flexiable because it has no double bonds (C=C). This lets it pack together tightly. (3 h2o released by dehydration) Makes the tail hydrophobic (non polar covalent).

hydrocarbons are seen in lipids. what does this mean?

Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy. these also affect why lipids form nonpolar covalent bonds

cholesterol

Important steroid, Component in animal cell membranes. Although cholesterol is essential in animals, high levels in the blood may contribute to cardiovascular disease.

Primary Protein Structure

Primary structure - the sequence of amino acids in a protein Primary structure is determined by inherited genetic information

tertiary structure

The overall shape of a protein molecule due to interactions of amino acid side chains, including hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges. (overall 3D structure/shape)

macromolecule

There are Four major types of biological macromolecules that make up the human body: nucleic acids (DNA & RNA), Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats

What happens when phospholipids are added to water?

They form into a bilayer, with the hydrophobic tail pointing toward the interior. Forms cell membrane.

enzyme

a macromolecule serving as a catalyst, a chemical agent that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction. Most are proteins.

nucleic acid

a polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers

polynucelotide (polymer of nucleic acid)

a polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers in a chain. The nucelotides can be those of DNA or RNA.

chaperonin

a protein complex that assists in the proper folding of other proteins

sickle-cell disease

a recessively inherited human blood disorder in which a single nucleotide change in the beta globin gene causes hemoglobin to aggregate, changing red blood cell shape and causing multiple symptoms in afflicted individuals

starch

a storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting entirely of glucose monomers joined by alpha glycosidic linkages

disulfide bridge

a strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer

cellulose

a structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by beta glycosidic linkages

chitin

a structural polysaccharide, consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls for support and in the exoskeletons of all arthopods

carbohydrates

a sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharide) or polymers (polysaccharide)

steroids

a type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of 4 fused rings with various chemical groups attached

ribonucleic acid (RNA)

a type of nucleic acid consisting of a polynucleotide made up of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U); usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis, gene regulation, and as the genome of some viruses

hydrophobic interaction

a type of weak chemical interaction caused when molecules that do not mix with water coalesce to exclude water

glycogen

an extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch

trans fat

an unsaturated fat, formed artificially during hydrogenation of oils, containing one or more trans double bonds

fat

are constructed from two types of smaller molecules: glycerol and 3 fatty acids. For this reason, fat molecules are technically called triglycerides. fat molecule = triglyceride.

trans fats may contribute more than saturated fats to what disease?

cardiovascular disease

A diet rich in saturated fats may contribute to what disease?

cardiovascular disease through plaque deposits

antiparallel

referring to the arrangement of the sugar-phophate backbones in a DNA double helix (they run in opposite 5' -> 3' directions)

secondary structure

regions of repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bonding between constituents of the backbone (not the side chains).

Animal fats have what type of fat?

saturated fats

Fats made from saturated fatty acids are__________, that are ___________ at room temperature.

saturated fats; solid at room temp. (butter & lard)

What are the 2 types of nucleic acids?

the 2 types of nucleic acid are DNA and RNA

nucleotide (monomer of nucleic acid)

the building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a 5 carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and one or more phosphate groups

peptide bond

the covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group on another, formed by dehydration reaction

double helix

the form of native DNA, referring to its 2 adjacent antiparallel polynucleotide strands wound around an imaginary axis into a spiral shape

primary structure

the level of protein structure referring to the specific linear sequence of amino acids

Ester bond

the linkage between hydroxyl group & carboxyl group

quaternary structure

the particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic 3D arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide

monosaccharide

the simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also known as simple sugars, that are generally some multiple of CH2O

monomer

the subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer

deoxyribose

the sugar component of DNA nucleotides, having 1 of fewer hydroxyl group than ribose, the sugar component of the RNA nucleotide

ribose

the sugar component of RNA nucleotides

X-ray crystallography is used by scientiest for what purpose?

to determine a protein's structure

Plants and Fish have what type of fat?

unsaturated fats

fatty acids vary in what 3 things?

vary in length, number of double bonds and location of double bonds

3 ways to determine a protein's structure?

x-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy (does not require protein crystallization), bioinformatics (uses computer programs to predict a structure of a protein from its amino acids)

ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work

monosaccharides are used for what 2 important reasons?

-major fuel for cell -raw material for building molecules

Phosphodiester bond

...

nitrogenous base

...

purines

1 of 2 types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a 6-membered ring fused with a 5-membered ring. Adenine (A) and guanine (G) are examples of these.

pyrimidine

1 of 2 types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a 6-membered ring. Cytosine (C), thymine (T) and uracil (U) are examples of these.

amino acid

An organic molecule possessing both a carboxyl and an amino group; serve as monomers of polypeptides

polymer

a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together by covalent bonds

one DNA molecule =

= multiple genes

Polypeptide

A chain of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds or dehydration reactions. They are polymers built from the same set of 20 amino acids.

unsaturated fatty acid

A fatty acid that has one or more double bonds between carbons. This reduces the number of hydrogen atoms

Give two examples of 3 Carbon Sugars

Aldose and Ketose

What is the simplest form of starch?

Amylose

A type of protein that acts as a catalyst to speed up chemical reactions.

An enzyme; they can perform their functions repeatedly, functioning as workhorses that carry out the processes of life

What is the major function of fats?

Cells use fats for energy storage because the tails hold more potential energy than other biological molecules.

What do cis- bonds do in an unstaurated fat?

Cis-bond = type of isomer (diffrent structure); on same side. In or case it is a different form of fat with same molecular formula but when C double bonds it puts the 2 H only on one side. This prevents an unsaturated fat from packing tightly making it a liquid at room temperature.

lipid

Considered monomers. Any of a group of large biological molecules, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that mix poorly, if at all, with water (hydrophobic). Provide an efficient form of energy storage.

This type of nucleic acid provides instructions for its own replication, and directs synthesis of messenger RNA thus controlling protein synthesis. it is:

DNA

are lipids hydrophobic or hydrophillic?

Lipids are hydrophobic because,they consist mostly of hydrocarbons, which form nonpolar covalent bonds

saturated fatty acid

Maximum number of hydrogen atoms possiable and no double bonds between carbon atoms, only single bonds. This allows as many H as possiable to bond to carbon skeleton.

nucleotide vs. nucleoside formula:

Nucleoside = nitrogenous base + sugar Nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate group

Phospholipids are ampipathic. What does this mean?

Part of it is polar and mixes with water, while part of it is nonpolar and excluded from water.

polysaccharide

Polymers of simple sugars covalently linked by glycosidic bonds

What affects a protein's structure?

Sequence of amino acids determines a protein's 3D structure.---> which structure is what determines its function. Physical and chemical conditions can affect structure

What are 6 functions of Proteins?

Structural support Storage Transport Cellular Communications Movement Defense against substaces

In which two ways do we classify monosaccharides?

The location of the carbonyl group The number of carbons in the carbon skeleton

unsaturated fats

Unsaturated fatty acid will have a kink in its hydrocarbon chain because of the C=C, polar covalent bond that is known as a cis- bond.

protein

a biologically functional molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific 3D structure

fatty acid

a carboxylic acid (group) with a long carbon chain(16-18 carbon atoms in length);

catalyst

a chemical agent that selectively increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.

dehydration reaction

a chemical reaction in which 2 molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule

hydrolysis

a chemical reaction that breaks bonds between 2 molecules by the addition of water; functions in disassembly of polymers to monomers

alpha helix

a coiled region constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific pattern of hydrogen bonding between the atoms of the polypeptide backbone (not the side chains)

glycosidic linkage

a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction

gene

a discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses)

disaccharide

a double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage formed by a dehydration reaction

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

a double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule, consisting of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T); capable of being replicated and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins

triacylglycerol (also called triglyceride)

a lipid consisting of 3 fatty acids & a glycerol molecule joined by an ester linkage.

phospholipid

a lipid made up of glycerol joined to 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to a glycerol. The hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids (tails) act as nonpolar, so the tails are hydrophobic. While the phosphate group and its attachments form a hydrophilic head (polar).

A Dehydration reaction of a glycerol and three fatty acids forms what molecule by joing the OH-on the fatty acids and an H- on the gylcerol? How many H2O produced?

fat molecule or triglyceride; 3 H20 made

Fats made from unsaturated fatty acids are__________, that are ___________ at room temperature.

fats or oils; liquid at room temp. (vegatable oils)

The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a unit of inheritance called a

gene

The nitrogenous bases in DNA pair up and form_______bonds: adenine (A) always with thymine (T), and guanine (G) always with cytosine (C)

hydrogen bonds

denaturation

in proteins, a process in which a protein loses its native shape due to the disruption of weak chemical bonds and interactions, thereby becoming Biologically inactive; in DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix. Occurs under extreme (noncellular) conditions of pH, salt concentration or temperature

where does protein synthesis occur?

in ribosomes that are in the cytoplasm

synthesis of mRNA happens where?

in the nucleus

unsaturated fats have

is a C=C bond giving it a kink in the tail, making it hydrophillic (polar covalent)

Hydrogenation

is the process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen.

what macromolecule does not form a polymer?

lipids (no affinity for water= hydrophobic)

Serves as a blue print for proteins by storing and transmitting hereditary information.

nucleic acids job

beta pleated sheet

one of the secondary structure of proteins in which the polypeptide chain fold back and forth. 2 regions of the chain lie parallel to each other and are held together by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbone (not the side chains).

nucleotide polymers are linked together to make

polynucleotide

nucleoside

portion of a nucleotide without the phopshate group (nitrogenous base & 5 carbon sugar) RNA= ribose sugar DNA= deoxyribose sugar