Chapter 6: Learning
fixed-ratio
A restaurant is running a special deal. After you buy four meals at full price, your fifth meal will be free. This is an example of a ________ schedule of reinforcement.
vicarious; vicarious
According to Bandura, we learn by watching models because we experience ________ reinforcement or ________ punishment.
generalization
After Watson and Rayner classically conditioned Little Albert to fear a white rat, the child later showed fear in response to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat. This illustrates ________.
punisher
An old saying notes that "a burnt child dreads the fire." In operant conditioning, the burning would be an example of a ________.
What limits does biology place on conditioning?
Biology places several limits on conditioning including predisposing us to learn associations that are naturally adaptive, so using food as a reinforcer is a great way to teach behavior. Taste aversion of food that makes animals sick is an example of biology and classical conditioning.
observational learning
Children learn many social behaviors by imitating parents and other models. This type of learning is called ________ ________.
How does classical conditioning demonstrate associative learning?
Classical conditioning demonstrates associative learning because we learn to associate two or more stimuli to anticipate events.
How does classical conditioning differ from operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning differs from operant conditioning in that classical conditioning involves association between different events that we don't control that elicit an automatic response, while operant conditioning invovles associations between behaviors that produce rewards or consequences.
How do cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning?
Cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning through weakening associations between a conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning through our thoughts, perceptions, and expectations and through latent learning in operant conditioning where learning occurs without reinforcement and developing expectations that responses will be reinforced or punished.
How do continuous and partial reinforcement schedules affect behavior?
Continuous and partial reinforcement schedules affect behavior by the speed in which behaviors are mastered, the rate of response, and the rate of extinction.
discrimination
Dogs have been taught to salivate to a circle but not to a square. This process is an example of ________.
How are educators, managers, and parents applying operant principles?
Educators, managers, and parents are applying operant principles to allow students to move closer to their own pace while providing prompt feedback, promptly thanking or rewarding employees when they've made an achievement, and avoiding destructive parent-child relationships by rewarding specific behaviors exhibited by children.
develop cognitive maps
Evidence that cognitive processes play an important role in learning comes in part from studies in which rats:
conditioned
In Pavlov's experiments, the tone started as a neutral stimulus, and then became a ________ stimulus.
information; behaviors
Learning is defined as the process of acquiring, through experience, new and relatively enduring _________ or ________.
dulls viewers' sensitivity to violence
Most experts agree that repeated viewing of TV violence:
How does observational learning differ from associative learning?
Observational learning differs from associative learning in that with observational learning, we learn by imitating others through a process called modeling instead of forming associations between events based on our experience.
How may observational learning be enabled by mirror neurons?
Observational learning may be enabled by mirror neurons because when we watch others perform a behavior, areas of our brain become active as if we were performing the behavior.
shaping
One way to change behavior is to reward natural behaviors in small steps, as they get closer and closer to a desired behavior. This process is called ________.
How is operant behavior reinforced and shaped?
Operant behavior is reinforced and shaped by repeatedly presenting rewards when desired or similar response is exhibited and ignoring all other responses.
their words and actions are consistent
Parents are most effective in getting their children to imitate them if:
Why is Pavlov's work important? How is it being applied?
Pavlov's work is important because his findings showed that "many other responses to many other stimuli can be conditioned in many other creatures." His work is applied today to help people unlearn their conditioned responses to help conquer their fears.
How do positive and negative reinforcement differ?
Positive and negative reinforcement differ in that positive reinforcement increases a response by giving something that is desired, while negative reinforcement increases a response by reducing something that is undesired.
How does punishment affect behavior?
Punishment affects behavior by decreasing the frequency of unwanted behaviors by presenting unwanted consequences. Physical punishment is linked to negatively reinforcing parent's violent behavior, discrimination in different contexts, teaching fear, and aggression.
How does punishment differ from negative reinforcement?
Punishment differs from negative reinforcement in that punishment reduces the likelihood of a response, while negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a response by reducing a negative stimulus.
latent learning
Rats that explored a maze without any reward were later able to run the maze as well as other rats that had received food rewards for running the maze. The rats that had learned without reinforcement demonstrated ________ ________.
partial (intermittent)
Reinforcing a desired response only some of the times it occurs is called ________ reinforcement.
Why were Skinner's ideas controversial?
Skinner's ideas were controversial because he claimed that external influences guide our behavior not feelings or thoughts. Critics claimed that by disregarding people's thoughts and feelings and trying to control their actions he treated them less than human.
mirror
Some scientists believe that the brain has _______ neurons that enable observation and imitation.
Darwin's principle that natural selection favors traits that aid survival
Taste-aversion research has shown that some animals develop aversions to certain tastes but not to sights or sounds. This finding supports:
What are the basic types of reinforcers?
The basic types of reinforcers are positive, negative, primary, conditioned, immediate and delayed.
What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling?
The impact of prosocial modeling and antisocial modeling is big. Prosocial modeling leads to behaviors that are positive, helpful, and nonviolent, while antisocial modeling leads to aggression and violent behaviors.
variable-interval
The partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after unpredictable time periods is a ________ schedule.
B. F. Skinner's
Thorndike's law of effect was the basis for ________ work on operant conditioning and behavior control.
two or more stimuli; a response and consequence
Two forms of associative learning are classical conditioning, in which we associate ________, and operant conditioning, in which we associate ________.
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, cognitive learning
What are some basic forms of learning?
punishment
an event that decreases the behavior it follows
Garcia and Koelleg's taste-aversion studies
Which research showed that conditioning can occur even when the unconditioned stimulus (US) does not immediately follow the neutral stimulus (NS)?
negative reinforcer
Your dog is barking so loudly that it's making your ears ring. You clap your hands, the dog stops barking, your ears stop ringing, and you think to yourself, "I'll have to do that when he barks again." The end of the barking was for you a ________ ________.
operant chamber
a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer
cognitive map
a mental image of the layout of one's environment
reinforcement schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
cognitive learning
acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
stimulus
any event or situtation that evokes a response
respondent behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
operant behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
extrinsic motivation
desire to perform a behavior to gain a reward or avoid punishment
intrinsic motivation
desire to perform a behavior well for its own sake
conditioned reinforcer
event that gains its reinforcing power through its link with a primary reinforcer
primary reinforcer
event that is innately reinforcing, often by satisfying a biological need
biological constraints
evolved biological tendencies that predispose animals' behavior and learning; certain behaviors are more easily learned by some animals that others; predisposed to learn things crucial to survival
discrimination
in classical conditioning the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
neutral stimulus (NS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that evokes no response before conditioning
unconditioned stimulus (US)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically - triggers a response
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, ager association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
unconditioned response (UR)
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus
acquistion
in classical conditioning, the initial stage; when we link a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response
generalization
in classical conditioning, the tendency, after conditioning, to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus
extinction
in classical conditioning, the weakening of a conditioned response when an unconditioned response does not follow a conditioned stimulus
shaping
in operant conditioning, a procedure in which reinforcers guide actions closer and closer toward desired behavior
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens behavior it follows
positive reinforcement
increases behaviors by presenting positive stimuli; gives something desired
negative reinforcement
increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli; ending something undesired
observational learning
learning by observing others
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together; events may be two stimuli; events may be response and consequence
latent learning
learning that is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
mirror neuron
neuron that fires when we perform certain actions and when we observe others performing those actions; neural basis for imitation and observational learning
prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior
learning
process of acquiring, through experience, new and relativley enduring information or behaviors
modeling
process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
spontaneous recovery
reappearance of an extinguised conditioned response after a pause
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing a desired response every time it occurs
partial (intermittent) reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time; slower acquisition; greater resistance to extinction
law of effect
rewarded behavior is likely to be repeated, behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become unlikely; Thorndike
behaviorsim
the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes; most research psychologists agree with the first statement, not the latter
operant conditioning
type of learning in which a behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
classical conditioning
type of learning in which we learn to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
