Chapter 7

attachment theory

there are seven essential features of this theoretical perspective focusing on attachment: specificity, duration, engagement of emotion, course of development, learning, organization, and biological function

goddard maintained that intelligence, or IQ

was static or innate

postconventional level of morality

when a person attempts to establish a balance between individual rights and societal rules

psychological theories - strengths

-

Lawrence Kohlberg: moral development

- A central feature of Lawrence Kohlberg's theory is that moral development occurs in stages.32 According to Kohlberg, moral judgment evolves in children in a three-level progression, each level consisting of two stages (see Table 7.2). Labeling certain behaviors as "right" and "wrong"—for instance, "telling on your brother is wrong because it is 'tattling,' breaking into the druggist's store is wrong because 'you're not supposed to steal,'" regardless of the circumstances—is characteristic of the preconventional level of morality.33 At this level of morality, what is deemed "right" and "wrong" is defined by those in authority. Stage 1 is characterized as a "punishment and obedience orientation"; rewards and punishments are key components of this stage. An individual follows the rules for his or her own benefit as well as to avoid punishment.34 Stage 2 is when one develops moral relativity. A person recognizes that different people have varying, yet just as valid, justifications for their claims of justice.35 Thus, an individual views justice as an equal exchange of favors, such as "you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours." Or one may view justice as a "settling of scores," such as "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. - Stages 3 and 4, which compose the conventional level of morality, are what Kohlberg considered the normal adult approaches used to maintain the family and social order. At Stage 3, individuals begin to understand and live by the principle of the golden rule; they appreciate the value of generosity and forgiveness. At Stage 4, these values of justice are expanded to the social order, such as establishing good citizenship, instilling a strong work ethic, and following the laws of society.37 Kohlberg designated certain types of justice as corrective justice (e.g., impartiality in the application of the law and the offender paying his or her debt to society) and others as commutative justice (e.g., the importance of contractual agreements for maintaining social order). Below is an example of commutative justice: Question—Is it important to keep a promise to someone you don't know well? Answer—Yes. Perhaps even more so than keeping a promise to someone you know well. A man is often judged by his actions in such situations, and to be described as being a "man of honour," or a "man of integrity" is very fulfilling indeed - An individual with a postconventional level of morality, at Stage 5, considers such "meta-ethical" issues as "why one should be moral." There is an attempt to establish a balance between an individual's rights and societal rules; this is considered a "social contract" perspective of morality.39 Kohlberg designated the final stage, Stage 6, "the moral point of view." A key aspect of this stage is that a person takes equal consideration of each individual's point of view in terms of the moral decision to be made. Stage 6 morality concerns the principle of the maximum quality of life for each, equity or fairness in the distribution of goods and respect, and the principle of utility or benevolence.40 Below is an example of Kohlberg's theory of moral development

policy implications

- Although estimates of the number of offenders with mental disorders vary, the number of these individuals is quite high and has been increasing in recent years.134 As noted earlier, some have referred to the "in and out" of prison and/or jail among offenders with mental disorders as "the revolving door." Thus, a major policy implication would be to address this "revolving door." One suggested approach would be to implement primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention programs. Generally, primary prevention focuses on eliminating influences that could potentially result in criminal activity.135 For instance, teachers, employers, and family members may make referrals to family-therapy organizations, substance-abuse clinics, and mental-health associations.136 Secondary prevention focuses on intervening for individuals who demonstrate a tendency toward criminal behavior.137 In reference to mental health, these types of prevention programs can provide psychological counseling to at-risk individuals.138 Tertiary prevention deals with eliminating recidivistic behavior of offenders.139 For offenders with mental-health problems, tertiary prevention programs may involve requirement of a probation order or diversionary sentence, as well as an aftercare program, at the end of a prison sentence - According to Morgan and his colleagues, a meta-analysis revealed that interventions with mentally ill offenders lessened the offenders' symptoms of distress, as well as improved their ability to cope with their problems. These effects resulted in offenders' demonstrating improved institutional adjustment and behavioral functioning. Further, these interventions significantly reduced psychiatric and criminal recidivism. Morgan et al. noted that these results should be of great interest to policymakers and others: "[T]he results of this review suggest that improvements in the co-occurring dimensions of mental illness and criminalness are possible

IQ and criminal behavior

- As noted in Chapter 5, in the early 20th century, French psychologist Alfred Binet, along with his colleague Theodore Simon, developed what was considered a more quantified measure of intelligence—the intelligence quotient (IQ). Binet noted that this new approach was a "metric scale of intelligence." The Binet-Simon Intelligence Test was initially developed to study intellectual disabilities among French schoolchildren.52 A Stanford University professor of educational psychology, Lewis M. Terman, revised the Binet-Simon Intelligence Test. Since its publication in 1916, it has been known as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. Two American psychologists often considered Terman's rivals in the area of developing a scaled mental test were Henry H. Goddard and Robert Yerkes - Goddard is credited with bringing intelligence testing to the United States.54 He translated and adapted Binet's model to study immigrants who were coming into the United States. An interesting difference between Goddard's and Binet's assumptions about intelligence or IQ was that Goddard maintained that intelligence or IQ was static or innate; thus, an individual's IQ could not change. He argued that intelligence was passed from generation to generation; intelligence was inherited from parents. As noted in Chapter 5, Goddard labeled low IQ as "feeble-mindedness." There were specified levels of feeble-mindedness, such as moron, imbecile, and idiot.55 Goddard's The Kallikak Family: A Study in Hereditary Feeble-Mindedness has been considered one of the major contributions to the myth of the "menace" or "threat" of feeble-mindedness, as well as to the eugenic prescriptions suggested to address such problems of poverty and crime. - Between 1888 and 1915, researchers administered intelligence tests to prisoners and boys in reform schools. For instance, in the early 1900s, the Ohio Board of Administration was convinced that more than 40% of the juveniles incarcerated in the state reformatories were "definitely feeble-minded." Further, the board maintained that it was "folly" to try to reform these juveniles, because they were not immoral; rather, they were unmoral.56 There were critics, however, of such research and the subsequent findings. Edwin Sutherland maintained that the intelligence tests administered were inadequate and that there were too many variations of such tests. He also maintained that delinquency is associated more with social and environmental influences than with IQ or intelligence

treatment

- Attempted methods of treatment to address problems linked to criminality include coping and problem-solving skills, conflict resolution, empathy, and relationships with peers, parents, and other adults. - For instance, in 1997 the Thinking for a Change program was developed by Bush, Glick, and Taymans in cooperation with the National Institute of Corrections. Thinking for a Change is an integrated cognitive-behavioral change program that includes cognitive restructuring, social skill development, and the development of problem-solving skills. The program was designed to be used in prisons, jails, community corrections, and probation and parole settings.108 Generally, cognitive intervention is an approach that focuses on the ways that offenders think. Thinking includes a wide array of skills and processes, such as problem-solving skills, the ability to empathize with others and victims, the ability to formulate and then achieve plans for the future, and the ability to foresee the consequences of one's own behavior - Part of the impetus for this program was the finding that criminal behavior was more inclined to change when offenders were able to apply, and incorporate, both cognitive restructuring and cognitive skills programs.110 - In reference to studies evaluating the Thinking for a Change program, Golden, Gatchel, and Cahill revealed some "mixed" results concerning recidivism.111 They concluded that problem-solving skills did improve among offenders who completed the program. These skills may subsequently deter them from engaging in criminal activity. The researchers also noted that future research might consider exploring whether "booster sessions," such as an aftercare group or relapse prevention measures, could further deter these offenders from criminal behavior. While cognitive-behavioral approaches have been applied to case management, psychologically oriented treatments, and psychoeducational programs, such applications have, according to Wilson, resulted in no differences between offenders who participate in a problem-solving-skills-development program and those who do not - Six areas of treatment that have demonstrated some effectiveness for offenders with mental illness include the following: Collaborative psychopharmacology—symptoms of mental illness improve when clients are included in the medical decision-making process. Assertive community treatment—providing services to clients in their community, as opposed to a clinical setting, such as an outpatient clinic or psychiatric hospital. Family psychoeducation—educating family members about mental illness, as well as the effects of mental illness; enhancing interpersonal relations; and encouraging a supportive support system. Supported employment—helping clients obtain competitive employment and provide assistance when needed (e.g., skill development). Illness management and recovery—helping clients take responsibility for their recovery in an effort to manage their illness. Integrated dual disorders treatment—focusing on issues of mental illness and substance abuse simultaneously in an integrated approach

Compensatory rapists

- Compensatory rapists, also referred to as power-reassurance rapists, reveal the least amount of sexual and general aggression when compared with the other typologies. These individuals also demonstrate little evidence of childhood and adolescent impulsivity, such as running away, involvement in the juvenile justice system, or problems in grammar school. Compared with the other typologies, these offenders most often come from stable families with intact parental marriages; fewer of these individuals experienced neglect and physical abuse. - In reference to adult social characteristics, compensatory rapists average a 10th-grade education level. They often are single and live with either one or both parents; this type of rapist is most likely to be dominated by an aggressive and sometimes seductive mother. They are most likely employed in menial occupations and considered steady and reliable employees. In reference to sexual deviance, the compensatory rapist may be involved in transvestism, voyeurism, fetishism, or excessive masturbation

psychopathy and crime

- David Lykken distinguished between the terms sociopath and psychopath. Sociopath refers specifically to antisocial personalities attributed to social or familial dysfunction. Psychopath refers to individuals whose antisocial behavior may be the result of a defect or abnormality within them, rather than the result of issues in their rearing or socialization. In his classic book Mask of Sanity, Hervey Cleckley maintained that psychopaths are intelligent, self-centered, glib, superficially charming, verbally shallow, and manipulative. In terms of emotions, these individuals lack essential human characteristics such as empathy and remorse. Behaviorally, psychopaths engage in irresponsible behavior, are prone to seek novelty and excitation, and often engage in moral transgressions or antisocial acts - While many researchers attempted to develop an assessment tool measuring psychopathy, it was not until the mid-1980s that major advances were made. Robert Hare developed the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) to examine psychopathy in adult samples. His scale adapted some of Cleckley's concepts of psychopathic individuals, as well as included such factors as impulsivity and criminological components (e.g., criminal versatility).92 The Hare PCL-R includes scales measuring two factors: (1) the callous, selfish, remorseless use of others, and (2) a chronically unstable and antisocial lifestyle.93 - While a majority of the research on psychopathy has considered it as one construct, other studies in the adult literature have focused on possible subtypes or subgroups of psychopathy.94 One subgroup is consistent with Cleckley's original concept of the primary psychopath: [An individual] who displays certain characteristics that are maladaptive and pathological (e.g., lack of conscience, irresponsibility, failure to learn from experience)—as well as key traits that appear ostensibly adaptive, or at least nonpathological (e.g., low anxiety, interpersonal charm, absence of irrational thinking).95 - Another subgroup also has many of the same maladaptive traits as the primary psychopath. However, this subtype, or secondary psychopath, seems to be more prone to exhibit extensive symptoms of psychological turmoil and emotional reactivity. Also, these individuals tend to be more reactive, antagonistic, and impulsive; they are also more at risk for engaging in destructive behavior, such as drug use/abuse, suicidal ideation/gestures, and interpersonal aggression - David T. Lykken attempted to explain psychopathy with his low-fear-quotient theory. He maintained that all individuals have an innate propensity to fear certain stimuli, such as snakes, strangers, or loss of support. Individuals subsequently associate, or condition, fear of stimuli and situations that they have previously experienced with pain or punishment. This is referred to as an innate fear quotient; this fear quotient varies from person to person. Primary psychopaths are at the low end of this fear-quotient continuum. Further, most of the normal socialization process relies on punishing antisocial behavior. However, "someone who is relatively fearless will be relatively harder to socialize in this way."97 - Lykken provided the following example of a child who demonstrated fearlessness. The letter was written by the mother of a teenage daughter in response to an article Lykken wrote for a popular magazine: - Your article on fearlessness was very informative. I was able to identify with many of the traits. However, being thirty-six and a single parent of three children, I have managed to backpack on the "edge" without breaking my neck. I have a 14-year-old daughter who seems to be almost fearless to anything in her environment. She jumps out second-story windows. When she was in first grade, I came home from work one afternoon and found her hanging by her fingers from our upstairs window. I "calmly" asked her what she was doing. She replied that she was "getting refreshed." Later, she stated that she did things like that when she needed a lift—that she was bored and it made her feel better. Nancy is bright, witty, attractive, charismatic, and meets people easily. She tends to choose friends who are offbeat, antisocial, and into dope, alcohol, etc. During her month's visit here with me, she stole money from my purse, my bank card, etc., etc.98 - Another explanation of psychopathy is inhibitory defect or underendowment. Some psychopathic individuals seem to act impulsively without assessing the situation, appreciating the dangers, or considering the consequences. This perspective maintains that lesions in certain areas of the brain can cause a decrease in inhibitory control in animals as well as humans. This view does not argue that all psychopaths have lesions or qualitative defects in their frontal cortex areas; rather, frontal lesions can produce a syndrome similar to psychopathy.99 - The interpersonal and affective factors associated with psychopathy often are related to a socially deviant lifestyle, including irresponsible and impulsive behavior; these behaviors tend to ignore or violate social rules and mores. While not all psychopaths have any type of formal contact with the criminal justice system, the interpersonal, affective, and behavioral features of psychopathy place them at high risk of aggressive and violent behavior.100 With the widespread adoption of the PCL-R to assess psychopathy, there is empirical evidence on the association between psychopathy and criminal behavior.101 Research has revealed that while psychopathy occurs in about 1% of the general population, these individuals make up a significant proportion of the prison population.102 - Hare stressed that while psychopathy is closely associated with antisocial and criminal behavior, it should not be confused with criminality in general.103 He noted that psychopaths are qualitatively different from other individuals involved in criminal behavior. Specifically, psychopaths have a distinct criminal career in terms of the number and type of antisocial behaviors, as well as the ages when they engage in these behaviors. Also, the motivation to engage in these antisocial behaviors differs between psychopaths and nonpsychopaths. - In terms of treatment of psychopaths, most clinicians and researchers are less than optimistic about successful outcomes. A major reason is that unlike most other types of offenders, psychopaths do not experience personal distress and do not appreciate the problems associated with their attitudes and behavior. Further, when they do seek treatment, it is usually in an effort to benefit their situation, such as seeking probation and parole, rather than to improve themselves. Thus, "it is not surprising that they derive little benefit from traditional treatment programs, particularly those aimed at the development of empathy, conscience, and interpersonal skills

John bowlby: attachment theory

- Development of attachment theory is the combined work of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. Bowlby formulated the basic propositions of the theory; the roots of Bowlby's interest in attachment and separation lay in his own early childhood and in his clinical experiences while training as a psychoanalyst prior to World War II.45 Ainsworth implemented innovative methodology to test some of Bowlby's concepts, as well as to further refine the perspective. While these scholars initially worked independently of each other, both were influenced by the work of Freud and other psychoanalytic theorists - In discussing attachment theory, reference is often made to research examining the effects of separation on mother and infant monkeys. Bowlby cited this research and noted that these types of studies "show plainly not only that the attachment behaviour of young non-human primates is very similar to the attachment behaviour of young children but that their responses to separation are very similar also."47 Bowlby maintained that this theoretical perspective has seven essential features: Specificity—Attachments are selective or "choosy"; these attachments are often focused on one or more individuals, usually with some order of preference. Duration—Attachments are enduring and persistent, sometimes lifelong. Engagement of emotion—Some of the most intense and passionate emotions are associated with attachment relationships. Course of development—In the first nine months of life, infants develop an attachment to a primary figure. This primary figure is the person who provides the most fulfilling and pleasing social interaction. Learning—While learning does have some influence on a person's attachments, the key component is social interaction. Organization—Attachment behavior follows cognitive development, as well as interpersonal maturation from birth. Biological function—Attachment behavior has a biological function in terms of survival, which is supported by research on various species.48 - For example, in terms of engagement of emotion, Bowlby discussed the emotion of fear: In the presence of a trusted companion, fear of situations of every kind diminishes; when, by contrast, one is alone, fear of situations of every kind is magnified. Since in the lives of all of us our most trusted companions are our attachment figures, it follows that the degree to which each of us is susceptible to fear turns in great part on whether our attachment figures are present or absent.49 - Bowlby's interest in early parent-infant interactions evolved from his clinical work with young offenders; his theoretical framework evolved from this work.50 From 1936 to 1939, Bowlby assessed and treated 88 children between the ages of 5 and 16 at the London Child Guidance Clinic. In his study, "Forty-Four Juvenile Thieves," he stressed the importance of studying the relationship between mother and child. As Bowlby noted, inquiries were made into not only the mother's conscious attitude but also her unconscious attitude. He developed a classification procedure to distinguish the various character types. Of the 44 juveniles in his study, 14 were classified as affectionless, 13 were classified as hyperthymic (i.e., children who tend toward constant overactivity), and 9 were designated as depressed.51 On page 164 is a case history of one of the youths designated as affectionless

James Q. Wilson and Richard J. Herrnstein: crime and human nature

- During the 1960s, the dominant liberal political climate was one of optimism; there was a perception that any social problem could be solved. Environmental or sociological explanations of crime were more "palatable," while biological explanations lost favor among many social scientists. In the 1980s, however, there was a political shift to a more conservative perspective. Wrightsman maintained that this pendulum shift was more tolerant of hereditary factors being considered to explain criminal behavior.59 In this vein, conservatives are more likely to consider causes of crime within the individual as well as to blame the behavior on the criminal's lack of moral sense; liberals are more likely to consider the causes of crime in society, such as unequal distribution of wealth. Thus, "conservatives are much more likely to see criminals as different from normal citizens, while liberals are more likely to see them as people who have simply reacted differently to different situations they find themselves in."60 - `In their 1985 book Crime and Human Nature, Wilson and Herrnstein reviewed a considerable number of criminological studies that examined the influence of genetic and familial factors on criminal behavior.61 Wilson (at the time, a Harvard University political scientist) and Herrnstein (a Harvard University psychologist) never explicitly "named" their theory,62 but Jack Gibbs has suggested that they use the label operant-utilitarian theory of criminality, since they often use concepts associated with operant psychology.63 They maintained that there had been an overemphasis on sociological explanations for criminal behavior: The existence of biological predispositions means that circumstances that activate criminal behavior in one person will not do so in another, that social forces cannot deter criminal behavior in 100 percent of a population, and that the distributions of crime within and across societies may, to some extent, reflect underlying distributions of constitutional factors. Perhaps the simplest thing to say at this point is that crime cannot be understood without taking into account individual predispositions and their biological roots [italics added].64 - Wilson and Herrnstein attempted to explain street crime by demonstrating how human nature develops and evolves from the interaction of three factors: 1. Social environment. While broad societal values have often been neglected as explanations, Wilson and Herrnstein maintained, the shift in American culture from valuing restraint and discipline to the recent narcissistic "me-first" orientation had a strong influence on the individual level and had contributed to the increasing crime rate during the previous two decades. 2. Family relationships. Parents who are uncaring, inconsistent in the treatment of their children, or unskilled in dispensing rewards and punishments contribute to their children's criminal behavior. Further, being from a broken home or a single-parent household is not necessarily an influential factor; rather, it is the parent's failure to teach the child the consequences of his or her actions. 3. Biological makeup. Qualities considered influential include gender, low intelligence, impulsiveness, and body type. These are at least partly hereditary.83 - The third factor, biological makeup, is the most controversial aspect of Wilson and Herrnstein's theoretical perspective. They stressed that this theory was not one of predestination. Rather, they argued that the question of whether criminals are "born or made" is poorly phrased. The word born implies that some part of criminality may be due, categorically and permanently, to assigned constitutional factors (e.g., genetics); the word made implies that some aspect of criminality may be due, categorically and permanently, to social factors. They maintained that such a viewpoint "neglects, obviously, the complex interactions that exist between those causes."84 - Wilson and Herrnstein contended that at any time, a person can choose between committing a crime and not committing a crime. The consequences of committing a crime consist of rewards and punishments. The greater the ratio of net rewards of crime to net rewards of noncrime, the greater the tendency to commit the crime.85 Further, constitutional factors, such as intelligence and impulsivity, can influence an individual's ability to judge future and immediate rewards and punishments. Thus, "aggressive and impulsive males with low intelligence are at a greater risk for committing crimes than are young males who have developed 'the bite of conscience,' which reflects higher cognitive and intellectual development."86 In reference to intelligence, Wilson and Herrnstein argued that social scientists have maintained that individuals identified as offenders have an average IQ of 92, which is about 8 points below the population average. Further, they contend that a low IQ may result in offenders' inability to think past "short-term" situations or difficulty understanding society's rules and the consequences of their actions.87 - One of the various criticisms of Wilson and Herrnstein's theoretical perspective88 is that they failed to empirically test their terms, such as "ratio of rewards." Specifically, they did not adequately operationalize these terms; this makes it difficult for researchers to test their theory. Another concern was the focus on street and predatory crimes, such as murder, robbery, and burglary. Wilson and Herrnstein had not included other offenses, such as white-collar crimes. As Gibbs asked, "Are some white-collar crimes predatory?"89 Some argued that while Wilson and Herrnstein objectively selected and presented relevant literature, they may have actually selectively reviewed literature that supported their theory. Thus, "although readers were given the impression that the authors' arguments were based on solid science and, therefore, should be believed, critics asserted that, in more than one instance, these arguments were based on shaky evidence

exploitive rapists

- Exploitive, or power-assertive, rapists are twice as likely to have some contact with youth services compared with the other groups. Many of these offenders were raised in single-parent families; almost one-third lived in foster homes. As with the displaced-anger rapists, a large number of these offenders were physically abused. - In reference to adult characteristics, these rapists have many domestic issues; they also may have experienced a number of unhappy marriages. They are typically well-dressed and may frequent clubs to pick up women. This type of offender may be employed in a traditionally male occupation, such as construction. He attempts to exude an image of masculinity in his physical appearance and demeanor.79 For this offender, the "sexual behavior is hypothesized to be an impulsive, predatory act. . . . The victim seems to have little or no psychological meaning to the offender, and represents, hypothetically, a masturbatory object

Hans Eysenck: theory of crime and personality

- For more than 20 years, Hans J. Eysenck (1916-1997) developed a theory that linked personality to criminality.19 Often, discussions of this theory emphasize that human personality can be viewed in three dimensions (i.e., the PEN model). Eysenck developed his Personality Questionnaire to measure individuals on these three dimensions (see Table 7.1). The first dimension is psychoticism. Individuals considered to have high psychoticism are associated with being aggressive, cold, egocentric, impersonal, impulsive, antisocial, unempathic, creative, and tough-minded; individuals with low psychoticism are characterized as being empathic, unselfish, altruistic, warm, peaceful, and generally more pleasant - The second dimension is extroversion, with the associated traits of being sociable, lively, active, assertive, sensation-seeking, carefree, dominant, surgent, and venturesome. Introverts are usually characterized with the opposite type of traits (e.g., passive, cautious). Most individuals, however, are not exclusively extroverted or introverted; rather, these personality dimensions and associated traits exist on a continuum, with most individuals being somewhere in the middle. The last dimension is neuroticism, or instability, which is linked with such traits as anxiety, depression, guilty feelings, low self-esteem, tension, irrationality, shyness, moodiness, and emotionality - Nicole Hahn Rafter provided an insightful description of Eysenck's evolving development of a link between criminality and personality.22 Initially, Eysenck focused on two personality dimensions: neuroticism and extroversion. During this stage of theoretical development, he emphasized the extroversion dimension. Subsequently, he incorporated the psychoticism dimension. Thus, he moved "from his original concept of criminals as extroverts to identifying them with arch-villainous psychopaths."23 In an effort to explain individual differences in criminality, Eysenck maintained that these can be understood in terms of biology. He offered three arguments: (1) genetics, (2) Pavlovian conditioning, and (3) neurophysiology. - In terms of genetics, or heredity, Eysenck drew on data from twin studies. He stated that "these data . . . demonstrate, beyond any question, that heredity plays an important, and possibly a vital part, in predisposing a given individual to crime."24 (This type of assertion, however, is what made many critics distrustful of Eysenck's conclusions.25) The second argument, Pavlovian conditioning, is an essential part of his biological explanation, which is that socialized and altruistic behavior had to be learned and that this learning was mediated by means of Pavlovian conditioning. The newborn and the young child have no social conscience and behave in a purely egocentric manner. They have to acquire a "conscience" through a process of conditioning.26 - The argument was that it is more difficult to condition extroverts than introverts. Further, Eysenck maintained that classical conditioning is associated with moral behavior. Referring to various studies, Eysenck argued that "conscience is . . . a conditioned reflex."27 The last type of argument was initially based on brain physiology. When he raised this argument, it was relatively undeveloped. Later, he noted that the differences between extroverted and introverted behavior were due to cortical arousal. Eysenck maintained that cortical arousal differs among individuals "with respect to the ease or difficulty with which their level of arousal can be increased (arousability), their usual level of arousal, and the ease with which this arousal level can be maintained."28 - According to Eysenck, extroverts are characterized by a low level of cortical arousal. To achieve an ideal level of arousal, extroverts need more excitement and stimuli in their environment. Further, they are less susceptible to pain and punishment and experience less fear and anxiety. For neurotics, the biological link is in the sympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system, which involves the fight-or-flight response. Finally, the cortical arousal level is also associated with psychoticism. Like those who score high on Eysenck's measure of extroversion, those who score high in psychoticism have low levels of cortical arousal and are more difficult to condition, as well as more prone to developing antisocial behavior.29 - Eysenck's model of personality and criminality has received mixed support.30 For instance, people who score high in psychoticism are often linked to criminal behavior regardless of the methodology (e.g., self-report among the general population or offender samples). Compared with the general population, neuroticism is also higher among criminal offenders. When employing self-report methods, extroversion is usually higher among the general population but not among criminal offenders

heinz's dilemma

- Heinz's wife was dying from cancer. Doctors said a drug that had just been invented by a local chemist might save her. Heinz desperately attempted to buy the drug, but the chemist was charging 10 times the amount it cost to make the drug, and this was much more than Heinz could afford. - Even after family and friends tried to help Heinz, he could only raise half the money. He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later. - The chemist refused, saying that he deserved to make money from his discovery of the drug. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so one night he broke into the chemist's store and stole the drug. - Carol Gilligan's work explored gender differences in terms of moral orientations.41 Gilligan distinguished between moral orientations toward "care" and moral orientations toward "justice": In early childhood, girls often gravitate towards the morality of care, whereas boys often gravitate towards the morality of justice. . . . Males and females alike can develop an awareness of both care and justice; but because of widespread patterns of early experience, girls often orient more towards the former and boys towards the latter.42 - Gilligan noted that women may construct a problem differently than do men. Thus, women may fail to develop within the constraints of Kohlberg's system of moral development.43 She noted that Kohlberg's six stages of moral development were based on a study of 84 boys whose development Kohlberg followed for more than 20 years

the irresistible-impulse test

- In 1897, the federal courts, and subsequently many state courts, included the irresistible-impulse test with the M'Naghten "right-wrong" test. With this test, offenders can claim that, due to a mental disease, they were unable to control their behavior.129 The standard for this test is that the individual could not control his or her conduct. One well-known case that used this defense was that of Lorena Bobbitt. In 1993, Lorena Bobbitt severed her husband's penis with a kitchen knife - During the testimony, Mrs. Bobbitt stated that minutes after her drunken husband raped her, she was drinking a glass of water in the kitchen. It was at this time that she noticed a 12-inch knife. She picked up the knife and cut off her husband's penis while he was sleeping. She further testified that she had not realized what she had done until later. She noticed the knife in one hand and her husband's penis in the other. The defense argued that, given the abuse from her husband and also her various mental illnesses, after her husband raped her, Mrs. Bobbitt experienced an "irresistible impulse" to retaliate against him

conclusion

- In this chapter, we summarized theories that focus on psychological, rather than sociological, aspects of criminality. According to Mischel, some of the fundamental assumptions of psychological theories of criminality include the following - 1. Personality is the major motivational element within individuals, because it is the seat of drives and the source of motives. 2. Crimes result from abnormal, dysfunctional, or inappropriate mental processes within the personality. 3. Criminal behavior, although condemned by the social group, may be purposeful for the individual insofar as it addresses certain felt needs. 4. Normality is generally defined by social consensus. 5. Defective, or abnormal, mental processes may have a variety of causes, including a diseased mind, inappropriate learning or improper conditioning, the copying of inappropriate role models, and adjustment to inner conflicts - We reviewed early psychological perspectives, such as psychoanalysis, dimensions of an individual's personality (e.g., psychoticism, extroversion, and neuroticism) and criminal behavior, moral development, and attachment to significant others. Then we looked at more current psychological perspectives, beginning with the controversial discussion concerning intelligence and criminality. Next, we reviewed the theoretical perspective some have named the operant-utilitarian theory of criminality, which maintains that various factors influence criminal behavior, including biological factors, such as gender, low intelligence, impulsiveness, and body type. We concluded this section with various issues pertaining to mental health in the criminal justice system. - At the beginning of this chapter, we presented the case of Joel Michael Guy, Jr. At the time of this writing, he has been charged in his parents' murder. During one point in the trial, Joel Guy took the witness stand; he testified that he saw "yellow crime scene tape" in his parents' yard and noticed he had "severe cuts" on his person.144 However, he never stated as to why he thought there was yellow crime scene tape or why he had severe cuts.

Mental health and the criminal justice system

- The proportion of male and female jail detainees with a mental disorder is significantly higher than the proportion of people in the general population with a mental disorder.105 Some have referred to the "in and out" of prison and/or jail among offenders with mental disorders as "the revolving door."106 According to the Treatment Advocacy Center: Prisons and jails have become America's "new asylums": The number of individuals with serious mental illness in prisons and jails now exceeds the number in state psychiatric hospitals tenfold. Most of the mentally ill individuals in prisons and jails would have been treated in the state psychiatric hospitals in the years before the deinstitutionalization movement led to the closing of the hospitals, a trend that continues even today. The treatment of mentally ill individuals in prisons and jails is critical, especially since such individuals are vulnerable and often abused while incarcerated. Untreated, their psychiatric illness often gets worse, and they leave prison or jail sicker than when they entered.107 - In this section, we briefly present some of the issues associated with mental health and the criminal justice system, beginning with treatment approaches

Introduction

- Most sociological theories of crime focus on shared factors that influence offenders rather than factors that are unique to individuals: Individual difference variables are relegated to a minor, if not trivial, status in favor of influences that are thought to homogenize a collection of individuals into a population that is at risk for crime. At-risk populations are produced when social-cultural conditions combine to lower some groups' endorsement of legal norms and prohibitions.3 - In contrast to sociological theories, psychological theories of crime focus on the influence of individuals' experiences or their emotional adjustment, as well as on their personality traits and types.4 - In this chapter, we will highlight early psychological perspectives, such as the theories developed by Sigmund Freud, Hans Eysenck, Lawrence Kohlberg, and John Bowlby. - Then we will review more contemporary psychological theories of criminal behavior, beginning with a brief discussion on the controversial perspective concerning intelligence (e.g., IQ) and criminality, before moving to the theoretical perspective developed by James Q. Wilson and Richard J. Herrnstein. While these scholars never formally labeled their theory, one researcher suggested the name operant-utilitarian theory of criminality. The most controversial aspect of Wilson and Herrnstein's perspective concerns biological factors, such as gender, low intelligence, impulsiveness, and body type, in criminal behavior. - We will then explore the ways in which psychopathy has been linked with criminality. Finally, we will briefly examine issues pertaining to mental illness and the criminal justice system—specifically, treatment, mental-health courts, and the insanity defense.

sadisitic rapists

- Of the various typologies, the sadistic rapist is the most dangerous. With this type of offender, as sexual arousal increases, the aggressive nature of the offense emerges; this usually results in the most bizarre and intense forms of sexually aggressive violence.81 More than half of those designated as sadistic rapists were raised in single-parent homes. Many of these offenders were physically abused; a number of them also experienced some type of sexual deviance during childhood. - In reference to adult characteristics, the sadistic rapist is usually married, and some consider him to be a "good family man." He often lives in a middle-class residential area with low criminal activity; he typically has a better-than-average education and is employed in a white-collar occupation

freud's model of the psyche and implications for criminal behavior

- Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) originated psychoanalysis, which is founded on the perception of resistance used by individuals when therapists attempt to make them conscious of their unconscious.5 The psychoanalytic perspective is both complex and extremely systematized. This discussion provides an overview of the general principles of psychoanalysis. - First, an individual's behavior is presumed to be due to the three aspects of his or her personality: the id, ego, and superego. The id is the source of instinctual drives; it contains everything that is present at birth.6 Essentially, there are two types of instinctual drives: constructive and destructive. Constructive drives are usually sexual in nature. These drives make up the libido. Freud used the term "sex" in a broader context than we typically do today; thus, "sex" included those activities, such as painting, that give people pleasure. The other type of instinctual drive is destructive. Destructive drives refer to such things as aggression, destruction, and death - The ego is the moderator between the demands of an instinct (i.e., the id), the superego, and reality. When discussing the relationship between the id and the ego, Freud noted that the ego characterizes what is referred to as reason and sanity, while the id refers to passions. Further, there are no conflicts in the id, whereas in the ego, conflicts between impulses need to be resolved.8 The superego is also designated as a conscience. This aspect of the psyche evolves during the course of an individual's development, during which he or she learns the restrictions, mores, and values of society. - Anxiety, defense mechanisms, and the unconscious are also key principles of the psychoanalytical perspective. Anxiety is considered a warning of looming danger or a painful experience. It motivates the individual to attempt to correct the situation. In most instances, the ego can cope with this anxiety through rational measures. When this does not work, however, the ego uses irrational measures, such as rationalization. These are referred to as ego-defense mechanisms.9 (For example, a woman who has been harassed by her boss at work becomes anxious as a result. However, it would be too risky to try to work through the issue with her boss, so her anxiety persists. Later, her unresolved anxiety leads her to initiate an argument with her husband.) Discharging pent-up feelings, often of hostility, on objects less dangerous than those arousing the feelings is an example of a defense mechanism.10 - Freud maintained that large portions of the ego and superego may remain unconscious (see Figure 7.1). Further, it takes a great deal of effort for individuals to recognize their unconscious.11 The unconscious may include disturbing memories, forbidden urges, and other experiences that have been repressed or pushed out of the conscious. While individuals may be unaware of their unconscious experiences, they continue to seek some form of expression, such as in fantasies and dreams. Until these unconscious experiences are brought to awareness, they may lead the individual to engage in irrational and destructive behavior - In reference to criminal behavior, Freud stated: I must work out an analogy between the criminal and the hysteric. In both we are concerned with a secret, with something hidden. . . . In the case of the criminal, it is a secret which he knows and hides from you, but in the case of the hysteric it is a secret hidden from him, a secret he himself does not know.13 - One of the most well-known experts to apply psychoanalysis to criminal behavior was August Aichhorn (1878-1949).14 While most applications of psychoanalysis treated nervous disorders, Aichhorn attempted to uncover the unconscious motives of juveniles engaging in delinquent behavior. Aichhorn distinguished between manifest and latent delinquency. Delinquency is considered manifest when it results in antisocial behavior; latent delinquency is when the same state of mind exists but has not yet expressed itself through such behavior.15 - Since Aichhorn, there have been various adaptations of Freudian theory to understanding delinquency; some of these adaptations differ a great deal from the work of Freud and Aichhorn. For instance, Erik Erikson (1902-1994) examined adolescents struggling to discover their own ego identity while negotiating, learning, and understanding social interactions as well as developing a sense of morality and right and wrong.16 David Abrahamsen (1903-2002) maintained that criminal behavior is a symptom of more complex personality distortions; there is a conflict between the ego and superego as well as the inability to control impulsive and pleasure-seeking drives, because these influences are rooted in early childhood and later reinforced through reactions to familial and social stresses.17 Like these theories, other psychoanalytic perspectives focused on formative experiences that resulted in unconscious, internal conflicts during early childhood. These conflicts can explain why one engages in delinquent behavior

the insanity defense

- Society has often been challenged with the idea that a mentally ill person should not be held criminally responsible for his or her actions.121 The idea of excusing offenders for their criminal actions due to a mental disease has been in existence for centuries.122 Insanity is not a medical term; rather, it is a legal term. In this context, questions such as the following are raised: Is the person so insane that he or she: cannot make a valid will? should be civilly committed? cannot be tried for his or her alleged crime? - The general rationale for an insanity defense is that a person should not be punished for engaging in a criminal act if he or she could not refrain from committing the act. The law is established to punish those individuals who make the wrong choices; thus, those people who do not have free choice, due to a mental illness, should not be punished for such acts.124 - The standards for establishing an insanity defense vary extensively. Four states—Kansas, Montana, Idaho, and Utah—do not allow for an insanity defense. However, Montana, Idaho, and Utah do have a provision under which an offender can receive a guilty but insane, or mentally ill, verdict.125 Among the states that do allow an insanity defense, there are essentially four types of tests—again, with modified versions as well. These include the M'Naghten rule, irresistible impulse test, Durham test, and American Law Institute's Model Penal Code (see Table 7.5). Table 7.6 summarizes defenses related to mental health that have been attempted by defense attorneys

mental-health courts info

- The concept of mental-health courts developed from the drug-court model in the late 1980s. The first mental-health court was created in 1997 in Broward County, Florida. In 2000, President Clinton signed America's Law Enforcement and Mental Health Project into law. This act authorized the establishment of up to 100 mental-health courts and allocated $10 million a year, for up to four years, to maintain these courts.117 As with drug courts, a major reason for establishing mental-health courts was to address the large proportion of individuals with mental illnesses involved in the criminal justice system. Thus, "like drug courts and other 'problem-solving courts,' . . . mental-health courts move beyond the criminal court's traditional focus on case processing to address the root causes of behaviors that bring people before the court."118 The goals of mental-health courts include increasing public safety, increasing treatment participation and quality of life for offenders, and enhancing the use of community resources - Based on a "working definition," mental-health courts share some common features. First, this is a specialized court for offenders with mental illnesses. Second, as noted above, this court focuses more on problem-solving approaches. Third, participants in this court are identified through a series of mental-health screenings and assessments. Fourth, these offenders voluntarily participate in a judicially supervised treatment plan. Finally, there are incentives for adherence to the treatment, as well as sanctions for nonadherence.120 There are, however, variations among mental-health courts, such as target population, charge accepted (i.e., misdemeanor or felony), plea arrangement, intensity of supervision, program duration, and type of treatment available. - Most mental-health-court participants suffer from serious mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, bipolar disorder, severe depression, and anxiety disorders. Based on the Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Survey (2011-2012), Figure 7.2 shows the mental-health status of prisoners and jail inmates. Most states, when determining the criteria for participating in mental-health courts, consider offenders' level of functioning, as well as the severity and persistence of their disorders, to prioritize their access to mental-health services. Some mental-health courts accept individuals with a broad range of mental conditions.

displaced-anger rapists

- The displaced-anger, or anger-retaliation, rapists had the most chaotic and unstable childhoods. Compared with the other typologies, more of these rapists were either adopted or placed in foster homes. They often come from single-parent homes; as with the exploitive and sadistic groups, a number of these individuals were neglected and abused.77 In reference to adult social characteristics, the displaced-anger group's primary reason to rape is to hurt their victim. Rapes by such individuals are characterized by: (1) the presence of a high degree of nonsexualized aggression or rage, expressed through verbal and physical assaults that clearly exceed what is necessary to force the compliance of the victim; (2) clear evidence, in verbalizations or behavior, of the intent to demean, degrade, or humiliate the victim; (3) no evidence that aggression is eroticized or that sexual pleasure is derived from injurious acts; (4) injurious acts are not focused on parts of the body that have sexual significance. - This group averages a 9th-grade education. This type of offender perceives himself as athletic and masculine. Thus, he may engage in sports and work in an action-oriented occupation as well as engage in extramarital affairs. While this offender is often married, he is not violent toward his partner

the M'Naghten rule

- This is the oldest rule for determining insanity.126 The M'Naghten case introduced the modern concept of insanity into English common law, which later influenced law in the United States. In 1843, Daniel M'Naghten shot Edward Drummond, who was the secretary to the British prime minister, Sir Robert Peel. M'Naghten thought that Peel, along with the "Tories," was involved in a conspiracy against him. He believed that the only feasible way to resolve this issue was to kill Peel. Unfortunately, M'Naghten mistook Drummond for Peel. The issue of insanity was formally introduced in M'Naghten's trial. He was subsequently acquitted by a jury on the grounds of insanity.127 As noted in Table 7.5, the legal standard is that "he didn't know what he was doing or didn't know it was wrong." Specifically, the M'Naghten rule is as follows: Every person is presumed sane unless the contrary can be proven. A person suffering a "partial" delusion should be dealt with as if the circumstance of the delusion was real. To establish a defense on the grounds of insanity, it must be clearly proved thatat the time of committing the act,the accused was laboring under such a defect of reason,from a disease of the mind,as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing,and if he did know it (the nature and quality of the act he was doing), that he did not know what he was doing was wrong -

personality

- another derivative of behavioral learning perspectives is the relationship between personality and crime. - while the concept of personality was described in regards to the earlier research of freud, more modern day theories of personality are included as behavioral theories. - the term personality is seen as a stable pattern of behavior, thoughts and emotions that distinguish different people from one another. From this definition of personality, many researchers have attempted to identify specific criminal personality traits. - EX: the personality traits of being impulsive, hostile, narcissistic, and aggressive have all been found to be highly correlated with antisocial and criminal behaviors. While prior research has found a consistent correlation between certain personality characteristics in antisocial behavior, eyseneck's model is one theoretical model, which associates two specific personality traits with antisocial behavior. Eyenseck argued that there is a correlation between being an extrovert or an introvert and antisocial behavior. - on the one hand, extroverts are considered people who are energetic, enthusiastic, chatty, and glib. On the other hand, introverts are considered quiet, lowkey, deliberate, or detached. Now according to eysenecks model, people at either ends are at risk to engage in antisocial behaviors. Individuals who are extremely introverted or extremely extroverted are the most likely to engage in crime and delinquency. EX: extroverts who are considered extremely unstable may act in a self-destructive manner, like abusing drugs or becoming a career criminal. - while eysencks model is one example of the link between certain personality characteristics and crime, theres also a group of individuals who encompass an antisocial or psychopathic personality. A small percentage of individuals encompass aspects of an antisocial personality or a psychopathic personality. - a psychopathic personality was deemed by hervey cleckley in 1941. He refers to a specific set of characteristics of anti-social behavior and a lack of feelings, especially empathy or sensitivity towards others. Some characteristics of a psychopathic personality, according to cleckley, include a superficial charm, chronic lying, unreliability, self-centeredness, incapacity to love and among other negative characteristics. - antisocial personality types were deemed in 1968 by the american psychiatric associations diagnostic manual. Individuals with an antisocial personality type are considered basically unsocialized and whose consistent behavior pattern brings them into repeated conflicts in society. They are considered selfish, callus, irresponsible, impulsive and unable to feel guilt or learn from experiences and punishment. - in summary, these personality characteristics include a combination of traits, such as hyperactivity, impulsivity, negative emotionality and an inability to emphasize with others. These traits have been seen to make a person prone to antisocial and deviant behavior. Connecting the concept of personality, psychopathic and antisocial personality characteristics with specific information about offenders, research has shown that 15 to 25 % of prison inmates meet the APA diagnostic criteria for psychopathy.

socialization

- another line of though through psychological theories is the concept of socialization. Psychological theories also argue that socialization is extremely important in deterring criminal behavior. Crime is not a personal choice, as stated by rational choice theories or deterrence theories and crime is not a result of environmental conditions. from this, some psychological theories argue that crime occurs due to faulty socialization. If a child is not properly socialized, they become more at risk to commit delinquency and crime because their parents failed at socializing them in the correct manner. Therefore, according to socialization perspectives, crime is not a personal choice or a result of changing environmental conditions but crime is a product of faulty socialization by parents in early childhood. Remember, psychological theories focus on the past, rather than the here and now. So faulty socialization or not properly socializing children's when they are young will result in antisocial behavior when they are older.

cognitive theory

- another type of behavioral learning perspective is cognitive theory. - actually considered a more modern version of modeling theory. Since bandura conducted his research in the 1970s, cognitive theory is a blend of psychological and behavioral learning that specifically focuses on an individuals mental processes in determining antisocial and criminal behaviors. - focuses on mental processing and first, how different people process information, second, how different people perceive the world around them, and third, how different people come to solving problems based on their cognitive functioning. - includes how individuals think, plan, memorize information and how they take into consideration their own ethical values when deciding whether or not to engage in illegal behavior. Therefore, according to cognitive theory, individuals who use information properly make reasoned judgements and make rational decisions are the best at being able to avoid antisocial activities and crime. - On the other hand, individuals who have cognitive deficits and use and store information incorrectly can be considered more crime prone people. They may see crime as a quick way to meet their immediate needs and they believe that their immediate needs are more important than the social need to obey the law. - tying cognitive theory back to its link with behavioral learning perspectives, one reason for an individuals faulty judgement is that these types of people may be relying on past experiences and learning behavior, which leads them to criminal activity in the first place. EX: tim decides that he needs three hundred dollars for the new iphone that just came out. Based on this desire for a new phone, he decides to mug a random man on the street in order to steal his wallet. In the end, by stealing his wallet, tim is able to buy the phone that he wants with the cash or credit cards that he stole. However, tim was made to think that punching and mugging a random man on the street to steal his wallet was beneficial to him because his reward is the new iphone. tim thought that this was okay because over the years, he used to see his dad be violent in order to get what he wanted. - Remember though that the key concept concerning cognitive theory is that an individuals behavior depends on how different people process, interpret, and attempt to make decisions and solve problems. However this is based on how different people perceive the environment around them and what they have learned over time within their environment.

Psychological theories

- are under the consensus view point of crime, which argues that the law is created to serve the greatest good and protect the greatest number. - psychological theories are also classified as positivistic perspectives because they believe that there are factors that influence an individual's free will and choice in determining behavior. Specifically, psychological theories argue that various psychological and cognitive factors influence an individual's free will when deciding to engage in criminal or delinquent behavior. Psychological determinants of deviant or criminal behavior surrounds a deviance personality characteristics, poor impulse control, emotional issues or an immature personality. - Psychological theories blend together the assumptions from biological theories, but come from a more psychological viewpoint. What this means is that, from a psychological viewpoint, people basically inherit their morals and morality. if they engage in delinquent and criminal behavior, these individuals fundamentally lack a basis of morals or moral sentiments. The reason that biological assumptions are intertwined within psychological perspectives is the concept that morals and morality are inherited. - they argue that your morals are inherited and innate inside of us, which is where the biological component comes from. Therefore, psychological perspectives blend psychology and biology to explain deviant behavior. - throughout all psychological theories, there are some general themes. - 1st: theories are primarily micro-level perspectives (have an individual focus; they focus on the behavior of the individual person) - 2nd: believe that any problem or any psychological problem that an individual has lies with the person themselves. Also argue that sometimes the problem lies with their family. - 3rd: people develop in stages throughout their life. There are stages of development within each individual and that all of us go through these stages as we get older. - 4th: believe that early childhood change stays with the person throughout their life course. Early childhood changes in a person lies with that person throughout the rest of their life. - finally: focus on the past rather than the present and future of the individual. Focus on what has happened to you in the past, instead of what might be happening to you in the here and now to explain your behavior. These theories attempt to understand why youth engage in delinquency and crime, based on your prior history and family situations.

Questionnaire from the Eysenck Personality questionnaire: neuroticism questions

- are you a worrier? - are you inclined to tremble and perspire when faced with a difficult task ahead? - do you sometimes withhold your opinions for fear that people will laugh and criticize you?

behavioral theories

- based on behavioral theories, modeling theory, cognitive theory and the link between personality and crime, there are many policy implications that have been suggested. The first three types of policy implications focus on the need for a positive learning environment, the use of positive reinforcements for appropriate and law abiding behavior and increase the usage of positive role models in childrens lives. Supporters of behavioral learning theories also argue that policy needs to address parenting practices and specifically, how to improve child and parent relationships. If children are modeling their behavior and engaging in their own behavior based on what they have learned from parents and family members, improvements should be made in order to decrease the occurrence of antisocial acts and delinquency. Theres also the policy implication that focuses on token economies and behavior modification. The goal of token economies is to increase desirable behavior in youth and to decrease the occurrence of undesirable behavior. While token economies normally occur in residential treatment facilities or correctional facilities, it is used so that individuals can learn how to have acceptable behavior and social skills. When someone displays desirable behavior in a treatment center, like doing their chores or making their bed, they receive tokens that can later be exchanged for privileges. Tokens are also able to be taken away with the presence of undesirable behavior. modifying problematic behavior through the use of token economies in residential settings can hopefully translate to pro-social behavior in a regular social setting.

behavioral learning

- behavioral theory or behavioral learning theory believes that human behavior is developed through learning experiences. - according to this theory, everything we know today, whether criminal or non-criminal, we have learned through others. therefore, according to supporters of the behavioral perspectives, crime, especially violent crime is said to be learned through life situations. - Most of these theories argue that all behavior is based on learning experiences and learn through rewards and punishments. We may learn how to do something and keep doing it because we are rewarded. EX: say that Michael starts to hang out with a new group of friends, who instead of getting afterschool jobs, are known for selling drugs. Michael learns how to successfully sell drugs as a side job and he is rewarded with his delinquent friends for being proud of him and he is also rewarded because he's making a lot more money selling drugs than a legal after school job. - individuals also learn how to behave through direct or indirect observation of situations through life. Stephanie may learn how to dismantle a car alarm and break into a car by watching her sister do it or she may indirectly observe or learn how to break into a car by relying on the information that her sister tells her, while sitting on the couch one night about how to dismantle a car alarm. - they believe that people develop through learning and through past experiences. They also believe that people are not born with the ability to act antisocial or violent, but they learn how to be violent through their life experiences. One of their based assumptions of behavioral perspectives is that all of us are born with a blank slate. We are not born with the innate ability to act antisocial or violent, but that we learn these tendencies over time. Therefore, people develop their own behavior and actions through learning and experiences. One of the behaviors that some people learn is how to engage in committing crime. From this, engaging in criminal behavior is the result of learned responses to problematic life situations. A branch of this view of thinking is social learning theory. Crime is learned, just like any other experience. Just how you learn to tie your shoe or read a book, are the same mechanisms through life experiences is that you learn how to engage in illegal behavior. - EX: some children may watch their family members engage in violent behavior in order to achieve a goal or some children may learn how to be violent and see what they think are the potential benefits of violent behavior by watching people be rewarded for violent acts on TV or in the movies.

Questionnaire from the Eysenck Personality questionnaire: psychoticism questions

- do you enjoy hurting people you love? - would it upset you a lot to see a child or an animal suffer? - do people who drive carefully annoy you? - do you get so excited and involved with new ideas that you never think of possible snags?

Questionnaire from the Eysenck Personality questionnaire: Extroversion questions

- do you like telling jokes and funny stories to your friends? - do you prefer reading to meeting people? - do you spontaneously introduce yourself to strangers at social gatherings?

psychoanalytic thought

- early psychological theories focused on the concept of psychoanalytic thought, which is the research derived from Sigmund freud, who was considered one of the best known psychiatrists. Freud believed that we, as all individuals, carry with us throughout our lives the significant emotional attachments from our childhood. These early emotional attachments in turn guide our future relationships. Freud believed that delinquency results from psychological problems. - Delinquency is a response to an individuals psychological problems. However, freud argued the sources of these problems slightly differ by each psychological theory. Overall, he argued that delinquency is a response to psychological problems. - but the sources of these problems are different, depending on each perspective. EX: some psychological perspectives believe that problems stem from the development of our brain while other perspectives believe that problems originate from earlier relationships with your parents.

psychological theories - strengths

- first, they highlight that parent and child relationships are important. This is especially true concerning early childhood and parent relationships that supporters argue stay with the child for the rest of their life. Family is very important according to psychological theories and early childhood experiences predict future behavior. This strength ties into criminology, specifically because some criminologists argue that the best predictor of future behavior is past behavior. - second, there have been numerous types of treatment and policy implications that have been adopted due to the research that has tested psychological theories. The first implication address the benefits of counseling. Counseling can occur either on an individual or a group setting. Some group counseling sessions occur in juvenile detention centers, substance abuse treatment centers, jails, and prisons. - Another important strength of psycho theories and treatment implications include talk therapy. Talk therapy is the basis of patient and therapist communication. Frued argued that in order for patients to become relieved of their mental disorders, it is beneficial for people to talk and be able to communicate their inner issues. Through talk therapy, individuals are able to dig deep through the subconscious psychoanalytic thought. - It is important to note there are some weaknesses with counseling and talk therapy. EX: counseling and talk therapy are very time consuming and very expensive. Counseling can take months or years in order to reach any desired effects, as people will not see results in one or two sessions. Also, it is difficult with children in therapy because it is hard for them to identify what they are feeling. Based on their developmental level and age, they may have a hard time identifying what feelings they are having and how to describe them.

psychoanalytic structure of personality

- freud also argues that our personality is made up of three components, the id, the ego, and the super-ego. All three components comprise the psychoanalytic structure of personality. Freud believed that human personality is controlled by subconscious mental processes that develop early in childhood and evolve the interaction of the id, ego, and superego. - first, we have the id. The primitive part of our mental makeup. The id represents our subconscious drives for food, sex, and other life necessities. The id looks for instant gratification without any concern for others or potential consequences. The id is the fundamental aspect of our personality, from which we get our drives, wishes, urges, and desires. It is in the id where we carry this prerequisite motivation for criminal behavior. We all could be considered potential murderers, rapists, and thieves because of our id. However we are kept in check by the next component, the ego. - second, we have the ego. The ego is developed in early childhood and is primarily charged with reality testing. The ego helps control the id and helps keep our actions in check with society. The ego forces the id to delay instant gratification in order to reach and fulfill any long-term goals. In other words, our ego is the voice of reason. - third, we have the superego. the superego is developed with our personality as the moral standards, the positive values of our parents and significant others and the positive values of our community. Basically the moral guide to right and wrong. If it is properly developed, it evaluates the egos plans or dismisses the egos plans if they are morally wrong. Once again, the superego restrains us from unacceptable behavior. It is the moral aspect of our behavior and it judges our own behavior. Pinocchio- the superego could be considered our jimmy cricket. - the psychoanaltic structure of personality suggest that crime may result from a poorly developed superego. As a reminder, the id is based on pleasure, drives, urges, and wants. The ego is based on the reality of society and the superego is based on ethics and morals. EX: say that alex has the id of a potential rapist. Alex's mind may be filled with lustful drives and constantly has the urge to be inappropriate to women. The id is the component that is responsible for alex having these innate sexual drives. Then there is alex's ego. Alex's ego may develop a variety of alternative plans whereby his innate drives might be fulfilled in some otherway. Then Alex's superego comes into his mind. If alex's personality is well developed and the superego is well developed, then the superego will turn alex away from attempting to rape or assault a woman because of his positive morals. The superego holds alex's morals and will turn alex's illegal desires towards a more law-abiding direction.

psychosexual stages of development

- frued believed in the psychosexual stages of development or the concept that all of us develop in stages. There are three specific stages that occur during our development, the oral, the anal, and the phallic. - 1st stage: the oral stage: begins at birth to about 18 months old. This is a time period when a baby is entirely dependent on their parents and can do little for itself. If a baby's needs are met, he or she can then move on to the next stage. However if a baby's needs are not met, Frued argued that when the baby gets older, it will be hard for him or her to cope in a world that does not meet all of his or her demands. - 2nd stage: anal stage: from 18 months until the child is three and a half years old. This phase occurs during a time when the child is starting to be able to control their own bowel movements, they basically learn how to control themselves. The child needs to start learning how to control their urges and behaviors, like dealing with the terrible twos of a child. However, a problem emerges if the child's parents are too controlling or not controlling enough in regards to their childs behavior. - 3rd stage: phallic stage: occurs in a child who is between three and a half years old and six years old. Freud believed that boys and girls at this age begin to become focused on their own genitalia. Boys at this age are wondering why girls do not have male genitalia. and girls are wondering why they also do not have male genitalia. At this stage, both boys and girls become particularly interested in playing with their own genitals. He said at this stage, children start to have sexual feelinsg for the parent of the opposite sex. They may also become hostile with the same sex parent. Boys want to be around their mom and are attracted to their mom and are therefore mad and hostile at dad because he gets to be with mom. Boys begin to view their father as a rival for their mothers affection. the oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess his mother and the desire to replace his father. however, the son also fears that he will be punished by his father for having these feelings, a fear that freud terms castration anxiety. The term the electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experiences by girls. Freud however, believed that girls experiences penis envy. - even though frued argued that all of us go through the three psycho stages of development, he also believed that some individuals get stuck at some stages. If they do get stuck at any of the three stages, as an adult, they will encompass certain personality characteristics and behave in a particular manner. -First if an adult is stuck at the oral stage, then he or she will be highly dependent on the people in their lives or highly independent. This is because, as described on the last slide, when the adult as an infant, their urges and demands were not met from their parents. -Second if an adult is stuck in the anal stage, then they will have the personality characteristics of an anally retentive person. EX: they will have the characteristics of a person who is rigid, overly organized or anally explosive. this means as an adult, they will have little self control. theyre disorganized or hostile. -third if an adult is stuck in the phallic stage, then they are said to be sexually promiscious and amoral or they could be the complete opposite and be asexual. - Frued also believed that there is a form of internal conflict that each person deals with when they are young. Theres an early pre-adolescent conflict that arises from the interplay between our innate drives, desires, and societal restraints. Our subconscious drives and desires, whether they are emotional, sexual or any other type of drive, this is a conflict within us. This is because as humans, we want to act a certain way based on these drives and desires but society wants us to act another way. Therefore, there is this internal conflict between our innate drives and societal restraints. EX: we may want to speed a hundred miles down the highway because we have a need for speed but speed limits are put in place for our safety. We have this inner conflict between our innate energy to want to drive fast, but society restrains us from doing so or we may just want to turn at intersections whenever we want, however stoplights have been put in place to constrain us. EX: some individuals may not feel comfortable wearing clothes and feel better about themselves when they are naked. Howver, except for in a nudist community, society deems it unacceptable to not wear clothing when you are in public. If you are naked in public and people notice this, you may be arrested for indecent exposure or other types of offenses. - for some individuals, these internal conflicts between their drives and societal restraints is actually painful for them. Since the conflict is problematic, a person may attempt to drive into some form of subconscious defense mechanism. Therefore, due to earlier internal conflicts, there can be instances of pain later in life from a youth's early developmental stages. This pain can lead to abnormal behavior, crime, and delinquency. If an individual is frustrated and fighting with their inner demons from a horrible event that happened to them as a child, they may cope with this pain through anti-social behavior and crime. - EX: the cycle of violence. If a child is physically, emotionally or sexually abused when they are young or even if they are overly controlled, this pain may manifest into abusing and controlling their own children when they are older.

psychological theories - critiques

- largest critiques of this has been for its lack of scientific support based on the earlier perspectives. EX: how can you scientifically measure and test the presence of the id, ego, and superego? - 2nd: places an over emphasis with the past of individuals rather than the here and now. It argues that people are products of their childhood and there may not be room for change in individuals. - 3rd: theres an overemphasis on the individual person themselves and issues with family. What about an individuals social conditions? What about a person individual choice and free will? they have been critiqued for neglecting these aspects of choice` and environmental factors. - lastly, some criticus have argued that these theories can be sexist. one of the components of these theories argues that females engage in crime because they want to be like males. This is the penis envy component. freud believed that penis envy by females is never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixed on this stage. Some psychologists dispute freud's theory, calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women. critics propose that men experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children.

modeling theory

- one type of behavioral learning perspective is modeling theory. - albert bandura developed a very comprehensive modeling theory of aggression. He argued that although everyone is capable of being aggressive, people are not born with aggressive tendencies. If individuals are aggressive or have aggressive tendencies, they must learn them because we are not born with the innate ability to be aggressive. - Modeling theory is a form of behavioral learning theory, which argues that people learn how to act by observing and modeling the behavior and modeling the behavior of others. EX: he did an experiment where he studied young children who observe their adult role models beating up the bobo doll. When the children were observed after they watched their role models be aggressive and beat up the bobo inflatable doll, the children also showed similar aggressive behaviors. Supporters of modeling theory have also argued that excessive exposure to violence on TV shapes forms of aggression and increases interpersonal aggression on a day-to-day basis. - modeling theory posits that people learn to be aggressive through life experiences and observing others in their environment. Aggressive tendencies in children and young adults can emerge over time based on a past history of watching and observing other people who live in a hostile family environment. Parents who are aggressive put their children at risk to learn and model aggressive tendencies as they age. EX: if you live in an abusive household where you see your dad hit your mom, you may think as a child that this is a normal way that dads act towards moms or males towards females. - first, research has shown that aggressive children had parents who are also aggressive. - second environmental experiences are also influential in terms of what we all observe and model on a day to day basis throughout our lives. EX: people who live where violence occurs on a daily basis are more likely to solve their problems with violence as well. - third, concerning the mass media, films, video games and TV shows, they can also be violently graphic and influence future behavior. Especially in these specific interactions, supporters of modeling theory argue that violence is seen as an acceptable means to achieve your goals and are usually rewarded on TV and video games. - last, modeling theory also believes that watching role models, such as parents or friends, is also a learning experience and an opportunity to model behavior.

the american law institute's model penal code

About one year after the Durham decision, the American Law Institute's Model Penal Code (ALI/MPC) developed the substantial capacity test. Due to vague and contradictory rules about insanity, a number of states adopted the ALI test. The test includes the following, in Section 4.01 of the Model Penal Code: A person is not responsible for criminal conduct if at the time of such conduct as a result of mental disease or defect he lacks substantial capacity either to appreciate the criminality (wrongfulness) or his conduct or to conform his conduct to the requirements of the law - A key difference between the M'Naghten and ALI/MPC tests is that the M'Naghten test stipulates that the offender must demonstrate total mental impairment; the ALI/MPC test stipulates that the offender must demonstrate a lack of substantial capacity.

Early psychological theorizing regarding criminal behavior

Early psychological perspectives on criminality included psychoanalysis, dimensions of an individual's personality (e.g., psychoticism, extroversion, and neuroticism) and criminal behavior, moral development, and attachment to significant others.

extroversion

In reference to the PEN model, traits associated with extroversion include being sociable, lively, active, assertive, sensation-seeking, carefree, dominant, surgent, and venturesome

the durham rule

In the 1954 case Durham v. United States, the court included a volitional or free-choice component to the insanity defense. Thus, according to the Durham rule, offenders are not criminally responsible, even if they are aware of their conduct, if this behavior was the "product of mental disease or defect."131 Judge David Bazelon noted that the M'Naghten rule was too narrow. The court argued that the test should incorporate the situation in which psychopathic disorders are qualifying conditions

Kohlberg's levels of moral development

LVL of moral development: Preconventional Stage of reasoning: stage 1- obedience to power and avoidance of punishment, Stage 2- taking responsibility and leaving others to be responsible for themselves. LVL of moral development: Conventional Stage of reasoning: Stage 3- being considerate: uphold the values of other adolescents and adults rules of society at large, Stage 4- being good at defined by the values and norms of family and society at large LVL of moral development: Postconventional Stage of reasoning: Stage 5- finding an inner universal rights balance between self-rights and societal rules- a social contract, Stage 6- a higher order of applying principles to all humankind; being nonjudgemental and respecting all human life

preconventional level of morality

a level of morality characteristic of designating what is considered right or wrong

conventional level of morality

a level of morality considered the normal adult approach to maintaining the family and social order, including appreciation of the golden rule and the importance of social order

intelligence quotient (IQ)

a quantified measure of intelliegnce

ID

a subconscious domain of the psyche, according to freud, with which we are all born; it is responsible for our innate desires and drives (such as libido (sex drive), and it battles the moral conscience of the superego)`

superego

a subconscious domain of the psyche; according to freud, it is not part of our nature but must be developed through early social attachments

psychoanalytic perspective

an individual's behavior is presumed to be due to the three aspects of his or her personality: the ID, ego, and superego; anxiety, defense mechanisms, and the unconscious are key principles of the psychoanalytical perspective

thinking for a change

an integrated cognitive-behavioral change program that includes cognitive restructuring, social skill development, and the development of problem-solving skills

according to eysenck, which of the following is NOT associated with one of the three dimensions linked to criminality?

anxiety

mental-health courts

courts established to address the large proportion of individuals involved in the criminal justice system who have mental illnesses. The first was created in 1997.

PEN model

discussions of this theory emphasize that human personality can be viewed in three dimensions: psychoticism, extroversion, and neuroticism

mental-health courts were modeled after __________-

drug courts

for this standard, the court included a volitional or free choice component to the insanity defense

durham

neuroticism

in reference to the PEN model, neuroticism is often linked with anxiety, depression, tension, irrationality, shyness, moodiness, emotionality, guilty feelings, and low self esteem

psychoticism

individuals considered to have high psychoticism are associated with being aggressive, cold, egocentric, impersonal, impulsive, antisocial, umempathic, creative, and tough minded; individuals with low psychoticism are characterized as being empathic, unselfish, altruistic, warm, peaceful, and generally more pleasant.

psychopaths

individuals whose antisocial behavior may be the result of a defect or abnormality rather than the result of their rearing or socialization

durham rule

offenders are not criminally responsible, even if they are aware of their conduct, if this behavior was the product of mental disease or defect

irresistible impulse

one standard for the insanity defense; offenders can claim that, due to a mental disease, they were unable to control their behavior

american law institute's model penal code (ALI/MPC)

one standard for the insanity defense; the ALI/MPC test stipulates that the offender demonstrate a lack of substantial capacity

wilson and herrnstein argued that street crime is associated with human nature and maintained that human nature develops and evolves from the interaction of three factors. Which of the following is NOT one of those three factors?

peer relationships

sociopaths

people whose antisocial personalities are due to social or familial dysfunction

according to kohlberg, designating certain behaviors as "right" and "wrong" regardless of the circumstances is characteristic of the ____________ level of morality

preconventional

according to cleckley, an individual who displays certain characteristics that are maladaptive and pathological, as well as key traits that appear ostensibly adaptive or at least non pathological is a ______

primary psychopath

according to freud, which of the following is also designated as a conscience?

superego

insanity

the idea which has been in existence for centuries of excusing offenders for their criminal actions due to a mental disease; the term is not a medical term but a legal term

M' naghten rule

the legal standard that "he didn't know what he was doing or didn't know it was wrong" resulting from the M'naghten case, which introduced the modern concept of insanity into english common law.

ego

the only conscious domain of the psyche; according to freud, it functions to mediate the battle between the id and superego

some have referred to the In and out of prison and/or jail among offenders with mental disorders as __________

the revolving door