Chapter 8

Which of the following statements best represents a child whose self-esteem is contingent on success?

I failed the driving test because I am stupid and can't multitask."

Why has China provided such a unique setting for studying the experience of children without siblings?

In 1979, to control an exploding population, the People's Republic of China established an official policy of limiting families to one child each.

Cognitive-developmental theory claims that the key process of gender development is

self-categorization.

In the context of cognitive gender differences, compared with boys, girls tend to perform better on tests of

memory for locations of objects

According to studies, reticent children tend to

not lean one way or another regarding their popularity with peers.

Martha, a psychologist, believes that children learn how to behave appropriately either as a boy or a girl by observing how others behave around them in their homes, schools, and playgrounds. Based on the information given in the scenario, it can be said that Martha supports

social cognitive theory.

According to the ________ perspective, the key process supporting gender development in children is observation of models and reinforcement.

social learning

In the context of the types of play identified by Mildred B. Parten, ________ involves a child who plays alone with toys that are different from those used by nearby children and makes no effort to get close to them.

solitary independent play

Samuel, who is in his early childhood, loves his mother and wants to spend all his time with her. He often tells her that he hopes to marry her once he grows up. Soon, however, Samuel begins to feel guilty about his thoughts and starts trying to become more and more like his father. Which of the following perspectives on gender development explains Samuel's behavior?

the psychoanalytic approach

A criticism of Diana Baumrind's theory on parenting styles is that

the theory does not consider innate factors such as a child's temperament that might affect competence.

Young children tend to overestimate their abilities because

they often receive positive feedback from the adults around them.

According to Diana Baumrind, authoritarian parents are high in control and ________ in warmth.

low

Prosocial behavior is

voluntary

Which of the following statements best represents an individual whose self-esteem is noncontingent on success?

"I could not win the race because my horse was not physically fit."

Who among the following is illustrating prosocial behavior?

Alan who donates new blankets to an orphanage

Which of the following theorists proposed that children learn gender roles through socialization?

Albert Bandura

________ is a behavior intended to help others out of inner concern and without expectation of external reward.

Altruism

In the context of Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of gender constancy, which of the following is true of gender stability?

Children at this stage base judgments about gender on superficial appearances.

In the context of social learning theory, which of the following is true of peer influences in gender-typing?

Children who play by themselves tend to be more gender-typed than children who play with mixed-gender groups.

Which of the following statements reflects the evolutionary perspective on gender development?

Children's gender roles underlie the evolved mating and child-rearing practices of adults

David's parents feel that their son is exceptionally smart and has already accomplished self-definition. Which of the following, if true, would nullify this claim?

David now describes himself in terms of concrete, isolated traits

Emma's son, Davis, is effeminate. If Emma supports the social cognitive approach to gender development, to which of the following is she most likely to attribute Davis's effeminate nature

Davis is homeschooled, and he has no male role models in a household full of women.

Derek is discussing gender differences with his friend Afzal. He argues that gender differences are not merely cultural inventions but are biologically based. Which of the following, if true, would counter this argument?

Gender roles differ across various cultures.

In the context of Mildred B. Parten's categories of social and nonsocial play, which of the following is a reticent child most likely to do during playtime?

He or she will linger around other children and watch them play or just wander aimlessly.

________ refers to aggressive behavior used as a means of achieving a goal

Instrumental aggression

Identify a true statement about dramatic play.

It helps children develop goal-seeking skills and planning skills

In the context of Smilansky's cognitive levels of play, which of the following is true of functional play?

It involves the repeated use of large muscular movements.

Which of the following is true of relational aggression?

It is a form of indirect social aggression and involves ostracism, manipulation, teasing, and so on.

In the context of Smilansky's cognitive levels of play, which of the following is true of dramatic play

It is based on the symbolic function, which emerges during the last part of the second year.

Which of the following is true of reticent play?

It is considered a manifestation of shyness.

Which of the following is true of instrumental aggression?

It is mainly used to gain possession of an object.

Which of the following is true of gender-schema theory?

It proposes that gender schemas promote gender stereotypes by influencing judgments about behavior.

Which of the following cultures value self-esteem the least in the development of children's sense of self?

Japan

Based on a study by Furukawa and others from 2012, we would expect which of the following children to express the most shame?

Japanese

Monica's son, Joseph, hit another child at his school. When Monica was summoned by the principal, her defence was that Joseph had merely engaged in some instrumental aggression, which is normal at this stage of childhood. Which of the following factors, if true, would strengthen her argument?

Joseph is 2½ years old.

Which of the following illustrates the concept of altruism?

Jovi taking a sick dog on the street to the veterinary clinic

Based on a study by Furukawa and others from 2012, we would expect which of the following children to express the most guilt?

Koreans

In power assertion, a form of disciplinary technique, which of the following does a parent do to discourage undesirable behaviors in a child?

Make demands, threats, and withdraw privileges.

On which of the following grounds has Mildred B. Parten's theory on social and nonsocial play been challenged by other researchers?

Nonsocial play is not less mature than social play, and some children simply choose to play alone.

Which of the following is a true of the emotion of fear in children?

Older children's fears are self-evaluative.

In the context of social learning theory, which of the following is true of family influences on gender-typing?

Parents sometimes tend to respond to rather than encourage children's gender-typed behavior.

Seven-year-old Angelica gets extremely disheartened when she fails at a new task. She blames herself for her failure and begins to feel that she is worthless and that her skills are inadequate. She then avoids doing that task altogether. Which of the following should Angelica's parents avoid doing if they want Angelica to believe that she can succeed if she tries harder?

Praise her more for her inherent abilities.

Identify a true statement about sex segregation in the context of play.

Regardless of the cultural group they come from, boys tend to engage in more exploratory play.

________ is a combination of Mildred B. Parten's unoccupied and onlooker categories of social and nonsocial play.

Reticent play

Which of the following is true of the gender differences exhibited by children?

The degree of sex-typed behavior exhibited early in life is a strong indicator of later gender-based behavior.

Which of the following is a criticism of Diana Baumrind's model of parenting styles?

The researcher has failed to establish cause and effect between the parenting styles and the respective behaviors of children.

Which of the following is true of the self-concept?

The self-concept has a social aspect.

In the context of social play, which of the following is true of sex segregation during the preschool years?

The tendency of preschoolers to dress in stereotypically gender typed ways occurs regardless of parental pressure

In the context of Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of gender constancy, which of the following is true of children who are in the stage of gender consistency?

They realize that changes in outward appearance do not affect gender.

In the context of discipline, which of the following is true of inductive techniques?

They tend to arouse empathy for the victim of wrongdoing.

According to Mancillas (2006), contrary to children who have siblings, which of the following is true of only children?

They tend to have slightly higher self-esteem

Which of the following is a difference in gendered behavior proposed by Darwin in his theory of sexual selection?

Unlike women, who must invest a great deal in children, men may invest minimally in their children.

In the context of Mildred B. Parten's categories of social and nonsocial play, parallel play occurs when

a child plays alongside other children, but not with other children, and does not try to influence the other children's play.

As children of ethnic and racial minorities become more cognitively sophisticated, the conversations with parents include

advice on how avoid having to deal with white people.

Amina's teacher conducts a surprise biology test in the first week of the school year. The new girl sitting next to Amina forgets to bring her pen. Although Amina is not yet acquainted with the girl, she gives the girl her own pen and takes out another one from her bag for herself. In this scenario, Amina's gesture exemplifies

altruism

Which of the following parents would be most likely to agree with the notion that play is "children's work"?

an older couple from China with no children

In the context of disciplinary techniques used on children, inductive techniques

appeal to a child's reasoning abilities and moral values.

During summer vacations, Sapphire and her friends spend a lot of time together. They do not play any specific games, but they like to spend time by the nearby stream, roll on the grass, run after dragonflies, and collect berries. In the context of styles of play identified by Diana Baumrind, Sapphire and her friends' playing pattern reflects

associative play

A child who has a noncontingent self-esteem

attributes failure or disappointment to factors outside the self.

Svetlana's parents are extremely strict and unyielding. They rarely let her go out of the house unaccompanied. Her parents expect her to do her chores in the specific times they have set for her. Svetlana is often punished for failing to live up to her parents' expectations. Based on Diana Baumrind's classification of parenting styles, it can be said that Svetlana's parents are

authoritarian

In the context of the parenting styles identified by Diana Baumrind, ________ is a parenting style emphasizing control and obedience, where children conform to a set standard of conduct and are punished for violating it.

authoritarian parenting

Mark and Susanne believe that they are responsible for creating an environment at home in which their children feel safe to express themselves and talk about their problems. They believe in giving their children enough freedom as long as they respect the rules of the house and do not go overboard. They punish their children only when they commit serious mistakes. Based on Diana Baumrind's classification of parenting styles, Mark and Susanne most likely follow the ________ style.

authoritative parenting

According to the social learning approach to gender development, which of the following would most likely strengthen a boy's gender role formation?

being appreciated for engaging in gender-appropriate behavior

In authoritative homes, children

can decide whether it is worth risking parental displeasure to pursue a goal.

An individual who supports Lawrence Kohlberg's perspective on gender development is also most likely to believe that

children achieve gender constancy before they adopt gender-appropriate behaviors

A disorder in girls that is characterized by preferences for boys' toys, rough play, male playmates, and strong spatial skills is called

congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Cassandra is an 8-year-old girl who behaves like a boy. She likes playing with cars and action figures rather than with dolls. She also prefers to dress like a boy and often throws a fit when asked to wear a skirt. Cassandra also has good spatial skills. Her prenatal medical reports suggest that she had high levels of androgens even before birth. Cassandra is most likely to have

congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

Erikson's concept of the conflict between initiative vs. guilt marks a split between two parts of the personality, the part that is full of desire to test new powers and the part that is

constantly examining the propriety of motives and actions.

Nadiya loves to sketch colorful pictures in her sketching book and play with building blocks. She, however, still cannot join her older sister in more complex games such as hopscotch and monopoly as they involve rules and regulations. In the context of the types of play identified by Smilansky, Nadiya is in the ________ level.

constructive play

In the evenings, 4-year-old Zack goes down to the area within the premises of his apartment where all the other children of the building gather to play. Together, the children decide which games they want to play each day. Zack and his friend usually decide the rules of the game and assign roles to all other children in the group. This is an example of

cooperative play.

Alana's teacher informs her mother that Alana has lied about homework. When Alana comes home from school, her mother spanks her so that she never lies again. Alana's mother's reaction to her daughter's misdeed is termed

corporal punishment

Which of the following refers to the use of physical force with the intention of causing pain but not injury so as to correct or control behavior?

corporal punishment

In the context of the development of the self-concept and self-definition, a 4-year-old child is most likely to

describe himself or herself by listing particular skills.

In the context of play, compared to children from Asian cultures, children from Western cultures are more likely to

disregard other children's suggestions and opinions about a game

Rosette is dressed in her mother's blouse and skirt and is playing with her friend in her house. The girls have cooked up a story in which they are playing the roles of their respective mothers. They are using imaginary objects in their play as Rosette's mother has restricted her from playing with the things around the house. According to Smilanksy's types of play, Rosette and her friend are engaged in

dramatic play

Darwin's theory of sexual selection is associated with the ________ approach to gender development.

evolutionary

Regardless of the cultural group they come from, boys tend to engage in more ________ play.

exploratory

The first stage in the development of self-definition in which children describe themselves in terms of individual, unconnected characteristics

fails to separate the real from the ideal self.

When the children from ethnic and racial minorities are younger, parents tend to

focus on affirming content such as promoting cultural traditions.

Raoul, a 6-year-old, recently graduated from preschool. He enjoys playing games such as "Simon says" and "Scrabble" and follows the steps and procedures involved in such games. According to Smilansky's types of play, Raoul is exhibiting the ability to engage in

formal games with rules.

Bob is 15 months old. His favorite play activity is to stand in his crib and repeatedly hit a toy on the mobile dangling right above it. He breaks into laughter when the miniature figures make a jingling sound. In the context of the types of play identified by Smilansky, Bob is in the ________ level.

functional play

Robin, a 1-year-old, loves playing with his father. He usually plays a game with his father in which he throws a stuffed ball at his father and his father throws it back at him. Although Robin fails to catch the ball most of the time, he seems to enjoy the game. In the context of Smilansky's cognitive levels of play, it can be said that Robin is now capable of

functional play

In the context of Smilansky's cognitive levels of play, the simplest level of play that begins during infancy is called

functional play.

In the context of Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of gender constancy, ________ occurs between ages 3 and 7 with the realization that a girl remains a girl even if she plays with trucks, and a boy remains a boy even if he has long hair.

gender consistency

Jonah is 7 years old. His aunt teases him by saying that he will turn into a girl if he breaks another one of his toys. To this, Jonah exclaims, "No! You're lying. I know I will always be a boy. Forever!" Based on this information, it can be said that Jonah has achieved

gender constancy.

Which of the following refers to psychological or behavioral variations between males and females?

gender differences

Seven-year-old Zain goes to a coeducational school. Even though his school encourages boys and girls to interact and play in mixed groups, Zain likes spending time only with the other boys. The girls in his class also prefer to play among themselves and interact minimally with the boys in the class. Which of the following does this scenario illustrate?

gender segregation

The tendency to select playmates of one's own gender is known as

gender segregation

Gregory, Nancy's boss, tells her that she need not accompany him on an upcoming business trip. He states that it would be a long and tedious journey and that Nancy would not able to handle it and would fall ill. However, he encourages the male members in the team to accompany him. This scenario exemplifies

gender stereotypes

Lawrence Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental theory on gender development states that a child's

gender-typing depends on gender constancy.

Alex is repeatedly told at home, in school, and among peers to toughen up. If he cries, he is either laughed at or scolded for crying—because "Boys don't cry." In this scenario, the social elements in Alex's life are engaging in

gender-typing.

Nina's 8-year-old daughter, Sara, is extremely unruly and cannot be reasoned with through any amount of pleading. At the grocery store, Sara almost drops an entire rack of canned products on herself while trying to shake the rack violently. Nina gets angry, but she decides to ignore it. Even after they reach home, Nina chooses to ignore the earlier incident to avoid Sara's tantrums. Considering the dangerous consequences Sara's action could have had, Nina should have addressed it immediately. In this scenario, Nina should have ideally

given Sara some form of punishment tied to her behavior after they reached home.

In the context of forms of discipline, which of the following is an example of tangible external reinforcement?

giving a bar of chocolate to a child for behaving well

Sonia believes in the psychoanalytic approach to gender development. Sonia is most likely to believe that her 6-year-old daughter, Jenny, has turned out be extremely girlish because Jenny

has modeled her behavior and values after Sonia.

According to Diana Baumrind, authoritative parents are high in control and ________ in warmth

high

In contrast to their Chinese and Indian counterparts, America parents tend to encourage children's

humility

Eight-year-old Anna likes to dress up like her mother and pretends to do chores around the house that her mother does. She says that one day she will be a good mother to her children just like her mother is to her. According to the psychoanalytic theory, which of the following concepts is illustrated in this scenario?

identification

In Freudian theory, the process by which a young child adopts characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors of the parent of the same sex is called

identification

According to Freud's psychoanalytic perspective on gender development, identification occurs when a child

identifies with the parent of the same sex.

According to the social learning approach to gender development, a child is most likely to acquire a gender role by

imitating models and being rewarded for exhibiting gender-appropriate behavior.

Rochelle takes her 4-year-old son, Ethan, to the farmers' market. At one of the fruit stalls that they visit, Ethan picks up some strawberries from a crate and throws them on to the ground. Rochelle, however, decides to keep her cool and not scold Ethan immediately. On their way back, Rochelle explains to Ethan how the man at the fruit stall would lose some of his money because his strawberries got wasted. She asks Ethan if he would be sad if someone did that to him. In this scenario, which of the following disciplinary strategies did Rochelle use to discourage Ethan's undesirable behaviour?

inductive reasoning

Three-year-old Feroz sees his mother playing with their neighbor's toddler and feels jealous. He walks over to the other child, pushes him aside, and sits on his mother's lap. In this scenario, Feroz is exhibiting

instrumental aggression.

In the context of Smilansky's cognitive levels of play, constructive play

involves the use of objects to make something.

A misconception about the evolutionary approach to gender development is that it

is deterministic in nature and is highly resistant to change.

When Tim, a 4-year-old, is asked to introduce himself on his first day at the playschool, he says, "I am Tim. I live with my mom. I love my grandmother very much. I have two toy trucks and one basketball. I can do cartwheels. I have a pet parrot. . . . I like apple pie. I am really funny. I know 10 rhymes. I have a dimple on my face. I am always happy." In this scenario, Tim's introduction of himself reflects

one-dimensional - or single - representations

Xavier is 3 years old and is extremely shy of strangers. He does not play with children of his age. Instead, he spends his time watching the other children in the neighborhood play. In the context of Mildred B. Parten's categories of social and nonsocial play, this is an example of

onlooker behavior.

Ronnie overhears one of his classmates making derogatory remarks about him to another boy while he was walking toward his classroom. Ronnie barges into the classroom and punches his classmate. In this scenario, Ronnie is engaging in

overt aggression.

Rene likes to accompany her mother on her social visits. She, however, does not actively play with the other children in any of the houses she visits. Instead, she prefers to sit quietly alongside the children in the house and play her own games. In the context of the categories of play identified by Mildred B. Parten, which of the following types of play does this scenario illustrate?

parallel play

Julia is a single mother who lives with her 14-year-old son. Julia is indulgent with her son and buys him whatever he likes. She never raises her voice at him or punishes him, even if he misbehaves. In the context of the parenting styles identified by Diana Baumrind, Julia's parenting style reflects

permissive parenting.

A child whose self-esteem is contingent on success is most likely to attribute poor performance to

personality deficiencies.

In the context of contingent self-esteem, children who believe that they can succeed if they try, who enjoy challenges, and who have faith in their ability to meet those challenges tend to have parents who

praise their efforts

A girl with congenital adrenal hyperplasia disorder would

prefer boys over girls as playmates.

Grace's teacher scolds her in front of the entire class because of Shelly, her classmate. Grace now does not see eye-to-eye with Shelley and wants to harm Shelly in some way. She starts by spreading nasty rumours about Shelly to ruin her reputation and isolate her. She also posts some of Shelly's old pictures on a social networking site from an anonymous account. In this scenario, Grace is engaging in

relational aggression.

Mikhail carries his own toys whenever his mother takes him to the park. He insists on playing with his own toys and refuses to share them. He also refuses to go near the other children even if his mother insists. Based on Mildred B. Parten's categories of social and nonsocial play, which of the following does Mikhail engage in?

solitary independent play

There is emerging evidence that gender identity

strongly influenced by biology

In permissive homes, children

tend to develop uncertainty and anxiousness about their actions.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Children opposes all forms of physical violence against children. Which of the following nations have yet to ratify the convention?

the United States and Somalia

In the context of the psychoanalytic approach to gender development, a girl who is going through the process of identification is most likely to

try and replicate her mother's behavior and mannerisms.

Andrea's 5-year-old son has been down with fever for the past two days. Andrea, however, leaves him with a teenage babysitter to attend a friend's party. She has left her son alone in the house on several occasions to go out with her friends. In the context of Diana's Baumrind's parenting styles, which of the following parenting styles does Andrea illustrate?

uninvolved parenting

Derek believes that some gender roles are biologically based. He is also most likely to believe that

variability in male and female gender roles is rare across cultures

Children whose self-esteem is contingent on success are most likely to

view criticism as an indictment of their worth.

Lidia's son Jose has been misbehaving with the other children in his preschool for the past few days. Lidia is upset about it and wants to correct her son's behavior. One day, as Jose comes to show her one of his drawings, Lidia grimaces and looks away. On another occasion, she closes the door of her bedroom, leaving Jose in the hall, something she usually does not do. Lidia feels that her curt treatment would make Jose realize his mistake. In this case, which of the following disciplinary strategies is Lidia using?

withdrawal of love