Chapter 9-12 Q-Notes \\ Oh

How did women abolitionists help improve prisons and create asylums?

- 1841: Dix discovers that insane women are jailed alongside criminal men; persuades Mass. lawmakers to enlarge state hospitals to house the mentally ill and succeeds - Dix begins national movement to establish state asylums and made reports that prompted many states to improve their prisons and public hospitals

What was the Gang-Labor System?

- A system of work discipline used on southern cotton plantations in the mid-nineteenth century in which white overseers or black drivers supervised gangs of enslaved laborers to achieve greater productivity

Was there internal conflict within the abolitionist movement?

- Evangelical abolitionists fought among themselves over gender issues; many antislavery clergymen opposed an activist role for women, but Garrison had broadened his reform agenda to include pacifism (abolition of prisons) and women's rights - 1840: Garrison's demand that the American Anti-Slavery Society support women's rights split the abolitionist movement

What or who were Notables?

- Northern landlords, slave-owning planters, and seaport merchants who dominated the political system of the early nineteenth century

What was the Panic of 1837?

- Second major economic crisis of the United States, which led to hard times from 1837 to 1843

What was the Republican Aristocracy?

- The Old South gentry that built impressive mansions, adopted the manners and values of the English landed gentry, and feared federal government interference with their slave property

What is amalgamation?

- The racial mixing and intermarriage that Garrison seemed to support by holding meetings of blacks and whites of both sexes

How was sex one important aspect of the new urban culture?

- "Sporting men" engaged freely in sexual conquests, respectable married men kept mistresses, and working men frequented brothels - Prostitutes, "public" women, openly advertised their services on Broadway - Many men considered illicit sex as right and believed that "passions should be ratified"

What was the abolitionists' three-pronged plan of attack to abolish slavery?

- "The Bible Against Slavery" (1837) to garner support from religious Americans and "American Slavery as It Is: Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses" (1839) to show the condition and treatment of slaves - Aiding fugitive slaves; Underground railroad, provided lodging and jobs for escaped blacks in free states - Political campaign from 1835 to 1838- American Anti-Slavery Society bombarded Congress with petition containing nearly 500,000 signatures; demanded the abolition of slavery in DC, an end to interstate slave trade, and a ban on admission of new slave states

Who was Mother Ann and what was her effect on the Shakers?

- 1770: Ann Lee Stanley had a vision that she was an incarnation of Christ in Manchester England- 4 years later she led a few followers to America and established a church near Albany, NY

What were industrial towns that sprouted along the "fall line", where rivers descended rapidly from the Appalachian Mountains to the coastal plain?

- 1822: Boston Manufacturing Company built a complex of mills in a sleepy Merrimack River village that quickly became the bustling textile factory town of of Lowell, Massachusetts - The towns of Hartford, Connecticut; Trenton, New Jersey; and Wilmington, Delaware, also became urban centers as mill owners exploited the water power of their rivers and recruited workers from the countryside

What was the so-called gag rule?

- 1836-1844: the House of Representatives adopted this informal agreement in which the House automatically tabled antislavery petitions, keeping the explosive issue of slavery off the congressional stage

What was the Seneca Falls Convention?

- 1848: organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott - 70 women, 30 men attended this convention, which issued a rousing manifesto extending to women the egalitarian republican ideology of the Declaration of Independence

Who were the Salt Lake Mormons and what was their significance?

- 6500 Mormons who fled to present-day Utah after smith fled to Europe - Used cooperative labor and an irrigation system based on communal water rights; quickly spread agricultural communities along the base of the Wasatch Range - Eventually petitioned to become their own state/region- Instead Congress allotted Utah territory and appointed Young the governor - Succeeded even as other social experiments failed by reaffirming traditional values, the use of strict religious controls by leaders - However, by endorsing private property and individual enterprise, they became prosperous contributors to new market society - Blend of economic innovation, social conservatism, and hierarchal leadership in combination with a strong missionary impulse created a wealthy and expansive church with a worldwide membership of about 12 million people

What was the Erie Canal?

- A 364 mile waterway connecting the Hudson River and Lake Erie; key event of water-borne transportation system of unprecedented size, complexity, and cost - First great engineering project in American history; altered the ecology of an entire region - Instant economic success; brought prosperity to the farmers of central and western NY and the entire Great Lakes region - Northern manufacturers shipped clothing, boots, and agricultural equipment to farm families; in exchange, farmers sent grain, cattle, and hogs as well as raw materials to eastern cities and foreign markets - Spectacular benefits prompted a national canal boom

Who was Susan B. Anthony? (1820-1906)

- A Quaker who had acquired political skills in the temperance and antislavery movements - Joined the women's rights movements and worked closely with Elizabeth Cady Stanton - Created an activist network of political "captains" all women, who relentlessly lobbied state legislatures

Who was the American Colonization Society?

- A Society that thought slavery was bad - They would buy land in Africa and get free blacks to move there - One of these such colonies was made into what now is Liberia - Most sponsors just wanted to get blacks out of their country

What is evangelical abolitionism?

- A cadre of northern evangelical Christians launched a moral crusade to abolish the slave regime - Radical christians warned that slaveholders would face eternal damnation at the hands of a just God

What was Nat Turner's revolt?

- A chronological coincidence that had far-reaching consequences - Turned took an eclipse of the sun in August 1831 as an omen and he and a group of relatives and friends rose in rebellion and killed at least 55 white men, women, and children -Hoped for hundreds, but only got 60 men to rally for his cause - White militia quickly dispersed his poorly armed force and took their revenge

What was Black Protestantism?

- A form of Protestantism that was devised by Christian slaves in the Chesapeake and spread to the Cotton South as a result of the domestic slave trade - It emphasized the evangelical message of emotional conversion, ritual baptism, communal spirituality, and the idea that blacks were "children of God" and should be treated accordingly

What was the political machine?

- A highly organized group of insiders that directs a political party. As the power of notables waned in the 1820s, disciplined political parties usually run by professional politicians appeared in a number of states

What was Caucus?

- A meeting held by a political party to choose candidates, make policies, and enforce party discipline

What is the American Renaissance?

- A mid-nineteenth century flourishing of literature and philosophy - Influenced by a generation of important artists who wrote a remarkable number of first-class novels, poems, and essays

What is European romanticism?

- A new concept of self and society - Romantic thinkers rejected the ordered, rational world of the eighteenth century Enlightenment - Embraced human passion and sought deeper insight into the mysteries of existence

Who was Nat Turner?

- A slave in Southampton County, Virginia that staged a bloody revolt - Taught himself how to read and had hoped for emancipation, but was forced into the fields and separated from his wife - Became deeply spiritual and had a religious vision - Eventually died by hanging

What was Slave Society?

- A society in which the institution of slavery affects all aspects of life - How it was in the South

What was the chattel principle?

- A system of bondage in which a slave has the legal status of property and so can be bought and sold - Underpinned the entire south economic system

What was the Task System?

- A system of labor common in the rice-growing regions of South Carolina in which a slave was assigned a daily task to complete and allowed to do as he wished upon its completion

What was the Tariff of Abominations?

- A tariff enacted in 1828 that raised duties significantly on raw materials, textiles, and iron goods - New York senator Van Buren hoped to win the support of farmers in New York, Ohio, and Kentucky with the tariff, but it enraged the South, which had no industries that needed tariff protection and resented the higher cost of imported dutied goods

What was "consolidated government"?

- A term meaning a powerful and potentially oppressive national government

What was corrupt bargain?

- A term used by Andrew Jackson's supporters for the appointment by President John Quincy Adams of Henry Clay as secretary of state, the traditional stepping-stone to the presidency - Clay had used his influence as Speaker of the House to elect Adams rather than Jackson in the election in 1824

What were some American advantages and strategies in the textile industry?

- Abundance of natural resources; nation's farmers produced huge amounts of cotton and wool; fast-flowing rivers cascaded from Appalachian foothills to the Atlantic coastal plain and provided a cheap source of energy - American entrepreneurs relied on help from the federal government; 1816, 1824, and 1828 Congress passes tariff bills that taxes imported cotton and woolen cloth - Strategies: 1. improved upon British technology (ex. textile mills) 2. to tap a cheaper source of labor (young women from farm families)

What was the Indian Removal Act of 1830?

- Act that directed the mandatory relocation of eastern tribes to territory west of the Mississippi - Jackson insisted that his goal was to save the Indians and their culture - Indians resisted the controversial acts, but in the end most were forced to comply.

Give a brief overview o Benjamin Banneker

- African-American scientist who taught himself calculus and trigonometry. He also helped design the capitol in Washington D.C.

Who was Henry David Thoreau? (1817-1862)

- American writer who heeded Emerson's call and sought inspiration from the natural world - Lived alone near Walden pond in search for meaning beyond the artificiality of civilized society - Advocated a thorough-going individuality, urged readers to avoid unthinking conformity to social norms and peacefully resisting to unjust laws - Sought self-realization for men

What was the "Positive Good" Argument?

- An argument in the 1830s that the institution of slavery was a "positive good" because it subsidized an elegant lifestyle for the white elite and provided tutelage for genetically inferior Africans - Used to defend the institution of slavery - Apologists depicted planters and their wives as aristocratic models of disintegrated benevolence, who provided food and housing for their workers and cared for them in old age

What is perfectionism?

- An evangelical Protestant movement of the 1830's - Followers believed that Christ had already returned to earth (the Second Coming) and therefore people could aspire to sinless perfection in their earthly lives - Lived conventional personal lives

What was Specie Circular?

- An executive order in 1836 the required the Treasury Department to accept only gold and silver in payment for lands in the national domain

What was artisan republicanism?

- An ideology of production based on liberty and equality - Artisans and craft workers saw themselves as small-scale producers, equal to one another and free to work for themselves

What was the Underground Railroad?

- An informal network of whites and free blacks in Richmond, Charleston and other southern towns that assisted fugitives - Harriet Tubman and other runaways risked re-enslavement or death by returning repeatedly to the South to help others escape - About one thousand African Americans reached freedom in the North each year

What is Transcendentalism?

- An intellectual movement rooted in the religious soil of New England - Individual self-realization - Its first advocates were Unitarian ministers from New England families who questioned the constraints of their Puritan heritage - Turned to European romanticism for inspiration - Ideal setting for transcendent discovery was under an open sky, in solitary communion with nature

What was the Second Bank of the United States?

- An interpretation of the constitution that exalts the sovereignty of the states and circumscribes the authority of the national government

What were states' rights?

- An interpretation of the constitution that exalts the sovereignty of the states and circumscribes the authority of the national government

What was the significance of the steamboat?

- Another product of the industrial age, added crucial flexibility to the Mississippi's basin's river-based transportation system - 1807: Robert Fulton built first American steamboat, the Clermont - To navigate shallow western rivers, engineers broadened steamboats' hulls to reduce their draft and enlarge their cargo capacity - Improved vessels halved the cost of upstream river transport along the Mississippi River and its tributaries and dramatically increased the flow of goods, people, and news

What caused the Market Revolution?

- As American factories and farms churned out more goods, legislators and businessmen created faster and cheaper ways to get those products to consumers - Around 1820, they began constructing a massive system of canals and roads linking states along the Atlantic coast with new states in the trans-Appalachian west - This transportation system set in motion both a crucial Market Revolution and a massive migration of people to the Greater Mississippi River basin

What were midwestern hubs and how did they grow so rapidly?

- As the midwestern population grew during the 1830's and 1840's, St. Louis, Detroit, and especially Buffalo and Chicago also emerged as dynamic centers of commerce - Quickly became manufacturing centers; capitalizing on the cities' links to rivers, canals, and railroads, entrepreneurs built warehouses, flour mills, packing plants, and machine shops, creating work for hundreds of artisans and factory laborers

How did the capitalist-run industrial economy conflict with artisan republicanism, and how did workers respond?

- As the outwork and factory systems spread, more and more workers became wage earners who labored under the control of an employer - To assert their independence, male wageworkers refused traditional terms like master and servant and called their employer the Dutch term "boss" - Lowly apprentices refused to allow masters to control their private lives - Artisan-republican ideal of "self-ownership" confronted the harsh reality of waged work in an industrializing capitalist society

How did Ostram and many other middle-class women redefine the notion of their "separate (domestic) sphere"?

- Became active in their churches, which bolstered their authority within the household and gave them new influence over many areas of family life (including timing of pregnancies)

What was the first wave of American reformers like? (1820's)

- Benevolent religious improvers of the 1820's that hoped to promote morality and enforce social discipline - Championed regular church attendance, temperance, and a strict moral code

What were some things done to promote this goal?

- Black leaders like James Forten, Prince Hall, and ministers Hosea Easton and Richard Allen founded an array of churches, schools, and self-help associations - John Russworm and Samuel D. Cornish of NY published the first African American newspaper, "Freedom's Journal" in 1827

Give a brief overview of Horace King

- Born a slave; mixed ancestry(Native American, European, and African) - Earned his freedom in 1846 -Stayed in South and became a successful entrepreneur - Had a tolled bridge in Alabama and was elected to Congress after Civil War

What were old Atlantic seaports and how did they grow so rapidly?

- Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, and especially NYC - Remained important for their foreign commerce and increasingly, as centers of finance and small-scale manufacturing - Ex. NYC's growth stemmed primarily from its dominant position in foreign and domestic trade; best harbor in the U.S. and, thanks to the Erie Canal, was the best gateway to the Midwest and best outlet for Western grain

What was the new "mineral-based economy"?

- By 1830's, new mineral based economy of coal and metal began to emerge - Manufacturers increasingly ran their machinery with coal-burning stationary steam engines rather than with water power - Also now fabricated metal products as well as pork, leather, wool, cotton and other agricultural goods

Who made up the majority of the immigrant masses?

- By 1850, immigrants were a major presence throughout the Northeast - Irish in NY numbered 200,000, Germans 110,000

What was the significance of the Seneca Falls Convention?

- By staking out claims for equality for women in public life, the Seneca Falls reformers repudiated both the natural inferiority of women and the ideology of "separate (domestic) spheres"

What is individualism?

- Caused by rapid economic growth and geographical expansion that had weakened traditional institutions -> individuals fend for themselves - Native born white Americans were no longer attached to each other by any tie of caste, class, association, or family - Term coined by Alexis de Tocqueville

Who was John Humphrey Noyes (1811-1886) and what was his effect on the Oneida?

- Charismatic and religious; inspired by Shakers' marriageless society and created a communty that defined sexuality and gender roles in radically new ways - Dartmouth graduate, joined the ministry but was dismissed as the pastor of a Congregational church for holding unorthodox beliefs - Called marriage a major barrier to perfection - Encouraged sexual relations at a very young age and used his position of power to manipulate the sex lives of his followers

What were some British advantages and strategies in the textile industry?

- Cheap transatlantic shipping and low interest rates in Britain; British could import raw cotton from the U.S., manufacture it into cloth, and sell it in America at a bargain price - Most important advantage: cheap labor; Britain had a larger population and thousands of landless laborers prepared to accept low-paying factory jobs

What was Commonwealth v. Hunt? (1842)

- Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court overturned common-law precedents and upheld the rights of workers to form unions and call strikes to enforce closed-shop agreements that limited employment to union members - Many judges continued to resist unions by issuing injunctions forbidding strikes

What were western commercial cities and how did they grow so rapidly?

- Cities like Pittsburg, Cincinnati, and New Orleans grew almost as rapidly - Expanded initially as transit centers, where workers transferred foods from farmers' rafts and wagons to steamboats or railroads

Give a brief overview of Sam Houston

- Commander of the Texas army at the battle of San Jacinto; later elected president of the Republic of Texas

How did the Virginia assembly and the southern states react to Turner's Rebellion?

- Debated a law providing for gradual emancipation and colonization abroad - When bill failed, possibility that southern planters would end slavery voluntarily was gone forever and the southern states toughened their slave cods, limited black movement, and prohibited anyone from teaching salves how to read

What is the historical significance of the Oneidians, Shakers, and Fourierists?

- Does not lie in their numbers or their fine crafts - Radical questioning of traditional sexual norms and of the capitalist values and class divisions of the emerging market society - Utopian communities stood as countercultural blueprints of a more egalitarian social and economic order

How did affluent families consciously set themselves apart?

- Dressed in well-tailored clothes, rode in fancy carriages, and bought expensively furnished houses tended by butlers, cooks, and other servants - Women no longer socialized with those of lesser wealth, men no longer labored side by side with their employees - Merchants, manufacturers, and bankers placed premium on privacy and lived in separate neighborhoods - Geological isolation of privileged families and the massive flow of immigrants into separate districts divided cities spatially along lines of class, race, and ethnicity

What is abolitionism? (1830's)

- Drew on the religious enthusiasm of the Second Great Awakening - White abolitionists condemned slavery as a sin and demanded immediate, uncompensated emancipation - Uncompromising stance led to fierce political debates, urban riots, and sectional conflict

How did white people respond to the black quest for respectability?

- Elicited a violent response in Boston, Pittsburgh, and other northern cities who refused to accept African Americans as their social equals - White mobs terrorized black communities, so much so that many African Americans fled to Canada

What was the Oneida?

- Embraced "complex marriage"- all members of the community were married to each other; freed women of their status as the property of their husbands - To symbolize their quest for equality, they cut their hair short and wore pantaloons under calf-length skirts - Settlement became self-sustaining when the inventor of a highly successful steel animal trap joined the community - Profits from trap making -> diversified into the production of silverware - When Noyes fled to Canada to avoid prosecution for adultery, the community abandoned complex marriage but retained its cooperative spirit

Who was Margaret Fuller? (1810-1850)

- Explored the possibilities of freedom for women - Born into a wealthy Boston family, mastered 6 languages, read broadly in classic literature - Embracing Emerson's ideas, she started a transcendental "conversation", or discussion group, for educated Boston women in 1839 - Edited leading transcendentalist journal "The Dial" and published "Woman in the Nineteenth Century" (1844) - Embraced the transcendental principle that all people could develop a life-affirming mystical relationship with God- therefore every woman deserved psychological and social independence: the ability "to grow, as an intellect to discern, as a soul to live freely and unimpeded"

How did the British react to the alarm they felt at American advances in technology and factory organization?

- Fear that American would one day export to Europe - To protect the British textile industry from American competition, the British government prohibited the export of textile machinery and the emigration of mechanics

Give a brief overview of Moses Austin

- First America to receive Spanish land grant in Mexico, later Texas. He died and passed land to his son

What was behind the creation of the modern factory?

- For products not suited to the outwork system - Concentrated production under one roof - Technology remained simple, but a division of labor increased output

What was the Trail of Tears?

- Forced westward journey of Cherokees from their lands in Georgia to present-day Oklahoma in 1838. Nearly a quarter of the Cherokees died en route

What was the Secret Ballot?

- Form of voting that allows the voter to enter a choice in privacy without having to submit a recognizable ballot or to voice the choice out loud to others

What was the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society?

- Founded by Garrison's opponents who didn't support women's rights- turned to politics - Its members mobilized their churches to oppose racial bondage and organized the Liberty Party, the first antislavery political party - Birney (elected for presidential candidate) and Liberty Party argued that the Constitution did not recognize slavery, and, consequently, that slaves became free when they entered areas of federal authority (like DC)

What was the Female Moral Reform Society?

- Founded in 1834 by middle-class women in NYC, elected Lydia Finney as its president - Tried to curb prostitution and to protect single women from moral corruption, demanded chaste behavior from men - Founded homes of refuge for prostitutes and won the passage of laws in Massachusetts and NY that made seduction a crime

Who was Albert Brisbane and what was his effect on Fourierism?

- Fourier's leading disciple in America - Successfully promoted Fourier's ideas in his influential book "The Social Destiny of Man" (1840), a regular column in Horace Greecley's New York Tribune, and hundreds of lectures

What was the Industrial Revolution's affect on the agrarian social order?

- Fragmented society into distinct classes and cultures - Urban economy made a few city residents (merchants, manufacturers, bankers, landlords) very rich - As cities expanded in size and wealth, affluent families consciously set themselves apart

Who was David Walker?

- Free black from North Carolina who had moved to Boston, where he sold secondhand clothes and copies of "Freedom's Journal" - Ridiculed the religious pretensions of slaveholders, justified slave rebellion, and in biblical language warned of a slave revolt if justice were delayed

What was the homoerotic lifestyle like in Philadelphia?

- Freed from family oversight, men formed homoerotic friendships and relationships - As early as 1800, the homosexual "Fop' was an acknowledged character in Philadelphia

Who was Charles Fourier? (1777-1837)

- French reformer who devised an eight-stage theory of social evolution that predicted the imminent decline of individual property rights and capitalist values

How did federal, state, and local governments contribute to social divisions?

- Government tax policies facilitated the accumulation of wealth; no federal taxes on individual and corporate income - State and local governments also favored the wealthy; taxed real estate and tangible personal property, but almost never taxed stocks and bonds or the inheritances the rich passed onto their children

Who were Angelina and Sarah Grimké?

- Had left their father's plantation in South Carolina and converted to Quakerism and took up abolitionist cause in Philadelphia - Wrote "American Slavery as It Is: Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses" (1839) with Weld to address the question of the condition of slaves in the United States

What are utopias?

- Ideal communities that would allow people to live differently and realize their spiritual potential - Rural utopias were symbols of social protest and experimentation

What were the results of Benjamin Franklin's "Autobiography"? (1818 (30 years after his death))

- Immediately found a huge audience; heeding Franklin's suggestions that an industrious man would become a rich one, tens of thousands of young American men saved their money, adopted temperate habits, and aimed to rise in the world - "Almost universal ambition to get forward"

What was Emerson's influence on American writers?

- In a declaration of literary independence in "The American Scholar", he urged American authors to free themselves from the "courtly muse" of Old Europe and find inspiration in the experiences of ordinary Americans

What was the Waltham-Lowell System?

- Labor system in which (1820's: Boston Manufacturing Company) thousands of young women from farming families were recruited as a source of labor - Provided with rooms in boarding houses, evening lectures, and other cultural activities - To reassure parents about their daughters' moral welfare, mill owners enforced strict curfew, prohibited alcohol, and required regular church attendance - Good wages, good living conditions, and more independence

What was the strategy of social uplift?

- Leading African Americans in the north encouraged free blacks to "elevate" themselves through education, temperance, and hard work - Argued that by securing "respectability", blacks could become the social equals of whites

Who is Ralph Waldo Emerson? (1802-1882)

- Leading voice of Transcendentalism, young philosopher - Resigned his Boston pulpit and rejected all organized religion - Moved to Concord, Massachusetts and wrote influential essays probing what he called "the infinitude of the private man" the radically free person -Argued that people were trapped by inherited customs and institutions - Believed individuals could only be remade by discovering their "original relation wth nature" and entering a mystical union with the "currents of Universal Being"

What hurdles did unions face?

- Legal hurdle: English and American common law branded such groups as "illegal combinations" - Unions were a "government unto themselves" and unlawfully interfered with a "master's" authority over his "servant" - Other lawsuits accused unions of "conspiring" to raise wages and thereby injure employers

Who were the Mormons?

- Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints; religious utopians wth a conservative social agenda: to perpetuate close-knit communities and patriarchal power - Provoked more animosity than the radicals did because of their cohesiveness, authoritarian leadership, and size - Emerged from religious ferment among families of Puritan descent who believed in a world of wonders, supernatural powers, and visions of the divine - Polygamy- practice of man having multiple wives threw community into turmoil and enraged nearby Christians

How did the religious optimism of the Second Great Awakening inspire reform?

- Men and women felt they could improve their personal lives as well as society as a whole - Many took inspiration from the economic progress and democratic spirit of the age

What was the American Industrial Revolution? (1790-1860)

- Merchants and manufacturers reorganized work routines, built factories, and exploited a wide range of natural resources - As output increased, goods that had once been luxury items became part of everyday life

Who was Dorothea Dix? (1801-1887)

- Model for women set on improving public institutions - Strong sense of moral purpose: used money from her grandparents to set up charity schools to give juvenile delinquents another chance and became a successful author - By 1832 she had published 7 books and an enormously successful treatise on natural science and moral improvement

What was the lyceum movement? (1826)

- Modeled on the public forum of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle - Arranged lecture tours by hundreds of poets, preachers, scientists, and reformers - Became an important cultural institution in the North and Midwest, but not in the South - Emerson was the most popular speaker

As well as material comfort, what else were distinguishing marks of the middle class?

- Moral and mental discipline; Ex. middle class writers denounced raucous carnivals and festivals as a "chaos of sin and folly, of misery and fun" and by the 1830's had largely suppressed them - Ambitious parents were equally concerned with their children's moral and intellectual development; to help their offspring succeed in life, they provided them with high-school education and stressed the importance of discipline and hard work - Celebrated work as the key to individual social mobility and national prosperity

Who was William Lloyd Garrison? (1805-18790

- Most determined abolitionist - Massachusetts born printer who worked during the 1820's on an antislavery newspaper the "Genius of Universal Emancipation" - 1830: went to jail, convicted of libeling a New England merchant engaged in domestic slave trade - Moved to Boston and started his own weekly "The Liberator" and founded the New England Anti-Slavery Society - Demanded immediate emancipation without compensation to slave-holders

What was the second wave of American reformers like? (1830's-1840's)

- Mostly middle-class northerners and mid-westerners that undertook to liberate people from archaic customs and traditional life styles - Promoted a bewildering assortment of radical ideals such as extreme individualism, common ownership of property, the immediate emancipation of slaves, and sexual equality - Small numbers but challenged deeply rooted cultural practices and elicited horrified opposition from majority of Americans - Favored a chaotic world with "no marriage, no religion, no private property, no law, and no government"

What were some of the darker visions Emerson inspire like?

- Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman Melville: both sounded powerful warnings that unfettered egoism could destroy individuals and those around them

Who was Theodore Weld?

- One of the people who established the American Anti-Slavery Society - Published "The Bible Against Slavery" (1837), which used passages from Christianity's holiest book to discredit slavery to win the support of religious Americans - Married Angelina Grimké

Who was Joseph Smith Jr. (1805-1844)( and what was his effect on Mormonism?

- Organized the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints - Seeing himself as a prophet in a sinful, excessively individualistic society - Revived traditional social doctrines, including patriarchal authority

Give a brief overview of Stephen Austin

- Original settler of Texas, granted land from Mexico on condition of no slaves, convert to Roman Catholic, and learn Spanish

How did the division of labor increase output, and what was its impact on workers?

- Outwork system and division of labor: different groups of people responsible for different parts of a product - This more efficient system increased output and lowered prices, but turned employers into powerful "shoe bosses" and eroded workers' wages and independence

Who were the targets of Minstrelsy?

- Portrayed African Americans as lazy, sensual, and irresponsible, the drunkenness of Irish immigrants, parodied the halting English of German immigrants, denounced women's demands for political rights, and mocked the arrogance of upper-class men - Declared the importance of being white and spread racist sentiments among Irish and German immigrants

How was the Women's Rights Movement born?

- Prominence of women among abolitionists; many joined religious revivals and reform movements (entered public life) - Their activism caused debate on many gender issues like sexual behavior, marriage, family authority and more - 1848: some reformers focused on women's rights and demanded complete equality with men

What were internal improvements?

- Public works such as roads and canals

What were ethnocultural politics?

- Refers to the fact that the political allegiance of many American voters was determined less by party policy than by membership in a specific ethnic or religious group

What was the significance of the emergence of the middle class?

- Reflected a dramatic rise in prosperity; 1830 -> 1857 per capita income of Americans increased by about 2.5 percent a year; remarkable rate that has never since been matched - Surge in income and abundance of inexpensive mass-produced goods fostered a distinct middle class urban culture

What was the Benevolent Empire?

- Reformers' goal was to restore the moral government of God by reducing the consumption of alcohol and other vices that resulted in poverty

Did the delegates that attended Walker and the other activists' convention support their ideas?

- Refused to endorse Walker's radical call for a slave revolt or the traditional program of uplift for free blacks - Instead this new generation of activists demanded freedom and "Race equality" for those of African descent - Urged free blacks to use every legal means, including petitions and other forms of political protest

What was David Walker's appeal?

- Responding to the attacks, Walker published a stirring pamphlet, "An Appeal... to the Colored Citizens of the World" (1829) - Condemned the "wretchedness in this Republican Land of Liberty" - Pamphlet quickly went through 3 printings and, carried by black merchant seamen, reached free African Americans in the South

Before industrialization, did people of different ranks share a common culture?

- Rural areas: gentleman farmers talked easily with yeoman about crop yields; wives conversed about the art of quilting - South: humble tenants and aristocratic slave owners enjoyed the same amusements: gambling, cockfighting, and horse racing; rich and poor attended the same Quaker meeting-house or Presbyterian Church

What contributed to a new urban culture?

- Rural migrants and foreign immigrants created a new urban culture - in 1800 American cities were overgrown towns with rising death rates, by 1840 they were successful cities and metropolises due to huge immigration outweighing death rates

How were new values challenging old beliefs in the city as in the countryside?

- Sexual freedom celebrated by Noyes at Oneida had its counterpart in commercialized sex and male promiscuity - Disciplined rejection of tobacco and alcohol by the Shakers and Mormons found a parallel in the Washington Temperance Society and other urban reform organizations

What were Benevolent Masters?

- Slave owners who considered themselves committed to the welfare of their slaves - Only saw slave marriages that weren't broken up as legitimate - Thought they were doing their slaves a favor by giving them the "good life"- bare food and shelter

Who was Brigham Young?

- Smith's leading disciple and now the sect's "prophet, seer, and revelater"; led the 6500 Mormons fleeing the U.S. to settle in the Great Salt Lake Valley in present-day Utah

What led to the formation of unions?

- Some wage earners worked in traditional crafts that required specialized skills; their strong sense of identity, or trade consciousness, enabled them to form unions and bargain with their master-artisan employers - Resented low wages and long hours, which restricted their family life and educational opportunities

What was the idea of the "self-made man"?

- Someone rising from poverty and eventually making a name for themselves - Became a central theme of American popular culture and inspired many men (and a few women) to seek success - Just as the yeoman ethic had served as a unifying ideal in pre-1800 agrarian America, so the gospel of personal achievement linked the middle and business classes of the new industrializing society

Who were the "middle class"?

- Somewhere between wealthy owners and propertyless wage earners; social product of increased commerce - Made up of "the farmers, mechanics, manufacturers, traders, who carry on professionally the ordinary operations of buying, selling, and exchanging merchandise" - Professionals with other skills- building contractors, lawyers, surveyors, and so on- were suddenly in great demand and well compensated - About 30% in the 1840's in the Northeast

Who were rural communalists?

- Tens of thousands of rural Americans and European immigrants poured into the larger cities of the United States - Created a culture that challenged some sexual norms, reinforced traditional racist feelings, and encouraged new styles of dress and behavior - Many were farmers and artisans seeking refuge from the economic depression of 1837-1843 - Advocated the common ownership of property (socialism) and unconventional forms of marriage and family life

What was the Alamo?

- The 1836 defeat by the Mexican army of the Texan garrison defending the Alamo in San Antonio. Newspapers urged Americans to "Remember the Alamo," and American adventurers, lured by offers of land grants, flocked to Texas to join the rebel forces - Romanticized the deaths of those killed to garner support and form a sense of nationality and patriotism

Who were the Shakers?

- The United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing, known as "Shakers" because of the ecstatic dances that were part of their worship - First successful American communal movement - Embraced the common ownership of property, accepted strict oversight by church leaders, and pledged to abstain from alcohol, tobacco, politics, and war and Repudiated sexual pleasure and marriage - Held that God was a "dual person, male and female"- repudiated male leadership and placed community governance in the hands of both Eldresses and Elders

What was nullification?

- The constitutional argument advanced by John C. Calhoun that a state legislature or convention could void a law passed by congress

What was coastal trade?

- The domestic slave trade with routes along the Atlantic coast that sent thousands of slaves to sugar plantations in Louisiana and cotton plantations in the Mississippi Valley - Because it was highly visible in laborers, it elicited widespread condemnation by northern abolitionists

What was the Market Revolution?

- The expansion of markets during the early 19th century - Marked by an increase in exchange of goods and services - Resulted from increased output of farms and factories, activity of traders and merchants, and development of transportation and infrastructure

What was the American System?

- The mercantilist system of national economic development advocated by Henry Clay and adopted by John Quincy Adams, with a national bank to manage the nations' financial system - Protective tariffs to provide revenue and encourage industry; and a nationally funded network of roads, canals, and railroads

What is Minstrelsy?

- The most popular theatrical entertainment was the minstrel shows, in which white actors in blackface presented comic routines that combined racist caricature and social criticism - Most famous was John Dartmouth Rice or "Jim Crow"

What was classical liberalism, or laissez-faire?

- The political ideology of individual liberty, private property, a competitive market economy, free trade, and limited government - The idea being that the less government does, the better, particularly in reference to economic policies such as tariffs and incentives for industrial development - Attacking corruption and defending private property, late-nineteenth-century liberals generally called for elite governance and questioned the advisability of full democratic participation

What was franchise?

- The right to vote. Between 1820 and 1860, most states revised their constitutions to extend the vote to all adult white males. - Black adult men gained the right to vote with the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment (1868). The Nineteenth Amendment (1920) granted adult women the right to vote.

Who were the Whigs and what was their ideology?

- The second national party, the Whig Party arose in 1834 when a group of congressmen contested Andrew Jackson's Revolutionary American and British parties-also called Whigs-that had opposed the arbitrary actions of British monarchs

What was the inland system?

- The slave trade system in the interior of the country that fed slaves to the Cotton South - Less visible than slave trade but more extensive - Chesapeake and Carolina planters provided cargo

What was the Spoils System?

- The widespread award of public jobs to political supporters after and electoral victory - In 1829, Andrew Jackson instituted the system on the national level, arguing that the rotation of officeholders was preferable to a permanent group of bureaucrats

What contributed to the Shakers' ability to successfully sustain themselves?

- Their agriculture and crafts, especially furniture making, acquired a reputation for quality - Took in orphans and converted adults because of their disdain for sexual intercourse - Numbers decreased after the proliferation of orphanages, but left as a material legacy a plain but elegant style of wood furniture

What became of the Mormons who stayed n the U.S. with Smith's son, Joseph Smith III?

- Those who rejected polygamy remained in the U.S. - Led by Smith III, they formed the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and settled throughout the Midwest

What was the "labor theory of value"?

- To create a just society in which workers could "live as comfortably as others" - Under this theory, the price of goods should reflect the labor required to make them, and the income from their sale should go primarily to the producers, not to factory owners, middlemen, or storekeepers

What was the National Road and what was its purpose?

- To link the midwestern settlers to the seaboard states, Congress approved funds for a National Road constructed of compacted gravel - The National Road and other interregional highways carried migrants and their heavily loaded wagons westward - However, to link the settler communities with each other, state legislatures chartered private companies to build toll roads, or turnpikes

How did the Native-born New Yorkers react to the influx of immigrants?

- Took alarm as hordes of ethnically diverse migrants altered the city's culture - Organized a nativist movement- a final aspect of the new urban world; called for a halt to immigration and started a cultural and political assault on foreign immigrants

What are Unitarians?

- Unlike most Christians, they believed that God was a single being, not a trinity of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit - Believed people could come to know the infinite and eternal

Who was Eli Whitney? (1765-1825)

- Using his expertise making hatpins, he built a simple machine in 1793 that separated the seeds in a cotton ball from the delicate fibers (cotton gin) - 1798: still seeking fortune, decided to manufacture military weapons; eventually designed and built machine tools that could rapidly produce interchangeable musket parts

How did women abolitionists advocate for the expansion of education?

- Vigorous support for movement led by Horace Mann to increase elementary schooling and improve the quality of instruction - Mann lengthened the school year; established teaching standards in reading, writing, and arithmetic; recruited well-educated women as teachers - As secular educators and moral reformers, women were now part of American public life

Which groups of Americans opposed the Abolitionists and why did they do so?

- Wealthy men: feared that the attack on slave property might become an assault on all property rights - Conservative clergy men: condemned the public roles assumed by abolitionist women - Northern wage earners: feared that free blacks would work for lower wages and take their jobs - Northern merchants and textile manufacturers, hog farmers in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois all benefitted from cotton from southern planters - Pork packers in Cincinnati and Chicago: profited from lucrative sales to slave plantations - Racial fears and hatreds led to violent mob actions

Why did Mississippi, Maine, and Massachusetts legislature enact married women's property laws between 1839 and 1845?

- Wome n's rights activists tried to strengthen the legal rights of married women by seeking legislation that permitted them to own property - Affluent men feared bankruptcy in the volatile market economy wanted to put some family assets in their wives' names - Fathers desired their married daughters to have property rights to protect them from financially irresponsible husbands - NY statute of 1848 gave women full legal control over the property they brought to a marriage

Describe some attributes of abolitionist women

- Women were central to the antislavery movement because they understood the sexual horrors of slavery for women - Frequently violated social taboos by speaking to mixed audiences of men and women; many gave lectures and some made home "visitations" to win converts to their cause - Asserted that traditional gender roles resulted in the domestic slavery of women

What was the American Anti-Slavery Society?

- Won financial support from Arthur and Lewis Tappan, wealthy silk merchants in NY city - Founded by Garrison, Weld, and sixty other religious abolitionists, black and white - Turned to mass communication to spread their message and used new steam-powered press to print a million pamphlets; "Great Postal Campaign" in 1835 to flood the nation, including the South, with its literature

Who was Walt Whitman? (1819-1892)

- Worked a as a printer, teacher, journalist, an Editor of the "Brooklyn Eagle", and an influential publicist for the Democratic Party., but poetry was the "direction of his dreams" - Claimed perfect communion with others - For Emerson, Thoreau, and Fuller, the individual had a divine spark; for Whitman, the collective democracy assumed a sacred character - Wrote about human suffering with passion

What was Fourierism?

- Would liberate workers from capitalist employers and the "menial and slavish system of Hired Labor or Labor of Wages" - Members would work for the community in cooperative groups called phalanxes, they would own property in common - Receptive audience among educated farmers and craftsmen who yearned for economic stability and communal solidarity following the Panic of 1837