chapter notes- last exam

atomic chlorine

Chlorine atoms influence cycles that are linked to ozone destruction; this greenhouse gas is potentially toxic to plant and animal life

greenhouse gases

Gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), that are relatively transparent to the higher-energy sunlight, but trap lower-energy infrared radiation. The gases that accumulate in the atmosphere promote global warming

carbon emissions

Release of carbon, primarily as carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere during the burning of fossil fuels and other organic matter and similar activities.

industrial solid waste

Solid wastes produced by industries, including wastes from large-scale manufacturing, mining, resource processing, and so forth.

first law of thermodynamics

Often referred to as the law of conservation of energy because energy can move through systems but can never be created nor destroyed.

oil

Petroleum and related liquid fossil fuels

big five energy sources

coal, oil, natural gas, large-scale hydroelectric, and nuclear power

independent power producers

companies that construct electricity-generating plants and then sell the electricity to the large utilities

true environmental costs

the concept that the cost or value of a resource should include all indirect, as well as direct, values and costs of the resource

source reduction

As applied to solid waste, reducing the generation of waste in the first place (as opposed to later reusing or recycling waste)

Nimbus-7

A NASA satellite that confirmed the depletion of the ozone layer over the South Pole in the 1980s

joule

A basic unit of energy and work, equal to a force of 1 newton multiplied by 1 meter.

light-water reaction

A common type of commercial reactor that uses ordinary (light) water as the moderator.

watt

A common unit of power defined as 1 joule of work or energy per second

cataracts

A condition in which the lens of the eye becomes opaque

melanoma

A condition of malignant skin cancer

flat-plate collector

A device that usually consists of a black metal plate that absorbs heat from the sun; the heat can be transferred

batteries

A device that when charged with electricity stores the energy in the form of chemical energy. When it is discharged, the energy is converted back into electrical energy.

reprocessing facility

A facility designed to reprocess spent nuclear fuel in order to recover fissionable materials.

work

A force applied to a material object times the distance that the object is moved

slash-and-burn agriculture

A form of agriculture where trees and other vegetation are cut down and burned in order to clear the land and release nutrients into the soil

strip mining

A form of surface mining, especially for coal, that is very destructive to the landscape

coal

A general term used to refer to various solid fossil fuels

global dimming

A gradual reduction in the amount of solar radiation that penetrates Earth's surface due to the increased reflectivity of clouds and pollution that results from fossil fuel emissions. Global dimming may create a global cooling effect that has partially offset the effects of greenhouse gases on global warming

garbage

"Wet" and generally edible (perhaps by pigs or other animals) discarded matter, such as old food remains, yard clippings, dead animals, and leftovers from meat packing operations and butcher shops.

energy consumption raises two basic concerns:

(1) Where will energy come from in the future as the most convenient, high-quality supplies of fossil fuels on which much of modern industrial society is based are depleted? (2) How can we avoid the environmental degradation so often associated with the levels of energy consumption that characterize modern civilization?

two most immediate environmental threats faced by the global community are:

(1) climatic change, caused by the artificial introduction of large amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, and (2) abnormally high incidences of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on the surface of Earth caused by the destruction of the ozone layer

petajoules

1015 joules

dioxins

A group of more than 75 related compounds that are extremely toxic, artificially produced chemicals. Can be inadvertently synthesized in incinerators when trash and garbage are burned

uranium

A heavy element that contains 92 protons. Fissionable isotopes of uranium can be used as fuel in nuclear reactors and can also be manufactured into bombs

plutonium

A heavy element that contains 94 protons. Fissionable isotopes of plutonium can be used as fuel in nuclear reactors and can also be manufactured into bombs

tokamak

A large machine that uses magnetic fields to confine and promote controlled fusion reactions

intergovernmental panel on climate change

A large, international group of officials, scientists, and other researchers who, under the auspices of the United Nations, have been investigating the issue of global climate change, particularly potential future global warming.

ozone layer

A layer of O3 in the stratosphere; most concentrated at an altitude of 20 to 25 kilometers (12 to 16 miles)

generator

A machine that converts mechanical energy (rotational energy) into electrical energy

turbine

A machine that converts the lateral motion of a liquid or gas into rotational motion

meltdown

A major accident at a nuclear power plant in which the fuel assembly (core) is heated beyond its melting point

energy intensity

A measure of the amount of energy required to create a good or service (a car, an acre of agricultural land, etc.)

deep-well injection

A method of disposing of liquid wastes, such as industrial or hazardous wastes, wherein they are pumped or injected down wells deep below the Earth's surface.

dilute and disperse

A method of handling waste whereby the substance is watered down and then released into the environment. This is a difficult method to justify in more modern times because of the sheer amount and toxicity level of much of the waste generated by industry and commercial sectors.

concentrate and contain

A method of waste disposal that concentrates waste solids and liquids and then contains them, such as in a storage facility, so as to reduce exposure to humans and the environment.

breeder reactors

A nuclear reactor that is especially designed to actively convert nonfissionable isotopes into fissionable isotopes that can then be used as fuel.

little ice age

A period in Earth history, beginning in late medieval/early renaissance times (ca. A.D. 1300) and ending only 200 or 300 years ago, during which average global temperatures were slightly lower than immediately before or after

oil shale

A rock that contains the organic precursors of oil known as kerogen. Kerogen can be converted to oil by heating

chlorofluorocarbons

Artificially produced compounds composed primarily of carbon, fluorine, and chlorine that have been implicated in the deterioration of the ozone layer.

dumps

A place where trash, garbage, and other waste are piled—often in a relatively out-of-the-way area such as on the outskirts of a town

power plants

A plant that converts some form of energy, for instance, chemical energy found in coal, into electrical energy

resource recovery facilities

A plant where trash and garbage are burned and the heat generated is recovered and applied to some useful end, such as generating electricity.

cogeneration

A power plant that produces several types of energy simultaneously, such as electricity and heat, that can be used locally.

toxic release inventory

A report compiled annually by the Environmental Protection Agency on toxics released by U.S. industries based on data reported to the EPA by those industries under the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986.

Non-renewable resources

A resource, such as fossil fuels, that does not significantly regenerate itself on a human time scale

love canal

A site in the town of Niagara Falls, New York, that gained national attention in the late 1970s when hazardous chemicals that were buried in the area began to adversely affect the residents. The disaster of Love Canal helped to spur Congress to pass the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980.

open-loop recycling

A situation in which a material or substance can be recycled once or a few times, but not indefinitely because the material is damaged or degraded each time it is recycled (e.g., paper fibers or some plastics).

biogas digesters

A special chamber or reactor used to promote biochemical conversion of biomass

moderator

A substance, such as water, graphite, or beryllium, used in a nuclear reactor to slow down fast neutrons

hot dry rock technology

A technology used to literally "mine" the heat coming off of rocks buried beneath the surface of the Earth. Through this process, water is injected and pumped through rock and then circulated back up. The water hitting the rock creates steam as it flows through the rock, which can then be used for energy.

natural gas

A term used for fossil fuels in the gaseous state, particularly methane

passive solar design

A type of architecture that uses the inherent characteristics of a building to capture heat and light from the sun

wind farms

A vast tract of land covered with wind-powered turbines that are used to drive generators that produce electricity

rubbish

A very general term that includes trash, garbage, and other items such as construction and demolition debris

fluidized-bed combustion

A way to reduce air pollution by burning very small coal particles at very high temperatures in the presence of limestone particles (the limestone helps to capture sulfur and other pollutants).

imprecise data

Age or birth date: Age range with a maximum age of 65 Location: Convert to zip code, city or five-mile radius URL: Remove the subdomain data IP address: Remove the last octet or convert to a location Search keyword: Convert to nonsensitive category or delete

ozone

An O3 molecule. Contributes to air pollution in the troposphere but is an important natural component of the stratosphere. The layer in the stratosphere protects the Earth's surface from excessive levels of ultraviolet radiation

Montreal Protocol

An agreement reached in 1987 at a meeting in Montreal, Canada, whereby a number of industrialized countries pledged to freeze chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) production at 1986 levels and then gradually decrease CFC production to 50% of 1986 levels by 1999.

hydrothermal fluid reservoirs

An area where hot rock occurs at relatively shallow depth and natural groundwater is heated, sometimes to extremely high temperatures

artificial ore

An artificial mixture or conglomeration of different metal-bearing materials, such as might be the result of a scrap yard where scrapped metal products are crushed together

solar hydrogen economy

An economy based primarily on solar power (in all its forms, including wind power and hydroelectric power) and using hydrogen as a convenient way to store and transport energy.

electricity

An electric current or flow of electrons through a conductor

fuel cells

An electrochemical cell in which electrons are removed from hydrogen atoms to form an electric current; the hydrogen ions combine with oxygen to form water

thorium

An element that contains 90 protons; an isotope of this element can be used in a breeder reactor to produce fissionable U-233.

renewable energy

An energy source that, from an Earth perspective, is continually renewed (e.g., solar energy)

industrial ecosystem

An industrial situation that mimics the principles of ecosystems in nature. No "waste" is produced; rather, the effluents of one industrial process form the raw materials for another industrial process.

fossil fuels

Coal, oil, natural gas, and related organic materials that have formed over geological time.

energy budget

Collectively, all of the various flow pathways of all energy on Earth

general circulation models

Complex mathematical models that, with the help of supercomputers, simulate the Earth's climatic patterns.

net yield

Concept that holds that a resource can continue to be extracted as long as the resources used in extraction do not exceed the resources gained.

control rods

Device composed of a substance that has the ability to absorb neutrons, such as cadmium or boron, that is used in a nuclear reactor to control or even halt the nuclear chain reaction

Radiation

Electromagnetic radiation; includes visible light, heat, ultraviolet radiation, gamma rays, X-rays, and so forth. Term is also sometimes used to refer to the emission of particles (such as alpha and beta particles) from a radioactive atom

geothermal energy

Energy (heat) originating from deep within the Earth

solar energy

Energy derived from the sun

biomass energy

Energy produced by the burning of such biomass as organic wastes, standing forests, and energy crops.

alternative energy

Energy sources such as solar power and wind power that can be used instead of fossil fuels, nuclear power, and large-scale hydroelectric power

soft technologies

Energy technologies that are generally small scale, relatively inexpensive, and localized

hard technologies

Energy technologies that depend on large-scale, centralized, complex, and expensive plants and infrastructures

petroleum

Essentially, oil or liquid fossil fuel

nitrogen oxides

Important components of both lower atmospheric pollution and the upper atmospheric greenhouse gases that promote global warming.

reactor vessel

In a nuclear power plant, a thick steel tank that usually contains the reactor core and primary water loop.

containment structure

In a nuclear reactor, a housing around the reactor vessel designed to protect the outside environment from major radioactive contamination if an accident should occur.

chain reaction

In a nuclear reactor, when the fissioning of one atom releases neutrons that induce the fissioning of other atoms, and so forth.

second law of thermodynamics

In an isolated system that is not in equilibrium, entropy ("useless energy" or disorder) will increase over time, until reaching a maximum value

Hubbert's bubble

In the 1950s, the geologist M. King Hubbert predicted that U.S. oil production would peak around 1970 and subsequently decline.

sanitary landfills

In the simplest sense, a hole in the ground where solid waste is deposited. The hole is lined so that materials will not escape, and it is covered with layers of dirt as it is progressively filled. When completely filled, it is capped and sealed with more dirt and topsoil.

infrared radiation

Low-energy, long-wavelength electromagnetic radiation that humans perceive as heat

active solar techniques

Mechanisms, such as flat-plate collectors, that are designed to actively collect the energy of sunlight and use it (e.g., to heat a building or to heat water)

aerosol spray

Products that are sprayed as a fine mist during use, such as canned spray paints and deodorants. For many years such products used ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as propellants.

enriched

Referring to uranium

refuse

Refers to both trash and garbage

ultraviolet radiation

Relatively high-energy, short-wavelength, electromagnetic radiation (light) with wavelengths in the range of 100 to 400 nanometers (one nanometer equals a billionth of a meter).

environmental externalities

The actual cost of many goods and services does not factor in natural capital. Resources are usually considered free, although they provide many benefits to humans and the economy such as healthy air and clean water. The use of resources has unintended (external, often indirect) costs that are not factored into the price of a product; for instance, the price of a gallon of gasoline does not necessarily include the cost of the damage, such as in terms of air pollution and global climate change, that burning the gasoline entails.

ecological footprint

The amount of ecological impact (both micro- and macrolevel) caused by an individual, group, corporation, town, nation, and so forth. It is a tool to determine resource use with regard to environmental sustainability.

carbon efficiency

The amount of economic output per unit of carbon released.

peak load

The amount of electricity needed at the time of highest demand

calorie

The amount of energy that when converted completely to heat will warm 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius

British thermal unit (BTU)

The amount of energy that when converted completely to heat will warm 1 pound of water by 1 degree Fahrenheit.

entropy

The amount of low-quality energy, or the amount of disorder and randomness, in a system

daughter products

The atoms resulting from the splitting, or fission, of a large atom such as uranium or plutonium

carbon cycle

The biogeochemical cycle of carbon.

waste-to-energy

The burning of municipal solid waste to produce energy

incineration

The burning of trash and garbage at high temperatures in a large furnace so as to get rid of as much as possible.

denitrification

The chemical reduction of nitrate and nitrite (such as by certain types of bacteria) into gaseous nitrogen; in many respects the opposite of nitrogen fixation

fusion

The combining or fusing of isotopes of light elements to form a heavier element; in the process, energy may be released

superfund

The common name for the federal Hazardous Substance Response Fund that is used for cleanup and related expenses associated with hazardous waste sites on the EPA's National Priorities List.

law of diminishing returns

The concept that eventually there comes a time when the return on an investment in a good or service begins to diminish.

tragedy of the commons

The concept that property held in common by many people will generally be overused until it deteriorates or is even destroyed.

optimum sustained yield

The concept that the optimum harvestable rate for a renewable resource, such as a wild population of fish, must consider factors beyond simple maximum yield, such as the effects on other species in the ecosystem and various human uses of the ecosystem.

maximum sustainable yield

The concept that the optimum way to exploit a renewable resource is to harvest as much as possible up to the point at which the harvest rate equals the renewal rate.

ammonification

The conversion (by decomposers in nature, for instance) of organic nitrogen and hydrogen to ammonium ions (NH4+).

biogeochemical cycles

The cycles of elements and compounds through the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere

composting

The decomposition of organic materials by microorganisms; produces various forms of "soils."

radioactivity

The emission of particles (such as alpha and beta particles) and rays (energy, such as gamma rays) from a nucleus as it disintegrates

tidal power

The harnessing of the tides to produce energy in a form that humans can readily utilize

wind power

The harnessing of the wind's energy for human applications

closed-loop recycling

The indefinite recycling of a material or substance without degradation or deterioration, such as the recycling of many metals and glasses

core

The interior of a nuclear reactor containing the fuel, moderator, and control rods.

troposphere

The lowermost thermal layer of the atmosphere, wherein temperatures normally decline with increasing altitude; the layer of the atmosphere in which most weather phenomena take place

Decentralization

The movement away from large, centralized sources of power and production.

crust

The outermost layer of rock that forms the solid surface of our planet Earth; divided into continental and oceanic

carbon dioxide

The primary greenhouse gas

methane gas

The principal component of natural gas, it is a widely distributed chemical in nature that is odorless and colorless. It is a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming, some of which comes from the flatulence and belching discharge of farm animals.

precautionary principle

The principle that advises that, in the face of uncertainty, the best course of action is to assume that a potential problem is real and should be addressed ("better safe than sorry")

milling process

The process, including crushing, grinding, and leaching, during which a mineral, such as copper or uranium oxide (yellowcake), is removed from the raw ore and concentrated

Mt. Pinatubo

The site of a 1991 volcanic eruption in the Philippines that spewed so much smoke and ash into the atmosphere that it temporarily depressed global temperatures (had a minor cooling effect that was experienced worldwide for several years).

fission

The splitting of an atom, such as uranium or plutonium, to release energy

thermodynamics

The study of energy and energy conversions. See also first law of thermodynamics, second law of thermodynamics

intrinsic value

The subtle ways that the complex biochemistries of even closely related species can differ such that a chemical that has no effect on one species may have acute or long-term effects on another species.

stratosphere

The thermal layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere in which temperature increases with altitude. The ozone layer occurs within the stratosphere

residence time

The time it takes for a pollutant to move through the environment.

hydroelectric power

The use of artificial or natural waterfalls to generate electricity

hydropower

The use of artificial or natural waterfalls to generate electricity

bioremediation

The use of bacteria and other small organisms (such as single-celled and multicellular microbes and fungi) to clean up or reduce unwanted concentrations of certain substances; also known as biotreatment.

nuclear power

The use of nuclear fission reactions to generate electricity

photovoltaics

The use of semiconductor technology to generate electricity directly from sunlight

solar thermal technology

The use of the sun's energy to heat substances such as water to produce steam that drives a turbine and generates electricity.

greenhouse effect

The warming up of the lower atmosphere due to the accumulation of greenhouse gases that trap heat near the surface of the Earth

hybrid engines

This type of engine is typically smaller than the traditional internal combustion engine and uses a rechargeable energy storage system (RESS) to propel the vehicle. These vehicles are lower users of fossil fuels and are much more efficient. The term usually refers to a hybrid of electric and fossil fuel power.

decommissioning

To take out of service, dismantle, and dispose of a nuclear power plant

yellowcake

Uranium oxide (U3O8) or "natural uranium."

recycling

Using the same resource over and over but in modified form

reuse

Using the same resource over and over in the same form

esthetic value

Value of a resource in making the world more beautiful, more appealing to the senses, and generally more pleasant

trash

Waste that is "dry" (as opposed to liquid or gas) and nonedible, such as newspapers, boxes, cans, and containers.

nonhazardous waste

Waste that is not classified as hazardous waste.

hazardous waste

Wastes that are particularly dangerous or destructive; specifically characterized by one or more of the following properties: ignitable, corrosive, reactive, or toxic

ocean energy

Waves, tides, differential heat layers, and other sources of energy directly related to the world's oceans

blackouts

When a region served by an electric power plant is left without power for an extended period of time, perhaps due to a major breakdown.

brownouts

When the capacity of a power plant is exceeded by a few percent and the voltage to consumers is inadequate such that lights often dim.

corrosive

When used in reference to hazardous wastes, generally referring to liquids that are highly acidic, very alkaline, or otherwise chemically very reactive

power

Work (requiring energy) divided by the time period over which the work is done

energy farms

a farm that produces biomass to be used as an energy source.

benefit-cost analysis

a method of comparing the benefits of an activity to its cost; also known as risk-benefit analysis

reserves

a resource that has the potential to be sued, but it not currently serving the economy; it can be put to future use

resources

a source of raw materials that society uses

neutron

a subatomic particle that has approximately the same mass as a proton, but does not bear an electric charge

conservation

attempts to minimize the use of a natural resource

carbon dioxide major source

burning fossil fuels, deforestation

nitrogen oxides major source

burning fossil fuels, fertilizers, soils, burning of wood and crop residues

tropospheric ozone major source

burning of fossil fuels

economic values

directly tangible and monetary value of a resource, such as when a resource is bought or sold, perhaps for food, materials, or energy

ecocentric

ecology centered

emotional values

emotional bonds by a human or humans to a resource; the value of a resource beyond "practical value or simple sensory enjoyment

geothermal energy

energy (heat) originating from deep within the Earth

first approach to energy problem

energy can be viewed as a commodity that is produced and then the production of useful energy is maximized (such as refined oil or usable electricity)

second approach to the energy problem

energy to be a valuable resource and attempt to minimize its consumption, such as by increasing the efficiency of our energy-consuming devices, thus minimizing any detrimental environmental effects that energy use may entail

Matter cycling in the ecosystem is disturbed when people alter the balance between the input and output of matter by creating

excess output or excess input

anthropocentric

human centered

landfill

in the simplest sense, a hole in the ground where solid waste is deposited. The hole is lined so that materials will not escape, and it is covered with layers of dirt as it is progressively filled. When completely filled, it is capped and sealed with more dirt and topsoil.

heat

infrared radiation

ice ages

intervals in the history of the Earth, especially during the last 2.5 million years, when average global surface temperatures were lower than they are currently and continental ice sheets were much more extensive than they are today.

methane

natural gas CH4; a fossil fuel and potent greenhouse gas

nature conservancy

nonprofit organization founded in 1951 that preserves natural areas and wildlife sanctuaries around the world

preservation

refers to nonuse of a resource such as a preserve that is set aside and protect in its pristine natural state

chlorofluorocarbons other halocarbons major source

refrigeration, solvents, insulation, foams, aerosol propellants, other industrial and commercial uses

methane major source

rice paddies, swamps, bogs, cattle and other livestock, termites, fossil fuels wood burning, landfills

energy storage

storing energy in a form that is readily accessible to humans

energy

the ability to do work

five e's

the five potential values of environmental resources: esthetic (aesthetic), emotional, economic, environmental services, and ethical

restoration

the process of returning a degraded resource to its original state

efficiency

the useful work that is performed relative to the total energy input to a system

direct values

the value of utilizing a particular resource in such a way that it may be depleted or destroyed-- for instance, the value of logging a forest

indirect values

the way that a resource may be valued other than its direct value, such as the emotional and aesthetic values of a forest

ethical value

value of a resource unto itself, regardless of its value to humans

environmental service values

values of a resource in providing services that allow humans to exist on Earth, such as the production of atmospheric oxygen by photosynthetic plants

extrinsic values

values that are external to a resource's own right to exist; values based on the ability of a resource to provide something valued by humans

solid waste

waste that includes such items as household garbage, trash, refuse, and rubbish, as well as various solids, semisolids, liquids (such as sludge or liquids in solid containers), and gases (often contained in solid containers, such as gas canisters), that result from mining, agricultural, commercial, and industrial activities.