Chem TUs LVL 3

A class of enzymes named for this phenomenon includes gyrase and is divided into type I and type II based on how they convert DNA between forms exhibiting this phenomenon. A functional group's occupation of the axial or equatorial positions on cyclic molecules and the inability of molecules to rotate about a double bond give rise to the cis-trans type of this phenomenon, and non-superposable mirror images called enantiomers exemplify the "stereo" variety. For 10 points, name this phenomenon in which two molecules have different structures but the same molecular formula.

Isomerism [accept Topoisomerism before "positions"]

These functional groups are produced by ring opening of epoxides. Lithium aluminum hydride can completely reduce a carbonyl group to this functional group. A mixture of one of these substances with 4% water forms a positive azeotrope. One of these substances, the most commonly used(*) bio-fuel, can be produced by fermentation of corn or yeast in bread. The isopropyl [“eye-so-pro-pullâ€]  type of these substances is used in hand sanitizer. For 10 points, name this functional group characterized by a hydroxyl [“hy-drox-illâ€] compound, the simplest one of which is methanol.

alcohols [or hydroxyl before “these substances†is read] <Max Mader>/<ed. AR>

This element sometimes exists in a gamma phase allotrope known as austenite. The pigment Prussian blue ideallycontains seven ions of this element complexed with eighteen cyanide ions. The mineral magnetite is an oxide of thiselement, and impure forms of this element undergo the Bessemer process to form an alloy of this metal and carbon.The mineral siderite is this element's carbonate, and a main source of this metal for its large-scale production comesfrom hematite. In humans, atoms of this element complex with the proteins myoglobin and hemoglobin. For 10points, name this element, a metal that forms steel with carbon and whose other oxide is rust.

iron [or Fe; accept ferrum]

Addition of an alkali metal to liquid ammonia will cause the resulting solution to have this color. Copper-two complexes, like its sulfate pentahydrate, usually take this color. An indicator named for this color is yellow in acidic conditions, and is commonly used for titrations near a pH of 7. The first modern (*) synthetic pigment took this color, and was made of iron bonded to cyanide ions. A common indicator is named “bromothymol this color,†and in basic conditions, litmus paper turns from red to this color. For 10 points, name this color that has “cobalt†and “Prussian†shades.

blue [accept Prussian blue; accept cobalt blue; accept bromothymol blue] <AF>

A dimensionless, normalized form of this quantity is called activity. According to Beer’s law, the product of this quantity, path length and extinction coefficient equals absorbance. This quantity of a species is indicated by drawing square (*) brackets around it. Either this quantity or partial pressures are raised to the power of stoichiometric coefficients in the expression for the equilibrium constant. Molality and molarity are measurements of this quantity. For 10 points, identify this quantity, the number of moles of a chemical species per unit volume of solvent.

concentration [accept molarity or molality until “molality†is read] <GC, Chemistry>

This element is used to couple two alkyl halides in the Wurtz reaction. Titanium tetrachloride is reduced by 4 atoms of this element in the Hunter process. The crystallized form of this element’s sulfate is known as Glauber’s salt. The (*) Slovay process is used to create this element’s carbonate on an industrial scale. This element burns bright yellow in a flame test and its bicarbonate is known as baking soda. For 10 points name this element found in table salt along with chlorine, with chemical symbol Na.

sodium [accept Na before read]

Long-chain types of these compounds can be obtained from fats and waxes via saponification. These compounds can also be produced by adding a Grignard reagent to a carbonyl compound and hydrolyzing the resulting magnesium alkoxide. They are combined with carboxylic acids in the Fischer esterification, and primary types of these compounds can also undergo intermolecular dehydration to produce ethers. For 10 points, name these organic compounds characterized by an OH hydroxyl group, examples of which include methanol and ethanol.

Alcohols

oxygen."

Joseph Priestley

Aspirin is formed by reacting acetic anhydride with one of these compounds. One member of this class of compounds is formed in the contact process, and aqua regia is a mixture of two of these substances. Polyprotic types of them exhibit multiple equivalence points. Lewis theory defines them as electron pair acceptors, while the Bronsted-Lowry definition describes them as proton donors. For 10 points, name these compounds which produce hydrogen ions in solution and have pH values below 7.

Acids [accept Salicylic Acid or 2-Hydroxybenzoic Acid before "class"]

The osmium catalyst originally required for this process has largely been supplanted by an iron based compound, though ruthenium based catalysts are still used. This process accounts for one percent of the world’s energy consumption and five percent of its natural gas consumption. This process is the main source of modern (*) fertilizers. This process takes place at four hundred degrees Celsius and two hundred fifty atmospheres of pressure. For 10 points, name this doubly-eponymous process in which nitrogen is fixed to form ammonia.

Haber-Bosch process

This statement implies that the compressibility factor is always equal to one, and one term in an equation derived from it squares the term n over V. That modification to this law introduces the variables a and b, and this statement is dependent on the assumptions that particles do not take up space and that all collisions between molecules are perfectly elastic. Intermolecular forces are accounted for in a modification of this equation by van der Waals. For 10 points, name this equation of state that combines Boyle's, Charles', and Avogadro's laws, often written as P V equals n R T.

Ideal Gas Law

According to the equipartition theorem, a molecule from one of these has an average kinetic energy of three halves times Boltzmann's constant times temperature. Two quantum mechanical equivalents of these are named for Fermi and Bose, and they exhibit a compressibility factor of one. The product of the pressure and volume of one is equal to the product of the number of moles, temperature, and a namesake constant. For 10 points, name this theoretical mixture of point masses without intermolecular forces in a certain state of matter.

Ideal Gas [prompt on Gas]

One variety of this process uses a short-path apparatus known as a Kugelrohr. The Fenske equation is used in another form of this process to determine the necessary number of theoretical plates. Raoult's law is used in one variety of this process to manipulate the vapor pressure of the substance involved in this technique. Azeotropes are mixtures of liquids that can not be separated using the fractional form of this technique, in which the more volatile compound has a higher concentration in the produced vapor. For 10 points, name this laboratory technique of separating liquid mixtures based on their boiling points.

Distillation

The acidity of oxyacids is determined using the number of oxygen atoms present with this value for the central atom. One method of calculating this value involves using Slater's rule to find the effective nuclear charge and is named after Allred and Rochow. The polarity of a bond between two atoms increases as the difference in this quantity increases, and it can be defined by averaging the first ionization energy and electron affinity according to Mulliken. For 10 points, name this quantity for which fluorine has the highest value, and which measures how strongly a gaseous atom holds on to its electrons.

Electronegativity

Oxygen can serve as this type of molecule’s namesake inhibitor, which is used to slow down or stop the reaction. In the chlorination of methane, the initiation step involves the creation of two of these molecules. The initiation step for these molecules’ namesake polymerization can happen through photolysis or thermal decomposition. While heterolytic cleavage forms ions, (*) homolytic cleavage forms these molecules. Reactions involving these molecules involve the use of fish hook arrows to show the transfer of individual electrons. For 10 points, name these highly reactive molecules that contain an unpaired electron.

Free Radicals

The Casimir effect can create a small attractive force which gives a negative value for this quantity, and it can be measured using a Pitot tube. The negative gradient of this quantity is the force density, and temperature is related to this quantity along a phase boundary via the Clausius-Clapeyron equation. (*) Bernoulli's principle states that the speed of a fluid increases as this quantity decreases. Gay-Lussac's law states that this quantity is directly proportional to temperature and Boyle's law states that it is inversely proportional to volume. For 10 points, identify this quantity that can be measured in torr or pascals and is defined as the force per unit area.

pressure

A constant important in this technique can be found using Hoye’s method, which sums it over each component in a multiplet; that constant can be calculated using the Bothner-By and Karplus equations given the values of dihedral angles in a molecule. One form of this technique uses anisotropic interactions and relies on a “magic angle†of 54.7 degrees; that is its solid state form. (*) Tetramethylsilane is a common reference compound used in this technique, which largely relies on J-coupling. Other types of this technique include its carbon-13 and proton variants. For 10 points, name this technique that measures the resonance frequency and chemical shift of molecules in a magnetic field to identify organic compounds.

NMR spectroscopy [or nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy; also accept MRS or magnetic resonance spectroscopy]

One extension of this equation is used to model diffusion through soil and is named for Planck. If a significant current density is present, the resulting overpotential deviation from the value predicted by this equation can be calculated using the Tafel equation. In the limit of low ion concentration, this equation predicts an infinite voltage drop, and it can be used to calculate the electrical potential of a cell membrane; the modification used to do so is named for Goldman. It calculates change in potential as R T over n F times the natural log of the reaction quotient. For 10 points, name this equation that gives the electromotive force for a chemical cell.

Nernst equation

A Penning mixture is mostly composed of one of these elements, and the decay of one of these elements' isotope-40 to its isotope-39 is used in a namesake type of radioactive dating. One of these elements is the main component of the mixture ionized by radiation in a Geiger counter. An alpha particle is the nucleus of one of these elements, and all of these elements have complete octets. For 10 points, name this group of very non-reactive elements including xenon, argon, and helium.

Noble Gases

This type of reaction is subject to Kornblum's rule, and alkyl halides undergo this type of reaction in the Kolbe nitrile synthesis and the Finkelstein reaction. Copper (I) salts catalyze one of these reactions for aromatic amines in the Sandmeyer reaction. Alkoxide ions participate in one of these reactions with an alkyl halide in the Williamson ether synthesis, and reactions of this type compete with elimination reactions with similar mechanisms. For 10 points, name this class of reaction in which one functional group replaces another which includes SN1 and SN2 varieties.

Nucleophilic Substitution

One type of this process employs feed streams and draw solutions, and the classification of this process depends on the type of pressure differential it exploits. The forward type of this phenomenon requires no applied pressure, although another way it can occur is by hydrostatic pressure. It describes movement from hypotonic to hypertonic solutions, and its namesake pressure is a colligative property. The reverse form of this process is used to purify drinking water. For 10 points, name this process in which water flows through a semipermeable membrane to reach equilibrium.

Osmosis [prompt on Diffusion]

One variety of this reaction involves oxalyl chloride and dimethyl sulfoxide to produce a ketone or an aldehyde. In addition to the Swern variety, another variety of this reaction converts ketones to esters by using mCPBA, a process named for Baeyer and Villiger. Tertiary alcohols cannot experience this type of reaction, but secondary alcohols can convert into ketones through this kind of reaction. The namesake state of this reaction for an atom often corresponds to the ionic charge of that atom, and for a galvanic cell, this reaction occurs at the anode. For 10 points, name this reaction often paired with reduction reactions.

Oxidation

A reaction of this type uses a solution of chromium trioxide to convert an alcohol to a ketone and is named for Jones. Nitric acid is formed by performing this type of reaction on ammonia. Manganate and hydrogen peroxide contain highly electronegative elements and are thus good agents of this type of reaction. This reaction occurs at the (*) anode of a voltaic cell, and an example of it is rusting. This reaction occurs to sodium when a salt is formed because it loses an electron and gains in the namesake state of this reaction. An increase in charge on an atom occurs in, for 10 points, what type of reaction contrasted with a reduction?

Oxidation (prompt on "redox" or "reduction-oxidation"; do not prompt or accept "reduction")

This chemical ages rubber by creating radicals that destroy polyisoprene chains. It is often used instead of chlorine to disinfect water, and this compound is continuously created through the Chapman cycle. The reaction forming it can be reversed through the catalytic use of free radicals such as nitric oxide, and the density of this compound can be measured using Dobson units. It is often found in the lower stratosphere, where it acts to absorb ultraviolet light. For 10 points, name this gaseous allotrope of oxygen that forms a namesake layer in the atmosphere.

Ozone [accept O3]

The transportation of ions of this element is hindered by both apamin [AP-uh-min] and dendrotoxin, which explains why bee stings and snake bites can be painful and dangerous. Its nitrate is known as niter [NIE-ter] in mineral form and is a major component in gunpowder and fertilizers. A common way to date rocks is based on the decay of this element into argon. Name this alkali metal very similar to sodium whose chemical symbol comes from its neo-Latin name of kalium.

Potassium

A restatement of this equation sets the change of Gibbs free energy to nRT times the sum of each component's concentration times the log of its concentration. Pxy [P-x-y] diagrams are derived from this equation. This equation is used to find the bubble point and the dew point. Positive deviations from it occur in chloroform and ethanol, or other solutions with strong cohesive forces. This law fails to predict azeotropes. It can only be used at high concentration, or for mixtures of similar compounds like benzene and toluene. For 10 points, name this law which states that the partial pressure of a gas equals its mass fraction in the liquid phase times the vapor pressure, named for a Frenchman.

Raoult's Law

The adrenochrome hypothesis states that adrenaline is this type of reaction, causing schizophrenia. In biology, water, sodium chloride, and nitrogen are the namesake signaling molecules for this type of reaction. In geology, red, green, and white rock formations are the results of this type of reaction. The Nernst equation describes galvanic cells, which operate via these reactions, which are divided into two half-reactions in which electrons are transferred. For 10 points, name this class of reactions involving alterations in oxidation states.

Redox Reaction [accept Oxidation-Reduction Reaction]

Acyl chlorides turn into aldehydes in this type of reaction. That reaction uses a catalyst similar to one named for Lindlar and is known as the Rosenmund type of this reaction. One reaction of this type takes place in ammonia and occurs with sodium and an alcohol. Benzene is turned into 1,4 cyclohexane in this type of reaction named for (*) Birch. Hydrogenation is a specific type of this reaction. For 10 points, name this type of reaction in which a species gains electrons, the opposite of oxidation.

Reduction [prompt on “Redox†or “Oxidation-Reductionâ€; do NOT accept “Oxidationâ€; accept specific reduction reactions such as Rosenmund Reduction or Birch Reduction] Tiebreaker

The temperature named for this person is the value at which the van der Waals equation is closest to the ideal gas law. This person discovered his namesake law by pouring different amounts of mercury into U-shaped containers and by using an air pump he developed with Robert Hooke. This person's law gives the relationship between two quantities whose product equals two-thirds of total kinetic energy. His law, which concerns the two values that are modified in the van der Waals equation, can be combined with Charles's law to form the ideal gas law. Name this Irish chemist who stated that pressure and volume vary inversely.

Robert Boyle

4. This scientist lost his right eye while studying cacodyl cyanide, and he also improved upon the Grove cell by using a carbon electrode instead of platinum. This man pioneered the use of iron oxide hydrate to cure arsenic poisoning, and while working with Gustav (*) Kirchhoff, this man noted unique spectral lines in mineral water, which led to the discovery of caesium and rubidium. He began his spectroscopic studies with Peter Desaga, with whom he improved upon the design of a high-temperature flame. For ten points, name this German chemist who created a namesake burner used in labs.

Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen <EC>

This element's namesake "fusion test" is used to determine the presence of halogens, nitrogen, or sulfur in organic compounds, and it is commercially produced from the Downs process. Often stored under oil, this element was first isolated by Sir Humphrey Davy through the electrolysis of lye, which is this metal's hydroxide. This highly reactive element produces a bright yellow flame in flame tests, and its bicarbonate is baking soda. For 10 points, name this alkali metal with symbol Na, whose chloride is table salt.

Sodium [accept Na before mention]

This phase names a theory describing materials which may have a Fermi level which lies in a gap of the available energy levels for its electrons, and that theory explains how overcoming a small gap may be aided by doping. That theory, the band theory of this phase, is derived from the "nearly free electron" model for this phase, which expands on the simpler "free electron" model. A mixture of compounds assumes this phase below the eutectic point, and a gas transitions to this phase via deposition, the opposite of sublimation. For 10 points, name this state of matter exemplified by ice.

Solid

In Fischer Esterification, toluene acts as one of these substances, and salts in the liquid state are known as the “future†of these substances. Two methyl groups surround a central sulfur atom in one type of these substances known as (*) DMSO. Higher dielectric constants and the ability to participate in hydrogen bonding are characteristics typical of protic types of these substances. Aqueous solutions are solutions in which water acts as this substance. For 10 points, name this type of substance in which solutes are dissolved.

Solvents

In one process for producing this compound, nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide act as catalysts in the Gay-Lussac tower and Glover tower, and in another, an oxidation takes place in the presence of silica beads and a vanadium (V) oxide catalyst, after which its namesake element's trioxide is reacted with water. This compound produced by the lead chamber process and the contact process acts as the electrolyte in lead-acid batteries, and it is the only diprotic strong acid. For 10 points, name this acid with formula H2SO4.

Sulfuric Acid [accept H2SO4 before it is read]

To explain the ice ages, this scientist proposed that the geometric increase of CO2 caused atmospheric temperature to increase arithmetically, his namesake greenhouse theorem. Taking the natural logarithm of this man's namesake equation and plotting it against 1/T gives a plot whose slope is a certain quantity times the ideal gas constant. This man's namesake equation contains a pre-exponential factor, and he defined acids as substances that form hydronium ions. Identify this namesake of an equation that relates the rate constant to e to the power of negative activation energy over RT , a Swedish chemist.

Svante August Arrhenius

This quantity can be expressed as the inverse of the change in entropy with respect to internal energy, and some systems display a nonzero residual entropy when this quantity is equal to zero. The dependence of rate constants on activation energy and this quantity is given by the Arrhenius equation, and for a gas, this quantity is proportional to volume according to Charles' Law. A quantity which remains constant in an isothermal process, For 10 points, name this quantity which is measured on the Kelvin, Celsius, and Fahrenheit scales.

Temperature

This quantity is found on the lower right of the thermodynamic square, indicating its conjugacy to entropy. The equipartition theorem relates this quantity to the energies in a system, and the exponent in the Arrhenius equation contains Boltzmann's constant or the ideal gas constant multiplied by this quantity. Charles' law states that the volume of a gas is proportional to this quantity, whose lower bound according to the third law of thermodynamics is absolute zero. Equal for two bodies in thermodynamic equilibrium, For 10 points, name this quantity measured in Kelvin.

Temperature

As with the element below it on the periodic table, this element is isolated when its tetrachloride [teh-trah-KLOR-ide] is combined with liquid magnesium or sodium in the Kroll process. The dioxide [die-OK-side] of this element, a white pigment, is found in the minerals anatase [A-nah-tase], brookite, and rutile [ROO-til]. This element often is combined with aluminum and other metals to create lightweight temperature-resistant alloys for expensive engines and sports equipment. Name this transition metal following scandium on the periodic table.

Titanium

The Bernal-Fowler model uses the 4-site approach to model this substance. Certain Claisen rearrangements and Diels-Alder reactions exhibit reaction rate accelerations when carried out in emulsions of this substance, an effect studied by Sharpless. This substance is sometimes coordinated with crystals to help them (*) retain their crystalline properties, and the triple point of this substance defines the Kelvin scale. The heavy form of this substance contains higher deuterium content, and its solid state is less dense than its liquid state. For 10 points, name this universal solvent with formula H2O.

Water [accept H2O before mentioned, or dihydrogen monoxide]

When bonded to Iodine, this element can react with alkenes to form cyclopropanes in the Simmons-Smith reaction. In the Clemmensen reduction, an amalgamate of this element is reacted with hydrochloric acid to form alkanes. Ions of this element are bonded to residues of cysteine and histidine in "treble clefs" and "gag knuckles", which can recognize DNA and package RNA, functions of this element's namesake fingers. This metal is utilized in the galvanization of steel, and pennies made after 1982 are mostly comprised of this metal. For 10 points, name this element with atomic number 30, which can combine with copper to form brass.

Zinc [accept Zn]

11. Hermann Kolbe used carbon disulfide to inorganically synthesize this substance. This compound is used as a solvent in the production of terephthalic acid, but it’s mostly used to produce VAM in paints and adhesives. An iridium catalyst is used in the Cativa process of producing this substance, which replaced the less efficient Monsanto process. This compound can be formed from the carbonylation of methanol, and its anhydrous form is its (*) “glacial†variety. For ten points, identify this second-simplest carboxylic acid with formula CH3COOH, the main component of vinegar.

acetic acid (or ethanoic acid or methanecarboxylic acid or CH3COOH before mentioned) <EnC>

An organic type of these substances can dimerize in the liquid phase as a result of hydrogen bonding. Replacing a methyl group with a trifluoromethyl can increase the strength of one of these substances in a common example of the electron withdrawing inductive effect. Organic types of these substances can be produced by oxidizing aldehydes. Organic examples of these molecules typically contain a terminal carbon attached to both a (*) hydroxyl and another oxygen, called a carboxyl group. Vinegar contains an "acetic" one of these substances. A pH less than 7 is possessed by--for 10 points--what substances contrasted with bases?

acids [accept carboxylic acids; accept organic acids; accept specific acids like trifluoroacetic acid or acetic acid; accept amino acids; prompt on carboxyl or -COOH groups with "molecules with carboxyl groups act as what type of substance?"] <GC, Chemistry> Bonuses

Two of these elements can cause a substance to become metamict [meh-tah-MIKT], meaning the substance loses its crystal structure. Monazite [MAH-nuh-zite] and allanite are two such substances. Before it became easier to use lithium, one of these elements was used to power several pacemakers. The majority of these elements were first synthesized during the 1940s and 50s, with much of the work done by Glenn Seaborg. Two of these elements were the primary fillings in the atomic bombs used during World War II. Name these elements, most of which are created by adding electrons to the 5f electron shell, found below the lanthanides on the periodic table.

actinides [prompt on radioactive elements; do not accept "transuranic" or "transuranium" or "transplutonic" or "transplutonium"

In Marcus theory, a form of this quantity is equal to the square of reorganization energy plus Gibbs free energy all divided by four times reorganization energy. This quantity is replaced by Gibbs free energy in the Eyring equation, and it appears in the numerator of the exponential term in the (*) Arrhenius equation. This quantity is equal to the difference between the transition state and the initial state on a potential energy diagram. For 10 points, name this energy required for a reaction to take place, which is lowered by catalysts.

activation energy

10. These molecules are reacted with DEAD and triphenylphosphine to form esters with the opposite stereochemistry in one reaction. One of these substances is formed in a two step process where sodium borohydride is reacted with the product of an alkene reacting with mercury (II) acetate; that is the oxymercuration reaction. Though not a ketone, a 70% concentration of one of these substances is used in aseptic techniques in the lab. A carboxylic acid (*) refluxes with one of these substances in a Fischer esterification. These substances can be formed by reducing a carbonyl [[“car-bow-NEELâ€]]. For 10 points, name these compounds with an OH [[“o-hâ€]] group bonded to a carbon, exemplified by ethanol.

alcohols [accept -OH, hydroxyl, ethanol, or isopropyl alcohol] <Chemistry, VS><ed. KLei>

18. Bistartratocuprate(II) complexes oxidize these compounds to induce red copper(I) oxide to precipitate out of Fehling’s solution. In the Wacker process, ethylene oxidizes into one of these compounds. These reactive compounds are oxidized by a diamminesilver(I) complex to form a silver mirror in Tollens' reagent. Acyclic ones are named by affixing the name of the longest carbon chain with the suffix (*) "-al," and their general structure has a carbonyl bonded to a hydrogen and a side chain. For ten points, name this group of compounds, the simplest of which is commonly used to preserve tissue.

aldehydes [accept any specific types such as formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, etc] <EC>

They’re not aromatic, but halogenating these molecules with the aid of ultraviolet light proceeds through a free radical mechanism. The orientation of substituents in these molecules can be visualized, two carbons at a time, using Newman projections. The number of hydrogen atoms in the linear and branched forms of these molecules is two plus twice the number of (*) carbon atoms in the molecule, meaning their degree of unsaturation is zero. Cyclohexane and ethane are examples of, for ten points, what hydrocarbons which possess only carbon-carbon single bonds, unlike alkenes and alkynes?

alkanes [prompt on “hydrocarbonsâ€] <BZ>

One of these organic molecules forms a coordination complex with platinum in Zeise's [rhymes with "mice's"] salt, and peroxyacids are used to convert this class of compounds to epoxides [ee-PAHK-"sides"]. The addition of halogens to these compounds is described by Markovnikov's rule. Natural rubber is a polymer of one of these molecules, which show sp2 hybridization and whose substituent positions are described with cis-trans notation. These compounds are found in unsaturated fats like vegetable oils, and simple examples have twice as many hydrogen atoms as carbon atoms. Name this group of organic compounds with at least one carbon-carbon double bond.

alkenes [or olefins; prompt on hydrocarbons; do not accept "alkane(s)" or "alkyne(s)"]

Aryl ketones are converted to these compounds in the presence of dimethyl phosphonate in the Seyferth-Gilbert homologation. Palladium and copper catalysts are used to form a carbon-carbon bond between these compounds and an aryl halide in the Sonogashira coupling. The terminal variety of these compounds have high acidity, with a pKa of about 26. Aldehydes are transformed into these compounds by the (*) Corey-Fuchs reaction. A lead-poisoned palladium catalyst named for Lindlar is used to hydrogenate these compounds to alkenes. For 10 points, name this functional group with a carbon-carbon triple bond.

alkynes

These substances must obey the Hume-Rothery rules. These materials are strengthened during precipitation hardening, which prevents the movement of dislocations. They have both a solid·us and a liquid·us melting point, and also may have a eutectic point. These substances form when atoms substitute or interstice into a crystal lattice. Examples of these materials, like martensite or cementite, are (*) combinations of ferrite and austenite. When they contain mercury, they are called amalgams. They are equivalent to solid solutions. For 10 points, name these materials like pewter, steel, and bronze, which are mixtures of metals.

alloys [or solid solutions until it is read; prompt on solutions; ask for less specificity for answers of carbon steel]

These particles are emitted by radioactive static neutralizers as one of the final steps when producing paper. Already used to treat bone cancers, research is being done to attach bismuth and actinium [ak-TIH-nee-um] to sites near tumors to treat other cancers. These particles can cause lung cancer, most commonly doing so after the inhalation of radium. These were aimed at gold foil when the atomic nucleus was discovered by Ernest Rutherford. Name these particles equivalent to a helium nucleus.

alpha particles (or alpha radiation, prompt on "helium nucleus")

This element is alloyed with nickel in a hydrogenating catalyst named for Raney. This element’s potassium sulfate is used as a fire retardant and as a flocculant in water purification. This element’s trichloride is a strong Lewis acid, since this element is trivalent like its group-mate (*) boron. When smelting this metal, its oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite, after the Bayer process extracts its metal’s oxide from bauxite. This metal is found in the plus-three oxidation state in corundum. For 10 points, name this lightweight metal produced in the Hallâ€"Héroult process, with symbol Al.

aluminum <AF>

8. This element’s sulfate is used in the papermaking industry to coagulate individual cellulose fibers together. It’s not iron, but this metal’s chloride is used to catalyze the alkylation [[“al-kill-ay-shunâ€]] of an aromatic ring due to it being a very strong Lewis acid. A process that extracts this element’s oxide from its ore produces gallium as a byproduct, and is known as the (*) Bayer process. Another process involved in the metallurgy of this element occurs via electrolysis in a cell with a steel anode and graphite cathode of its oxide mixed with molten cryolite, which is known as the Hall-Heroult process. For 10 points, name this low density metal with atomic number 13 and symbol Al.

aluminum <Chemistry, CT><ed. KLei>

An agent containing lithium, hydrogen, and this element can be used to reduce aldehydes or ketones to alcohols. This element can be purified from its oxide through a process involving either Soderberg or prebaked anodes. This element is usually extracted using the Bayer process followed by electrolysis in molten cryolite in the (*) Hall-Heroult process. A mineral containing this element’s oxide with chromium impurities can form rubies; that mineral is corundum. This element is the lightest below the metalloid “ladder†on the periodic table, and its most common ore is bauxite. For 10 points, name this element with an atomic number of 13 that is used to make so-called “tin foil.â€

aluminum [or aluminium or Al; accept lithium aluminum hydride or aluminum oxide] <Chemistry â€" Gurazada> [Edited]

12. The main source of this element in ore is composed of the minerals gibbsite, boehmite, and diaspore. It’s not sodium or calcium, but this element is a cation in the minerals that make up the continuous branch of Bowen’s reaction series. The natural pH indicator Hydrangea macrophylla changes color due to the presence of this element in the soil. This element is the cation in a mineral that becomes red due to the presence of chromium and measures a (*) 9 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. This element is extracted in the Bayer process and refined in the Hall-Héroult process. For 10 points, name this element found in corundum and bauxite with chemical symbol Al.

aluminum [prompt on “Alâ€] <SAM>

This compound combines with chloramine [KLOR-uh-meen] to create hydrazine ["HIGH"-druh-zeen] and hydrochloric acid. Passing sodium chloride through this compound and then carbon dioxide to get sodium bicarbonate is the beginning of the Solvay process, which is sometimes named for this compound and soda. Replacing a hydrogen atom from a molecule of this compound with an organic group gives an amine [uh-MEEN], and this compound is combined with oxygen and then water in the Ostwald process to create nitric acid. Name this compound produced industrially by the Haber process and naturally by nitrogen fixation, a combination of nitrogen and hydrogen.

ammonia [prompt on NH3; do not accept "ammonium"]

Atoms with the largest value for this quantity have the highest priority in stereochemistry. Slater’s rules subtract a shielding constant from this value. The Rydberg [RIDE-berg] equation sets ionization energy proportional to it squared, over n squared. An increase in the “effective†form of this quantity decreases the (*) atomic radius, within a single period. This quantity increases by one in beta-minus decay but decreases by two in alpha decay. It is normally symbolized Z and written to the bottom-left of the symbol. Mendeleev’s key idea was organizing elements based on this quantity in the Periodic Table. For 10 points, name this quantity, the number of protons an atom has.

atomic number [or effective nuclear charge; prompt on charge]

In the presence of a ligand, one of these structures splits into the high-energy level “e-sub-g†and the low-energy level “t-sub-two-g.†These structures can be approximated using the self-consistent field method developed by Hartree. One type of these structures is indexed with symbols like “x-y†and “x-squared minus y-squared.†Within a molecule, these structures combine to form (*) “hybrid†structures that match the predictions of VSEPR (“vesperâ€) theory. These structures are filled in an order that maximizes the spin of the subshell, according to Hund’s rule. For 10 points, name these regions of an atom in which it is probable to find an electron, which are labeled s, p, d or f.

atomic orbitals [accept s orbitals or p orbitals or d orbitals; accept hybrid orbitals] <Chemistry â€" Gurazada> [Ed. French]

20. The value of this quantity can be predicted by Fajans’ Rules, and Bohr’s model can be used to approximate it for single-electron systems. One form of this quantity is equal to one-half the bond length in diatomic molecules, and poor shielding of nuclear charge by electrons in the 4f orbital causes a “contraction†of this quantity in lanthanides. This quantity increases as one goes (*) left across the periodic table, as valence electrons are not as attracted to the nucleus. For ten points, name this quantity, similar in magnitude to the angstrom, that measures the average distance from the nucleus of an atom to the electron cloud.

atomic radius (do not accept or prompt on “Bohr radiusâ€) <MS>

According to the Hume-Rothery rules, solid solutions only form when this quantity differs by less than 15% for solute and solvent. The lattice constant for BCC crystals is four over root three times this quantity. This quantity is smaller for cations than their corresponding neutral atoms. Because f electrons are very poor at shielding, this quantity does not change significantly across the lanthanide series. In general, this quantity decreases from left to right across a period and increases down a group. It equals 0.7 angstroms for carbon, half the length of a carbon-carbon bond. For 10 points, name this quantity measuring the "size" of an atom.

atomic radius [or ionic radius; or van der Waals radius; prompt on atomic "volume"; prompt on atomic "size"]

In elimination reactions, bulky forms of these substances act as exceptions to Zaitsev’s rule by creating steric clash. Compounds containing carbon double bonded to nitrogen with a substituted R group form versions of these substances named for Schiff. Lithium diisopropylamide is an example of the (*) super class of these substances. Lewis defined them as electron pair donors, while in Bronsted-Lowry theory they accept protons. For 10 points name these compounds which have a pH greater than 7.

bases

A derivative of this molecule is carboxylated to form salicylic acid in the Kolbe-Schmitt reaction. This moleculeis attached to a methyl group to form the side chain of phenylalanine. Some derivatives of this molecule includetoluene and aniline. As a functional group, it is given the name "phenyl," and reducing this molecule completelyyields cyclohexane. Because of this cyclic molecule's alternating single and double bonds, it possesses two Lewisstructures. This hydrocarbon with six delocalized pi electrons can be depicted as a hexagon with a circle in themiddle. For 10 points, name this aromatic molecule with a chemical formula of C6H6.

benzene [or cyclohexa-1,3,5-triene; or 1,3,5-cyclohexatriene; or benzol; or phene; accept C6H6 before mentioned]

An isomer of this compound is named for James Dewar, and this compound is the second in a series of compounds that starts with cyclobutadiene [sigh-kloe-BYOOD-uh-"DIE"-een]. Changing a hydrogen atom in a molecule of this element to a hydroxyl ["high"-DRAHK-sil] group creates an ingredient of bakelite [BAY-kuh-lite] called either carbolic acid or phenol [FEE-nol], while changing a hydrogen atom to a methyl [METH-ul] group creates toluene. Discovery of the structure of this molecule is credited to August Kekulé, who claimed he had a vision of a snake eating its tail. Name this aromatic hydrocarbon sometimes pictured with alternating single and double bonds, whose chemical formula is C6H6.

benzene [prompt on C6H6]

In a certain technique, this process does occur to the "overhead" product but not to the "bottoms" product. This process occurs at the bottom of a reflux. Because it can result in "bumping", this process requires nucleation sites on namesake "chips" to occur safely. The Clausius-Clapeyron equation almost always is used with the enthalpy of this process. This process occurs most rapidly to volatile compounds. It occurs when vapor pressure is equal to the partial pressure. Dissolved solute elevates the temperature at which it occurs. For 10 points, name this phase transition which occurs at 100 degrees Celsius for water, turning it into vapor.

boiling [or vaporization; or word forms of either; prompt on "evaporation"; accept distillation, fractional distillation, simple distillation, or other forms of distillation or word forms of the word "distillation" before "dissolved solute"]

9. Like carbon, this element can form three-center two-electron bonds in its hydrides. Kernite is an ore of this element, whose hydrides can be categorized as closo or nido. An organic compound containing this element is a reactant in the Suzuki reaction, and both this element’s hydroxide and its (*) trifluoride are Lewis acids since it commonly forms covalent compounds that are electron deficient. This is the lightest element used to dope p-type semiconductors, and this element increases thermal shock resistance in Pyrex glass. For 10 points, name this element with atomic number 5 and symbol B.

boron <Chemistry, CT><ed. KLei>

Bonds between this element and hydrogen are counted when calculating the Styx number. Ten atoms of this element and fourteen atoms of hydrogen form a white crystalline compound that notably smells like chocolate. That cluster is classified as nido, according to a set of electron-counting rules devised by Kenneth(*) Wade. This element, which is mined from the ores colemanite and ulexite [“yoo-lex-iteâ€], forms a trifluoride that is a strong Lewis acid but planar. This first element of the p block violates the octet rule by having only six valence electrons. For 10 points, name this metalloid with atomic symbol B.

boron [or B before it is read] <Max Mader>/<ed. AR>

A compound with one atom of this element is used in an anti-Markovnikov process that converts alkenes to alcohols. Hydrides of this element can be classified as “closo-,†“nido-,†or “arachno-†according to Wade’s rules. Pyrex glass contains this element’s trioxide, making it very heat-resistant. This element’s trifluoride is an excellent Lewis acid due to it having an empty atomic orbital. This element violates the (*) octet rule because it only requires six valence electrons to form a bond. This element is the lightest metalloid, and it is the lightest element whose ground state has electrons in a p orbital. For 10 points, name this element with atomic number five.

boron [or B] <Chemistry â€" Bandara> [Ed. Gurazada]

8. These entities can be modeled by the Rayleigh-Plesset equation, which assumes an infinite liquid volume. Sound causes short bursts of light to emit from these objects in sonoluminescence. They’re not forks, but thousands of “replication†ones open up during DNA replication, and a (*) sorting algorithm which compares adjacent elements of a list is named after them. Electrically charged particles leave helical paths in the superheated liquid of a “chamber†named for these things, which largely replaced cloud chambers. For ten points, name these hollow spherical objects that can be formed by a thin film of soapy water enclosing some air.

bubbles <HX>

The measurement of fluoride in water is more precise when a total ionic strength adjustment type of this solution is used. A list of these substances that are blocked by membranes, do not react with most salts, are highly soluble, and have a pH [p h] near 7 is named for Norman Good. Sometimes exemplified by the combination of carbonic acid and bicarbonate in blood plasma, these solutions often contain a weak acid or base with its conjugate. Name these solutions that resist changes to the pH of a solution.

buffer (solution) (or buffering agent)

One type of this substance is used for Mycoplasma detection and is named for McIlvaine. Histidine residues act as these substances when present in hemoglobin. The compound tris is used in the TAE and TBE types of these, which also contain EDTA. Monopotassium phosphate is used as an (*) “agent†of these solutions because it reduces nitrogen loss in soil. The effectiveness of these substances can be determined from the Hendersonâ€"Hasselbalch equation, which relates pKa to a similar quantity. In blood, carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions form a system that acts as one of these. For 10 points, name these solutions that resist changes in pH.

buffer solutions (accept buffering agents) HALFTIME

1. Potassium chloride is found in one of these substances often used in PCR. HEPES [["heaps"]] is a zwitterionic one of these substances named for Good that is sometimes replaced by one made from Tris when performing SDS-PAGE and other forms of gel electrophoresis. A mixture of carbonic acid and (*) bicarbonate act as one of these substances in the blood. A log term is added to the pKa [[“p-k-aâ€]] to estimate one property of these substances in the Henderson-Hasselbalch approximation. These substances are formed from mixtures of weak acids and their conjugate bases or vice-versa. For 10 points, name these substances that help neutralize pH changes.

buffer solutions [accept buffering agents] <Chemistry, VS><ed. VS>

Criteria including biochemical inertness and membrane impermeability were used to create a list of twenty of these things named for Norman Good. Limestone forms one of these things in soil in response to acid rain. An equation that sets the sum of (*) pKa and the logarithm of quantity conjugate base concentration over acid concentration equal to pH is used to describe the behavior of these things. One of these things based on the bicarbonate ion is found in blood. The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation can be used to find the pH of these things. For 10 points, name these things which contain a weak acid and conjugate base and counter changes in pH.

buffers [or buffer solutions or pH buffers or hydrogen ion buffers; prompt on solutions; prompt on any answer mentioning a system containing both an acid and its conjugate base or a system containing both a base and its conjugate acid] <Chemistry â€" Gurazada> [Ed. Bandara/Gurazada]

One type of these solutions developed by Prideaux and Ward contained phosphoric, phenylacetic [FEE-nul-uh-SEE-tik], and boric acids, and a similar example of the universal type of this solution was developed by Britton and Robinson. One of these solutions, often a saline [SAY-leen] with phosphate or acetate [AA-suh-tate], is used in high-performance liquid chromatography. These solutions often use at least two solutes, and their impact can be predicted by the HendersonÂâ€"Hasselbalch [HAS-ul-bahlk] equation. Name these solutions typically containing a weak acid or weak base that are used to maintain constant alkalinity, meaning they resist changes to pH [P-H] levels.

buffers [or buffering solutions or buffering agents]

NV centers in a material made of this element can be used as sensitive magnetometers. The chiral vector describes the orientation of a material made of this element that can exist in single-walled and multiple-walled forms. Exfoliation using scotch tape is used to isolate an extremely conductive material made up of a (*) monolayer of this element. Buckyballs and nanotubes are examples of fullerenes formed from this element. Common allotropes of this element include graphene, diamond, and graphite. For 10 points, name this element with symbol C.

carbon [or C until “C†is read] <GC, Chemistry>

The M+1 peak in mass spectrometry is due to an isotope of this element. An isotope of this element is used in a form of NMR which uses DEPT to determine chemical shifts between 0 and 220 ppm. Three alpha particles are transformed into an isotope of this element in the triple-alpha process. The mass of one dalton is defined based on the mass of one of this element's isotopes. The natural logarithm of two, divided by 5700, gives the rate constant in inverse-years for a process undergone by an isotope of this element. A mole is defined as twelve grams of its most common isotope. For 10 points, name this element used in radioactive dating, which normally has six neutrons.

carbon [or C]

Water gas is formed by passing steam over this element. This element forms the anode in the Hall-Heroult process. Ionic salts of it with silicon and boron are two of the hardest known compounds. The “activated†form of this element is used to purify water. This element is produced when sulfuric acid dehydrates glucose. Andre Geim [GYME] used Scotch tape to isolate a (*) 2D form of this element. This element forms a 60-atom cage with pentagonal and hexagonal faces that was named for architect R. Buckminster Fuller. An isotope of this element has a half-life of 5760 years. For 10 points, name this element whose allotropes include graphite and diamond.

carbon [or C]

One reaction takes this compound and hydrogen and produces methanol and water. Vincent Schaefer dropped the solid form of this compound into clouds over Mount Greylock to induce snow. This compound with a molar mass of 44 grams is captured and sold by Christoph Gebald and Jan Wurzbacher’s company (*) Climeworks to local Swiss greenhouses. The primary component of Venus’s atmosphere, this compound is responsible for soft drink fizz. For 10 pointsâ€"give this gas humans exhale, whose chemical formula is CO2.

carbon dioxide (accept CO2 before given; accept dry ice after “Vincentâ€)

2. In one process, an unstable intermediate formed by adding three molecules of this compound breaks down into 3-phosphoglycerate, and that process is sometimes preceded by one in which this compound is added to form oxaloacetate and malate. An abnormally high amount of this substance in the blood is called hypercapnia and can lead to acidosis, as it forms an acid that is part of the (*) bicarbonate buffering mechanism. Yeast fermentation results in ethanol and this compound, which RuBisCO uses as a source of carbon atoms in the Calvin cycle. For ten points, name this gas that is used in photosynthesis and produced by respiration, whose chemical formula is CO2.

carbon dioxide [accept CO2 before mentioned] <BZ>

. This molecule has an anti-symmetric stretching mode at 2349 inverse centimeters. A ruthenium carbonyl catalyst can be used to produce alcohols from olefins, hydrogen gas, and this compound. A phosphine complex of platinum catalyzes the conversion of hydrogen gas and this compound into formic acid. A supercritical fluid of this molecule is used in (*) decaffeination reactions. In the water-gas shift equilibrium, water and carbon monoxide are converted to hydrogen gas and this compound. It’s produced alongside water in combustion reactions and constitutes dry ice. For 10 points, name this compound that has formula CO2.

carbon dioxide [accept “CO2†until read]

In 2013, bismuth was used by Joel Rosenthal as a catalyst to create this compound. This compound is combined with water vapor in the water-gas shift reaction, and this is mixed with hydrogen to make synthetic fuel in the Fischer-Tropsch [tropsch] process. This compound combines with hemoglobin to create carboxyhemoglobin [kahr-BOK-see-hee-moe-gloe-bin], which causes oxygen deprivation. Name this compound that can be created by incomplete combustion so that there is not enough oxygen to create carbon dioxide.

carbon monoxide (prompt on "CO")

Water gas is a mixture of hydrogen and this gas, which can be produced through the method of steam reforming. Impure nickel forms a complex with this molecule in the Mond process. Reacting chlorine with this molecule produces phosgene. This neutral molecule possesses a triple bond and is isoelectronic to the (*) cyanide ion. Along with water, this molecule is produced in incomplete combustion reactions. This molecule has approximately 200 times the binding affinity to hemoglobin compared to oxygen. For 10 points, name this diatomic molecule with the formula CO.

carbon monoxide [accept CO until “CO†is read; accept carbonyl ligand] <GC, Chemistry>

This compound is formed with hydrogen in steam reforming. Heme breakdown produces this compound. It inserts into alkenes to form aldehydes and inserts into methanol to form acetic acid. Addition of chlorine to this gas makes phosgene. This neutral compound has a triple bond, one atom with a positive charge, and one atom with a negative charge. A catalytic (*) converter oxidizes both hydrocarbons and this compound to CO2. It competitively inhibits binding to hemoglobin. It and water are formed in incomplete combustion reactions. For 10 points, name this poisonous gas which displaces oxygen in the body, which has formula CO.

carbon monoxide [or CO until it is read]

These compounds are reduced to aldehydes via the acid chloride in the Rosenmund reduction. In Barbierâ€"Wieland degradation, an aliphatic chain having a simple methylene bridge at the alpha position can be shortened by one carbon in these compounds. These compounds often have strong odors, especially the (*) volatile derivatives. These compounds easily dissociate because they are held together by resonance. These compounds include a hydroxyl group attached to the same carbon as a double-bonded oxygen. For ten points name this most common type of organic acid, with forms including maleic acid, citric acid, and acetic acid.

carboxylic acids HALFTIME

14. A petroleum fluid cracking process named after these kinds of substances often uses zeolites. These substances are termed heterogeneous if they are in a different phase than the reactants, which commonly adsorb on the surfaces of solid examples of these substances, such as the (*) iron oxide used in the Haber-Bosch process. Cars produce carbon dioxide and water with the help of platinum “converters†named for this type of substance. For 10 points, name these substances which lower the activation energy of other reactions, biological examples of which include enzymes.

catalysts [accept enzymes until mentioned;] <BZ>

During a portion of glycolysis, PFK acts as both a reactant and one of these substances. Within these substances, the relationship between the rate of diffusion and reaction is given by the Thiele Modulus. The effectiveness of these substances can be reduced by certain Lewis bases in a process called (*) poisoning. A heterogeneous substance of this type has a different phase from the other molecules in the reaction. In biology, these substances are called enzymes. For ten points, name this type of substance that lowers the activation energy of a reaction without participating in it.

catalysts [accept enzymes until mentioned] <CL+PA>

The behavior of ideal varieties of these substances can be described by the Thiele (THEEL) modulus. Those “perfect†varieties of these substances are limited only by the rate of diffusion. Metallic examples of these substances, such as Raney nickel, often function through adsorption. These substances can be classified as (*) homogeneous or heterogeneous depending on their phase relative to their substrate. The action of these substances can be represented as a reduction in the height of the peak on a reaction energy profile diagram. Biological variants of these substances are called enzymes. For 10 points, name these substances that lower activation energy and increase reaction rate.

catalysts [accept perfect catalysts] <Chemistry â€" Schwartz> [Ed. Gurazada]

Palladium is a substance of this type in the Heck reaction, and one named for Raney consists of powdered nickel.An industrial process that produces ammonia uses one of these substances consisting of iron, and these substancescan be poisoned when species bind to them chemically to block their active sites. The addition of these substancesdoes not affect the value of a reaction's equilibrium constant, and they are contrasted with inhibitors, which mayreduce these substances' activity. These substances in biology are called enzymes, and they work by loweringactivation energy. For 10 points, name these chemical species that speed up a reaction but are not themselvesconsumed.

catalysts [do not accept or prompt on "enzymes"]

The effectiveness factor characterizes these substances. They are often ground into tiny pellets and then inserted inside zeo·lites. These compounds are ruined in a process called poisoning. Their phase determines if they are homogeneous or heterogeneous. These compounds are often written above the arrow in organic (*) chemical reactions. These compounds stabilize the transition state more than they stabilize the reactants. Nickel and palladium serve as these compounds in hydrogenations. They lower the energy barrier for a reaction to occur. For 10 points, name these species that aren’t consumed or created in a mechanism, and speed up a reaction.

catalysts [do not accept or prompt on “enzymesâ€]

These substances are most effective at an intermediate value of enthalpy of adsorption, according to the Sabatier principle. Hydrogen migrates from one of these substances to its support during the process of spillover. The activity of these substances can be decreased in poisoning. Iron (IV) [four] oxide acts as a heterogenous one of these substances in the (*) Haber process. These substances often act by stabilizing the transition state of a reaction, and in general, lowering the activation energy of a reaction. Enzymes are biological examples of these substances. For 10 points, identify these substances which speed up a chemical reaction without being consumed, unlike accelerants.

catalysts [prompt on enzymes] <GC, Chemistry>

An intermediate of this type is formed on a carbon chain during E1 and SN1 reactions. That intermediate iscarbenium and assumes an sp2 hybridized state. A molecular example of this chemical species is arenium, which isstabilized by pi bond delocalization. Coordination complexes occur when ligands bind to these entities. Metals inaqueous solutions usually form these chemical species, which tend to have smaller atomic radii than their neutral oroppositely-charged counterparts because of these species' relative lack of electrons. A hydrogen form of this type ofspecies is a bare proton. For 10 points, name these positively charged chemical species, contrasted with anions.

cations [accept "carbocations" before "arenium"; prompt on "positive ions"; do not accept or prompt on "anion"]

Asymmetric catalysis is used to favor reaction products with a specific type of this property over another. Molecules with this relationship can be differentiated in a process known as kinetic resolution. This property was first discovered by Louis Pasteur with his experiments on tartaric acid when he saw differences in the(*) rotation of plane-polarized light. Compounds with this property can be called R or S, and L- and D- glucose share this relationship. For 10 points, name this property that denotes molecules that are non-superimposable mirror images of each other.

chirality [or enantiomers; or optical isomers; prompt on isomer] <Joe Stitz>/<ed. AR>

13. Sumitomo used a ruthenium (IV) oxide catalyst to produce this element in the Deacon process, and this element forms at the anode in the electrolytic Castner-Kellner process. This element is bonded to metals in sylvite and carnallite, and along with sulfur, it is bonded to a hydrocarbon in mustard gas, which, like this element, was used as a (*) chemical weapon in World War I. Molecules containing hydrogen, fluorine, carbon, and this element have contributed to ozone depletion, and this diatomic element is also present in bleach and in disinfectants for swimming pools. For ten points, identify this element, a poisonous green gas that bonds with sodium to form table salt.

chlorine <EnC>

Two ammonia groups and two atoms of this element act as ligands to platinum in the cancer drug cisplatin. Eachmonomer of neoprene contains one atom of this element. An atom of this element exists on each end of mustard gas,and this element's gas is called bertholite. Aqua regia consists of nitric acid and an acid of this element, and twoatoms of this element appear in an atom of phosgene. An oxide of this element is sometimes used in bleach. Thishalogen has the highest electron affinity of any element. For 10 points, name this halogen with atomic number 17that is often added to swimming pools and that bonds with sodium to form table salt.

chlorine [or Cl; or Cl2; prompt on "chloride" or "Cl_ "]

Probes in this lab technique have index codes of x-prime, y-prime, and z-prime, and are used to determine the Rohrschneider and McReynolds constants. An equation for organic compounds used in this lab technique linearly relates the log of t sub r and the number of carbon atoms in a molecule to determine the (*) Kováts retention index. The theoretical plate height of this process can be determined using the van Deemter equation. The “partition†form of this technique modifies the thin-layer type, which uses a silica gel stationary phase. For 10 points, name this lab technique that can be used to separate pigments.

chromatography (accept gas chromatography)

20. One form of this technique is often preceded by use of “purge and trap†technology; that form of this technique often pairs a Polyarc reactor with a Flame Ionization Detector to quantify its output. In that form of this technique, an index named for Kovats normalizes retention times. Though not distillation, the height equivalent to a theoretical plate for this technique is calculated with the (*) Van Deemter equation. A form of this technique is often paired with mass spectrometry in forensic analysis of unknown substances. A common lab demonstration uses paper as a stationary phase in this technique to separate Sharpie dyes. For 10 points, name this separatory technique that comes in "gas" and "column" forms.

chromatography [accept gas chromatography, column chromatography, or paper chromatography] <Chemistry, VS><ed. VS> Bonuses

One form of this technique traps small molecules in pores of an adsorbent material such as polystyrene. In another form of this technique, a sample passes through a flame ionization detector after passing through a “carrier gas†such as helium. One form of this technique pumps a sample through a column filled with an adsorbent material using a solvent at a very high pressure. In this technique, the (*) retention factor characterizes the distance travelled by a given compound. This technique uses a mobile phase to carry a mixture up the stationary phase, and it is often demonstrated using paper. For 10 points, name this technique named for the colored patterns formed by separating compounds.

chromatography [accept size-exclusion chromatography or SEC or gel-filtration chromatography or gel-permeation chromatography or GPC or molecular-sieve chromatography or gas chromatography or GC or high-performance liquid chromatography or high-pressure liquid chromatography or HPLC or column chromatography or paper chromatography] <Chemistry â€" Gurazada> [Edited] Packet 4 Bonuses

The Kovats retention index is used to compare the results of this process, and one equation governing this process multiplies a function of the Peclet number with the flow rate and is named for Alirio Rodrigues; that equation extends another one governing this process, which includes the quantity HETP. The retardation factor of the planar type of this process is the ratio of the distance travelled by the substance to the distance travelled by the (*) solvent front. One form of this technique uses an unreactive gas as the mobile phase, and the paper form of this technique commonly tests the separation of constituents of ink in water based on capillary action. For 10 points, name this process that separates materials based on the speed at which they travel through a medium.

chromatography [accept specific types of chromatography, such as gas chromatography, paper chromatography, and thin layer chromatography]

The UCM hump appears in a form of this procedure which is often followed by mass spectrometry. Acetic acid and water are at the far end of the eluatropic series, which describes this technique. It often involves calculating retention times and the retardation factor. This technique is called "high-performance" when it occurs at high pressures. Silica gel is used in the "thin-layer" form of this technique. It relies on differences in polarity between solute particles, giving the mobile phase differential affinity for the stationary phase. For 10 points, name this technique which can be used to separate pigments on paper.

chromatography [or gas chromatography; or high performance liquid chromatography; or thin-layer chromatography; or paper chromatography]

One of these phenomena was discovered by Jean Antoine Nollet using a pig bladder, and they can be used in determining molecular weight if the chemical potential of all phases is the same. One law concerning one of these phenomena only applies to mixtures where fugacity can be replaced by simple pressures, which are termed ideal mixtures. That example of these properties is dependent on mole fraction as described by Raoult’s law. Aside from vapor pressure, these properties involve the use of the van't Hoff factor. For 10 points, name these concentration-dependent properties of mixtures which include boiling point elevation and freezing point depression.

colligative properties

Red-colored examples of these systems that have lasted for over 150 years contain nanoparticles that were accidentally created from preparing gold for microscope slides. The zeta potential is a key indicator of the stability of these systems, as it describes whether these substances will undergo flocculation. Light passing through these substances can appear(*) blue as this system exhibits Willis-Tyndall scattering. This type of system is the intermediate between solutions and suspensions. For 10 points, name this type of mixture where one substance is dispersed evenly throughout another.

colloids <David Dennis>/<ed. AR>

7. These substances are broken apart when ferric chloride turns into ferric hydroxide in the presence of water. One type of these substances can be produced by Bredig’s Arc Method, and, when they contain water, peptization can be performed. Adding surfactants stabilizes one type of these substances, which generally scatter light in the (*) Tyndall Effect. Particles from these substances aggregate in flocculation, and specific types of them include gels and emulsions. For ten points, identify these substances like blood and milk, in which small particles are dispersed, but not dissolved, in a continuous phase.

colloids <MS>

When the concentration of surfactant is greater than the CMC, and the Krafft temperature is exceeded, Micelles can form within these substances. These substances are stabilized by peptization and the electric potential at the double layer interfaces is defined as the zeta potential. Clumps of particles are formed during (*) flocculation in this class of substances, which reflect blue light by the Tyndall effect. Aerosols, gels, and emulsions are all subtypes of, for ten points, what substances in which particles are dispersed intermediately between suspensions and solutions, exemplified by milk?

colloids [prompt on “dispersionsâ€, accept aerosols, gels, or emulsions before mention] <RP>

In one form of this reaction, pyrolysis occurs to do an insufficient amount of one reactant. The disproved phlogiston theory was used to describe this process. Cycloalkane stability is determined using the heat of this reaction, which occurs a the (*) flash point and catalytic converters break down exhaust from engines that use this reaction. This reaction’s incomplete form may result in the production of carbon monoxide or hydrogen gas, and its rapid form is known as detonation or explosion. For 10 points, name this type of reaction between a hydrocarbon and oxygen that produces carbon dioxide and water.

combustion [or burning, or explosion; accept word forms]

2. Initiation of this process requires energy to cross the forbidden transition and convert a certain species from its triplet state to singlet state. Smoldering is one form of this process commonly tested on polyurethane. Palladium and platinum are typically used in one device to remove impurities formed by the (*) incomplete form of this process, which could yield nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide. Exemplified by the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to form water vapor, this type of reaction requires a fuel and oxidant, and typically produces carbon dioxide. For ten points, name this type of chemical reaction that colloquially is known as "burning."

combustion [prompt on “oxidation,†“reduction,†“redox,†“exothermic,†or, I suppose, “burningâ€] <EC>

In the cumene process, this is done to cumene in order to form cumene hydroperoxide. Georg Stahl first proposed the phlogiston theory of this process. The maximum efficiency of a common machine that uses this process can be attained by the Carnot cycle. Surpassing the (*) flash point will allow this type of oxidation reaction to occur, while surpassing the autoignition temperature will cause it to occur spontaneously. In the complete form of these reactions, oxygen reacts with a hydrocarbon to produce carbon dioxide and water. For 10 points, name these reactions which can be simply described as blowing things up.

combustion reactions (prompt on "oxidation" before it is read)

A type of organometallic reagent containing lithium and this metal facilitates 1,4 nucleophilic addition reactions and is named for Gilman. This element is the cathode in a Daniell cell, in which the reduction of this metal from a plus 2 oxidation state to its elemental form is spontaneous. Like chromium, this metal violates the aufbau principle, as it has a 4s1 (*) 3d10 electron configuration. Many crustaceans transport oxygen in blood by using a protein containing this metal, called hemocyanin. This element produces a blue-green color during a flame test. This element is alloyed with zinc to form brass. For 10 points, name this ductile element, with atomic number 29 and symbol Cu.

copper [accept Cu before mentioned] <LZ, Chemistry> Bonuses

6. DNAses are inactivated when one of these interactions is disrupted by DTT or beta-mercapto-ethanol. Conjugated and aromatic rings are unusually stable because an alternating number of bonds of this type are present between atoms. Thiol groups in the side chain of cysteine are oxidized to form examples of this type of interaction that occur in the tertiary structure of proteins and are called (*) disulfide bonds. The pi and sigma types of these interactions form from the overlap between p orbitals and between s orbitals, respectively. For 10 points, name this type of bond which, unlike ionic bonding, involves the sharing of electrons.

covalent bond [accept disulfide bond; prompt on “bondsâ€; prompt on “single bondsâ€] <BZ>

The only purported example of the “phi†version of this structure is in the diuranium [“dye-uraniumâ€] molecule. Diborane [“dye-boraneâ€] exhibits the "three-center-two-electron" type of these interactions. Chelating ligands form two or more of these interactions to the central atom. In cyclopropane, strained versions of these structures are referred to as(*) "bent," as their geometry resembles a banana. These structures can be homolytically cleaved to form free radicals. Lewis diagrams depict these as a line, and they can be classified as "sigma" or "pi." For 10 points, name these bonds in which atoms share valence electrons.

covalent bonds [prompt on bonds] <David Dennis>/<ed. AR>

13. The Burgers vector represents the amount of distortion in these entities, which are organized into 14 varieties by the Bravais classification. Their structure can be described using three miller indices, and anisotropic varieties often exhibit birefringence. Annealing and deformation can cause these materials to intergrow as (*) twins, and the Born-Haber cycle can be applied to find the enthalpy of formation of these solids, also known as the lattice energy. For ten points, identify these non-amorphous materials, with symmetries such as simple and face-centered cubic, that have an ordered pattern of constituents.

crystalline solid <EC>

One of the mathematical procedures in this field of chemistry is the Rietveld refinement, which increases the success rate when powder diffraction is used. Some calculations in this discipline are simplified by the Weiss zone law. An equation in this science sets an integer times wavelength equal to twice distance times the sine of the incidence angle. That equation, used to analyze X-ray diffraction results, is Bragg's law. Name this science that categorizes many solids as triclinic, orthorhombic, hexagonal or cubic to describe their lattice structure.

crystallography

These materials can be classified into one of 230 different space groups. Grain boundaries are interfaces in substances comprised of multiple, microscopic examples of these materials. These materials form in a process which begins with the nucleation around a seed. These materials act as a diffraction grating in a technique where their structure can be determined by firing (*) x-rays through them. Unlike amorphous materials, these solids possess long-range order and can be described by a lattice. Metals and diamond exist as--for 10 points--what type of solid with a regular, repeating arrangement of atoms?

crystals [accept crystalline materials; accept crystal lattices; accept crystallization; prompt on lattices until “lattices†are mentioned; prompt on solids] <GC, Chemistry>

One compound with this property, thiophene, includes an atom of sulfur, as does sulbentine, which possesses this property in three locations. Ladderanes are composed of molecules with this property. The placing of a double bond at the bridgehead of a molecule with this property is described by (*) Bredt’s rule. Ethers with this property include lithium ionophore V and 18-crown-6, and hydrocarbons with this property are called annulenes. The Simmonsâ€"Smith reaction yields propane with aromaticity and this property, which is possessed by molecules with half-chair and twist-boat conformations. For 10 points, name this property exhibited by benzene rings.

cyclic (accept rings or anything with cyclo-, prompt on “aromaticâ€)

For a string with constant tension, the speed of a wave varies inversely with the square root of this quantity. Dynamic pressure is calculated by multiplying half of this quantity times speed squared. Pressure plus dynamic pressure plus this quantity times gravitational acceleration times height is constant according to Bernoulli's principle. This quantity is the reciprocal of specific volume. This quantity is constant for incompressible flows of liquids, and under normal conditions, osmium and iridium have the highest values for this quantity among stable elements. Name this quantity equal to mass divided by volume.

density [accept linear density before "specific volume"; accept (volumetric) mass density after "specific volume"]

The Kepler conjecture states that this quantity is maximized for HCP and FCC crystals. The reciprocal of this quantity is called specific volume. This quantity is the ratio between kinematic and dynamic viscosity. The melting point line has a negative slope when this quantity is greater for liquids than for solids. The ratio of it to a reference standard is specific gravity. Among elements, this quantity is greatest for osmium and iridium. For water, it's maximized at 4 degrees Celsius. If two substances are immiscible, the one with a greater value for this will form the bottom layer. For 10 points, name this quantity equal to mass over volume.

density [or packing efficiency before "volume"]

A model for this process on the surface of a catalyst was made using carbon monoxide “jumping†through platinum to a “free space.†James Maxwell and Josef Stefan independently developed an equation to describe this process for dilute gases and fluids, respectively. This process can be described by mobility times (*) Boltzmann’s constant times absolute temperature. Graham’s law identifies the rate of this process through a small hole as the inverse of the square roots of the molecular mass of a gas’s particles. When water undergoes this process across a semipermeable membrane, it is called osmosis. For ten points, name this process in which substances go from areas of high concentration to low concentration.

diffusion <CL>

10. In crystals, this process can occur via adatom hopping or quantum tunneling, which is an example of its “surface†variety observed in heterogenous catalysts. Uranium hexafluoride undergoes this process during enrichment. Its namesake coefficient is equal to the product of mean free path and velocity. Its flux is equal to the negative of the (*) concentration gradient in a law named after Fick, and this process is observed as water moves across a semipermeable membrane through osmosis. For ten points, identify this process by which molecules move from a higher concentration to a lower one.

diffusion <EC>

The coefficient of this process scales with temperature to the three-halves in gases and has units of centimeters squared per second. J symbolizes the flux of this process. This process governs the rate of reactions with very small activation energies. Its rate is proportional to one over the square root of (*) molar mass. Einstein explained how it leads to Brownian motion. This process follows Fick’s Laws and Graham’s Law and is modelled as a random walk. It occurs through a membrane in osmosis. For 10 points, name this process in which particles move down their concentration gradients.

diffusion [or diffusivity; or diffusion coefficient; or effusion; prompt on “mass transport†or “movement†or similar answers]

20. The enthalpies of the last two steps in this process are summed to get the enthalpy of hydration. This process can be thought of as consisting of two endothermic steps that require the breaking of ionic and intermolecular interactions, and one exothermic step in which new interactions form. The equilibrium constant for this process is termed Ksp [“K-sub-SPâ€], which is notably very low for silver chloride, and results in its (*) precipitation out of water. When this process can no longer occur, a mixture is said to be saturated. For 10 points, name this process in which solutes like table salt break up into their constituent ions in a solvent like water.

dissolution [accept word forms like dissolving; or solubilization; or solvation] <BZ> Bonuses

The classic method to generate pure oxygen and nitrogen is to do this process to air at cryogenic temperature. The outlet streams of this process are called the bottoms and overhead. During this process, the rectifying and stripping sections intersect at the feed. Three-neck round-bottom flasks are attached to packed columns for this process in the lab. No matter the (*) reflux ratio, the naive form of this technique cannot break an azeotrope. The tallest columns at an oil refinery are used for this process, to fractionate petroleum. For 10 points, name this lab technique that separates liquids based on boiling point, which is used to purify ethanol.

distillation

This technique is impossible at the Bancroft point of a system. This technique may use either a “pressure swing†or an entrainer, and it is often combined with reflux to increase its efficiency. Many zones of equilibrium known as “theoretical plates†are needed to overcome a small difference in volatility, in this technique’s (*) “fractional†type. This procedure fails on a mixture of methanol, acetone, and chloroform, since those three compounds form a “saddle†azeotrope. This technique requires a heat source and a condenser. For 10 points, name this lab technique that separates two substances by boiling one of them off, often used to desalinate water.

distillation [accept fractional distillation] <AF>

The Burton process of thermal cracking employs the "destructive" form of this technique. When this technique is applied to multicomponent mixtures, components are designated as "heavy key" or "light key," based on their volatility. The number of theoretical plates needed for this process can be calculated via the(*) Fenske equation. This technique, which employs a condenser to generate reflux, [emphasize] cannot separate a solution of 96% ethanol and 4% water, as it is an azeotrope. The fractional type of this process is used for refining crude oil. For 10 points, name this lab technique used to separate liquids based on boiling point.

distillation [or destructive distillation; or fractional distillation] <Joe Stitz>/<ed. AR>

The Fenske equation calculates the least number of theoretical plates needed for one type of this process. A Perkin triangle may be used for air-sensitive materials in this process, in which Raschig rings are used to create columns. The McCabe-Thiele method analyzes this process by using the mole fractions of materials used in it. Its (*) fractional type is commonly used to extract elements from the air, and entrainers are often added in this process when performed on azeotropes. This process occurs when the vapor pressure of one substance equals the partial pressure in the apparatus of the surrounding gases. For ten points, identify this process that separates liquids based on their boiling points.

distillation [prompt on boiling before mention] <AG/CL>

17. Allylic rearrangement occurs when an SN1 substitution shifts the position of this structure, which is forbidden at bridgeheads of ring systems according to Bredt’s rule. The Diels-Alder reaction modifies conjugated systems in which these alternate in a ring, often inducing resonance. They are responsible for cis-trans isomerism, and they are formed from overlapping p-orbitals creating a (*) sigma and pi bond. At least one of these is present in an alkene [read “al-keenâ€], making it unsaturated, and they are the only bonds present in diatomic oxygen. For ten points, identify this covalent bond indicated by two lines on a Lewis dot diagram.

double bond [prompt on partial; prompt on “covalent bond;†do NOT accept any other type] <EC>

Measurements of this value taken with a setup including calomel can be used to determine pH, and the Weston cell is the standard for measurement of this value. It is equal to negative the change in Gibbs free energy divided by Faraday's constant times "n", and it can be found at non-standard conditions using the (*) Nernst equation. Values of the same type for the half-reactions that make up a cell are added to find this quantity, the value of which is often marked on batteries. For 10 points, identify this measure of the electromotive force output of a galvanic cell, often denoted E sub cell.

electrochemical cell potential [accept electrochemical cell voltage, accept electrode or reduction potential, accept equivalents like voltage of an electrochemical cell; prompt on E or V; accept "pH" before it is read]

The high-temperature version of this process commonly uses lanthanum strontium manganate and yttria-stabilized zirconia. The HallÂâ€"Héroult process is a version of this process used to produce aluminum, while a Downs cell uses carbon and iron in this process to produce sodium. The second law of this process uses equivalent weights to predict the amount of output; that and its first law were developed by Michael Faraday. Name this process that uses an anode and cathode as the sites of a chemical reaction caused by a direct current, especially the decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen.

electrolysis [accept word forms]

One type of this process can be hindered by the anode [“ann-odeâ€] effect, and its reactants are dissolved in molten cryolite [“cry-o-liteâ€]. Sir Humphry Davy was the first to isolate sodium and potassium by performing this process on lye and potash [“pot-ashâ€], respectively. This technique, which is used in the Hall-Héroult process, is described by two laws by(*) Faraday, one of which states that the mass of the material separated is proportional to the charge passed through the circuit. When this process is applied to water, hydrogen and oxygen gas are produced. For 10 points, name this technique that uses an electric current to drive a chemical reaction forward.

electrolysis [or the Hall-Héroult process before the second sentence is read] <David Dennis>/<ed. AR>

When this technique is used for purification, its residue is called mud. This process obeys the equation “small m = Q over F times big M over zâ€. Hydrogen for gas chromatography is generated through this process. Faraday discovered two laws governing this process. While carrying out this process, Fleischmann and Pons claimed they had discovered cold fusion. (*) Alumina dissolved in cryolite undergoes this process to purify aluminum. Humphrey Davy used this process to isolate the alkali metals. This process produces oxygen and hydrogen gas when applied to water. For 10 points, name this method of splitting molecules with an electric current.

electrolysis [or word forms; or electrorefining]

This quantity is used to determine oxidation states--but not formal charges-- in compounds. sp carbons have a greater value for this quantity than do sp3 carbons, causing the relative acidity of alkynes. When this property is large for certain atoms, it causes a relative increase in acidity for adjacent protons according to the inductive effect. C-H are nonpolar because both carbon and hydrogen have a value of 2.2 on a scale for measuring this quantity. On the Pauling scale, fluorine has the greatest value for this property. For 10 points, name this property measuring an atom's ability to attract electrons to itself.

electronegativity

When this value is calculated for different elements, hydrogen is given a value above two so that all elements have positive values. This was calculated by taking the square root of the difference of a dissociation energy and the average of two other dissociation energies. This value depends largely on the number of spaces in the outer energy level and its distance from the nucleus. Name this value invented by Linus Pauling measuring the ability of an atom to attract electrons, a value high in fluorine.

electronegativity (accept word forms)

One method of calculating this quantity expresses it as a linear function of the effective nuclear charge over the square of the covalent radius. This quantity, which can be measured by the Allred-Rochow scale, can also be found by taking the average of the electron affinity and ionization energy in Mulliken’s scale. Since this quantity is not usually defined for (*) noble gases and it increases going from the bottom left to the top right of the periodic table, fluorine has the highest value for this quantity. The difference in this quantity between two atoms characterizes their bond as ionic, polar, or non-polar. For 10 points, name this quantity that describes an atom’s ability to attract electrons.

electronegativity [accept Allred-Rochow electronegativity or Mulliken electronegativity] <Chemistry â€" Schwartz> [Ed. Gurazada]

A quantity represented Z-star is divided by the square of the covalent radius in one definition of this quantity,and higher atomic values of this quantity make for better leaving groups in SN2 reactions. A ratio of electrondensities is used in one definition of this quantity, which can be calculated as the mean of electron affinity and firstionization energy. Defined by Sanderson and Mulliken, this quantity increases as one moves toward the top right ofthe periodic table, and it is measured from 0.7 to 3.98 on a relative scale developed by Linus Pauling. Fluorine hasthe highest value of, for 10 points, what property that reflects an atom's ability to attract electrons?

electronegativity [do not accept "electron affinity"]

15. A high disparity in this quantity is the reason why hydrofluoric acid is the only hydrogen halide that is not a strong acid in water. A variant of this quantity can be calculated as the arithmetic mean of the ionization energy and electron affinity according to a scale for it developed by Allred and Rochow. If the difference in this quantity between two bonded atoms is approximately between 1.4 and 0.4 on the (*) Pauling scale, the bond will polar covalent because one of the atoms will have a partial negative charge. For 10 points, identify this measure of how strongly an atom pulls electrons to itself.

electronegativity [do not accept or prompt on “chargeâ€] <BZ>

8. The solvation of these particles imparts a blue color to solutions of alkali metals and water. The movement or transfer of a single one of these particles is designated by a fish hook arrow, according to arrow pushing notation. Abbreviated written configurations of these particles for an element begin with the symbol of the previous noble gas in brackets. Reduction involves a (*) gain of these particles, while oxidation results in a loss of them. For 10 points, name these particles which are transferred or shared in chemical bonds and which surround the nucleus of an atom.

electrons <BZ>

The Planck value of this quantity equals h-bar divided by the Planck time. The Boltzmann constant is in units of this quantity per unit of absolute temperature, and the Hamiltonian operator gives this quantity. This quantity equals enthalpy minus the quantity pressure times volume. According to the First Law of Thermodynamics, this quantity is constant when no work is done on a system. Name this quantity whose forms include heat, potential, and kinetic.

energy (accept kinetic energy, internal energy, potential energy, chemical energy, accept work before it is mentioned, prompt on "mass")

The differential of this quantity is equal to TdS plus Vdp and is also equal to heat capacity times the differential of temperature. This quantity is held constant in throttling processes and is equal to internal energy plus pressure times volume. (*) Gibbs free energy equals this quantity minus temperature times entropy. The change in this quantity is independent of reaction pathway and can be calculated using Hess’s law. For 10 points, name this thermodynamic quantity symbolized H.

enthalpy

13. This quantity remains constant in a Joule-Thomson process. The van’t Hoff equation relates the derivative of the natural log of the equilibrium constant to the change in this quantity, and Gibbs free energy equals this quantity minus the product of temperature and entropy. The change in this quantity can be found by subtracting the (*) heats of formation of the reactants from those of the products, since the change is independent of the reaction path according to Hess’s Law. For ten points, identify this thermodynamic quantity, equal to internal energy plus pressure times volume, and symbolized H.

enthalpy (accept H before mentioned; prompt on “delta Hâ€) <MS>

The total differential of this quantity is T dS plus V dP. One form of this quantity can be calculated by the Bornâ€"Mayer equation. In the Jouleâ€"Thomson effect, where an ideal gas is forced through a plug, this quantity remains constant. (*) Hess’s law states that this quantity is a state function, which means that this quantity is independent of path for a given reaction. The standard apparatus for measuring this quantity is the adiabatic calorimeter. For 10 points, lattice energy is an example of what thermodynamic quantity equal to internal energy plus pressure times volume, denoted H.

enthalpy [prompt on “lattice energyâ€]

In contrast to the Helmholtz free energy, the Massieu [mas-syoe] potential is also known as the Helmholtz free amount of this quantity. The amount of this added to a system is calculated in the Clausius inequality, and this value is maximized at equilibrium. This equals the reciprocal of temperature integrated with respect to energy, and this is proportional to the log of the number of states a gas can occupy. Name this quantity which, according to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, never decreases in an isolated system.

entropy

Lieb and Yngvason's axiomatic definition of this quantity builds on Caratheodory's. The Sackur-Tetrode equation gives its value for an ideal gas, and for an isothermal reversible process the change in this value is the energy transferred divided by the temperature. This qunatity is related to the number of (*) possible microstates. The third law of thermodynamics defines this value to be zero in a perfect crystal at absolute zero, and the second law of thermodynamics states the value of this quantity for the universe increases in a spontaneous process. For 10 points, identify this measure of the degree of disorder in a system, symbolized S.

entropy

2. The change in this quantity over the change in specific volume is equal to the derivative of the coexistence curve on a phase diagram by the Clapeyron relation. The differential of this quantity equals dQ over t. It’s not Gibbs free energy, but the sign of the universal change in this quantity can determine (*) spontaneity. This quantity, which doesn’t change in reversible processes, is equal to the natural log of the number of microstates multiplied by Boltzmann’s constant. By the Third Law of Thermodynamics, this quantity is zero for a perfect crystal at a temperature of zero Kelvin. For 10 points, name this quantity which can never decrease in isolated systems, a measure of disorder.

entropy [prompt on S] <Chemistry, CT><ed. KLei>

8. Properties of these substances form the axes of Eadie-Hofstee diagrams. Zymogens are converted to these substances when activated. If the only factor limiting these substances is diffusion, they are called “perfect.†The efficiency of these substances is quantified by the turnover number. Vmax is multiplied by the slope of the (*) Lineweaver-Burke plot to find the KM of these substances that are modeled with Michaelisâ€"Menten kinetics. Many of these substances have the suffix “-ase.†Allosteric inhibition slows down these proteins. For 10 points, name these substances that act on substrates and lower the activation energy of reactions, acting as biological catalysts.

enzymes [prompt on catalysts until mention; prompt on proteins until mention] <Chemistry, VS><ed. KLei>

R times the temperature derivative of the natural log of this quantity is equal to the change in enthalpy over T-squared according to the van ‘t Hoff equation. This quantity is equal to the exponential of minus the standard change in Gibbs free energy divided by RT. According to the law of (*) mass action, this quantity equals the concentration of each product raised to its stoichiometric coefficient, divided by the same expression for the reactants. A reaction tends towards the products if its reaction quotient is less than this constant. For 10 points, what constant symbolized K is named for the point in a reaction at which reactant and product concentrations have stopped changing?

equilibrium constant [accept equilibrium after “constantâ€; prompt on K before “Kâ€; prompt on K with any subscript before “K†is mentioned with “that quantity is a specific subtype of what more general quantity?â€; do NOT accept or prompt on “reaction quotient†or “Qâ€] <Chemistry â€" Gurazada> [Edited]

This quantity is defined as the product of mole fraction times fugacity coefficient times pressure, raised to the variable nu. The extent of reaction depends on starting concentrations and this quantity. Its temperature dependence is related to the exponential of negative enthalpy in the van’t Hoff equation. The change in (*) Gibbs energy in a reaction equals negative RT times the log of this quantity. The law of mass action sets it equal to a ratio of concentrations. By Le Chatelier’s principle, a reaction shifts left if Q is greater than this value. For 10 points, name this constant symbolized K which represents a reaction that goes in two directions.

equilibrium constant [or K until it is read]

The derivative of the natural log of this quantity is taken with respect to temperature in the Van’t Hoff equation. Negative RT times the natural log of this value is equal to the change in Gibbs free energy. This value can be calculated from the law of (*) mass action, which sets it equal to the concentration of products over the concentration of reactants. A shift to the left occurs when the reaction quotient is greater than this value. For 10 points, name this constant that characterizes a system with equivalent forward and reverse reaction rates, symbolized K-sub-eq.

equilibrium constant [prompt on “K†until mentioned]

The formation of this class of compounds is used to connect omega hydroxy acids to form cutin [KYOO-tinn]. One example of this class is used in the Tennessee Eastman acetic anhydride process. That chemical in this class, methyl acetate, can be formed by combining acetic acid with methanol using sulfuric acid as a catalyst. One lipid in this class includes triglyceride, which is hydrolized in saponification. The combination of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol produces compounds in this class using a process named for Emil Fischer. Name these compounds often used to create a fruity odor.

esters

22. These compounds react with a Lewis acid to produce a ketone in the Fries rearrangement. Its beta-keto variety is formed when two of these compounds react in the Claisen condensation, and they can be hydrolyzed under basic conditions to form soaps. Nitroglycerin is an explosive one of these compounds, and (*) ethyl acetate is another one found in wines. In the presence of an acid catalyst, these compounds can be synthesized by reacting a carboxylic acid with an alcohol in a process named after Fischer. For ten points, identify these organic compounds which are notable for their fruity scents.

esters <EnC> BONUSES

An allyl vinyl form of these compounds can undergo the Claisen rearrangement. This functional group is presentin the polar solvent tetrahydrofuran. Tert-butyl hydroperoxide and an alcohol containing a double bond react tocreate these compounds in the Sharpless epoxidation. The aforementioned reaction creates epoxides, cyclic forms ofthis group. The Williamson reaction creates one of these compounds from an alcohol and an organohalide, and thesegroups connected in a ring form the "crown" type. A diethyl form of this functional group serves as an anesthetic.For 10 points, name these compounds that consist of an oxygen bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups.

ethers

The Stiver and Mackay equation measures the rate of this process, which increases when a substance is exposed to faster wind. Norbert Rillieux invented a "multiple-effect" device named for this process, and a similar device concentrates "black liquor" during paper production. This endothermic process is measured by atmometers. (*) Plants exploit this process to cool themselves during transpiration, and you do too after perspiration. For 10 pointsâ€"give this process by which swimming pools can lose gallons every day.

evaporation or vaporization (accept word forms; accept multiple-effect evaporator or black liquor evaporator; prompt on answers like "phase change" or "changing from liquid to gas"; do not accept "transpiration" as that includes all water movement in plants)

A piece of equipment often used in this process is similar to an Erlenmeyer flask but with an opening for a tube at the top allowing for the connection of a suction device. That object is named for Ernst Büchner, as is the funnel that typically is placed on top of that flask during this process. Methods for performing this process are classified as volume or surface, the latter of which often uses semi-permeable paper that can be rated for porosity. This process often is used to purify air or water, and a simple device for performing this process is a sieve. Name this process of removing solid objects from gases and liquids.

filtering [or filtration]

11. A rotary vacuum drum can be used to perform this technique, while the crossflow variety of this technique can be used to purify antibodies. Aids used in this process include kieselguhr and perlite, both of which can decrease resistance and obtain a cleaner product. It differs from adsorption as this process depends not on surface charge, but rather on particle size, and it is commonly used in (*) sewage treatment to extract solid wastes from water. For ten points, name this technique which separates mixtures by passing them through a semipermeable membrane and can be performed with a paper and funnel.

filtration (accept word forms) <EnC>

In microscale, Craig tubes are used for this procedure, which can be quantified using the beta ratio. Celite (SEE-LIGHT) is often added to Pasteur pipettes used for this process. The final step of a re-crystallization involves cooling a sample down, then doing this process. When it occurs in the presence of a vacuum, Buchner (BYOOK-NER) funnels are often used. This process commonly utilizes sand when it is applied to raw water. Unlike sieving, this procedure makes use of multiple separation points. When only using gravity, this process requires special porous paper. It is often used to separate precipitates from saturated solvent. For 10 points, name this method of separating solids and liquids.

filtration [or word forms; accept specific forms like "vacuum filtration"]

Hydrocarbons are ordered based on the "adiabatic" temperature at which this condition occurs. According to the NFPA rating system, the red number represents susceptibility to this condition. A common test for either the presence of hydrogen gas or oxygen gas involves introducing this condition. Atomic emission spectroscopy relies on the emission spectra produced when this is introduced to various metals, causing a red color for lithium and a yellow color for sodium; that's called its namesake "test". Robert Bunsen invented a lab device used to create it. For 10 points, name this form of ionized plasma that results from combustion reactions.

fire [or flames; or combusting; or combustion; or being flammable; or being near a fire; or glowing splint; or burning splint; or really anything in that vicinity that has something to do with ignition]

A non-equilibrium-related rule named for Le Chatelier gives this property for a mixture. The open-cup method is used for compounds with this property. Inerting works because this property exists only between a compound’s UEL and LEL. An NFPA diamond has sections for reactivity, health, and this property. Compounds with this property are stored in (*) yellow cabinets since they have a low flash point. Materials with this property are rapidly oxidized to CO2 and water. Ethers and most other organic solvents have this property, as does hydrogen. For 10 points, name this property possessed by compounds that will react with air and burn.

flammability [or burning; or turning on fire; or obvious equivalents; or lower explosive limit; or upper explosive limit; or propensity for explosions any similar answers]

Photo-CIDNP [“kid-nipâ€] uses the detection of these molecules to study the surface structure of proteins. Spin Trapping and ESR are used to study these molecules. Homolytic cleavage of a chlorine-chlorine bond leads to two of these species. The dissociation of CFCs by (*) UV light leads to the production of these molecules. One theory claims that aging may be partly due to the buildup of these molecules that are neutralized with antioxidants. For 10 points, name these molecules that have an unpaired electron.

free radicals

A eutectic system consists of a mixture that performs this process at a lower temperature than each of itssubstituents. Clarence Birdseye developed a technology that induces this process in certain substances. Mostsubstances perform this transition through crystallization of their molecules, and amorphous substances do sowithout forming regular structures. Supercooled substances have not undergone this transition but are under theappropriate conditions to do so. Water notably expands when it undergoes this process. For 10 points, name thisphase transition from a liquid to a solid, which for water occurs at zero degrees Celsius.

freezing [or solidification; prompt on "crystallization" or equivalents before mentioned]

The purity of organic samples can be assessed by loading them into capillary tubes and measuring deviations in this quantity. In a two-component mixture, the lowest possible value for this quantity is found at the eutectic point. Tungsten is often used as a lightbulb filament since it has the (*) highest value of this quantity among all elements. In aqueous solutions, multiplying 1.86 by the solution’s molality yields this quantity’s “depression.†That decrease in this quantity explains why brine has a lower value for this quantity than freshwater. For 10 points, name this temperature at which liquids turn into solids or vice versa.

freezing point [or melting point or melting temperature or freezing temperature; accept freezing point depression or melting point depression] <Chemistry â€" Bandara> [Edited]

According to Mayer's relation, a constant named for these substances is equal to the difference between the specific heat for constant pressure and that for constant volume. Entropy usually increases when particles in this phase of matter are dissolved in a solvent. The compressibility factor, or Z, describes deviations of these substances from being(*) ideal. Pressure is inversely proportional to volume in these substances, according to Boyle's Law. Another equation describing these substances states that PV equals nRT. For 10 points, name this phase of matter that makes up the atmosphere.

gases [or ideal gases before “ideal†is read] <Max Mader>/<ed. AR> Bonuses

Isoelectric focusing is combined with this technique in its "two-dimensional" form. Fluorescent intercalating agents such as ethidium bromide are often used to visualize the results of this technique. pH is usually maintained in this process using buffers containing Tris and EDTA, such as TAE. A ladder is often used in this technique to estimate the (*) base pair count of molecules being analyzed. Molecules in this technique move from the cathode to the anode through a material often made of agarose. For 10 points, name this technique in which macromolecules are separated by applying an electric field to move them through a matrix.

gel electrophoresis [or agarose gel electrophoresis; accept two-dimensional gel electrophoresis or 2D gel electrophoresis or 2D electrophoresis or polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or PAGE; accept equivalents such as running a gel; prompt on electrophoresis] <Biology â€" Schwartz> [Ed. Gurazada]

11. One element from this group participates in the Auwers synthesis by interacting with the pi electrons of an alkene as part of an addition reaction, and these elements can bond with each other to form their “inter-†variety. They react with hydrocarbons using a free radical mechanism, and one type was used to synthesize the first (*) noble gas compound with platinum. It is the only group to have elements in all three states of matter at STP, and these elements have high electronegativity because they are one electron away from a complete shell. For ten points, identify this family of diatomic elements that includes astatine, bromine, and chlorine.

halogens [accept group 17 or group VIIA] <EC>

One form of this quantity is equal to n times R over gamma minus one. One scientist modeled solid particles as phonons to find this value proportional to temperature cubed. Beside that Debye [duh-"BYE"] model, the molar value of this quantity for crystals is 3 times R or the ideal gas constant by the (*) Dulong-Petit Law. Its general value is Q divided by dT and can be found by using bomb and coffee cup versions of an instrument. Its high value for water is 4.184 Joules, or one calorie, per gram, and can be found with calorimeters. For 10 points, name this quantity representing the amount of heat needed to raise a substance's temperature by a given amount.

heat capacity (accept specific heat)

Accounting for variation due to temperature, this quantity can be approximated in the form “a + b times temperature + c over temperature squaredâ€, where a, b, and c are empirical parameters. For an ideal gas, the difference between two forms of this quantity is equal to the gas constant by Mayer’s relation; the product of pressure and volume raised to the ratio of those two forms of this quantity is held constant in an (*) adiabatic process. This quantity is equal to the derivative of internal energy with respect to temperature at constant volume. Heat equals the product of the change in temperature and, for 10 points, what quantity that measures the heat needed to raise the temperature of a substance by one degree Celsius?

heat capacity [or thermal capacity; accept specific forms like specific heat capacity or molar heat capacity]

Because of its zero-point energy, this element has no melting point. This element and nitrogen are the most common carrier solvents in semiconductor manufacturing and in gas chromatography. It has the highest first ionization energy. The plus-one cation of this element can be modelled by the Rydberg [RIDE-berg] equation. The liquid form of this element exhibits (*) superfluidity. This element was discovered as a yellow spectral line during a solar eclipse. In the gold foil experiment, Rutherford fired nuclei of this element, or alpha particles, at the foil. For 10 points, name this lightest noble gas, which has atomic number 2.

helium [or He]

This element is often used in mass spectrometers to detect leaks because it is a very minor constituent of air, it is safe, and it is easy to separate from other gases. Though not part of natural gas, this element is released during natural gas extraction, which is increasing the cost of cooling MRI scanners due to a shortage of this element. The fusion of three of its nuclei creates a carbon nucleus. The name of this element arose because it was first observed in the Sun's spectrum, and its nucleus is an alpha particle. Name this lightest noble gas, the second element on the periodic table.

helium [prompt on He]

This compound and a zinc amalgam are used to reduce ketones and aldehydes to alkanes in an analogue of the Wolff-Kishner reduction that occurs under acidic conditions. Along with its use in the Clemmensen reduction, this compound and zinc chloride are used to classify alcohols in the Lucas test. A compound used to (*) dissolve gold and platinum optimally contains three times the amount of this compound than nitric acid and is called aqua regia. This compound’s presence in gastric acid maintains the low pH of the stomach. For 10 points, name this acid with formula HCl.

hydrochloric acid [accept “HCl†until mention]

This element is separated from sulfur in the Claus process. The molecular form of this element is added to pyridine [PEH-rih-deen] to cause several reactions leading to the formation of pentane, and the addition of this element changes an alkene into an alkane. Just outside the cores of Jupiter and Saturn, astronomers have found the metallic form of this element. The isotopes of this element are protium, deuterium, and tritium. Name this element, the first in the periodic table.

hydrogen (prompt on "H")

12. One type of this element was confined in a Penning trap as part of the ATHENA project. The ionization of an isotope of this element in fusors produces a pink glow. The Lyman-alpha forest arises due to the presence of this element. The transition between two hyperfine levels of this element produces the (*) 21 centimeter line. The lowest electron energy level in this element is -13.6 eV. Six atoms of this element produce a helium atom in the proton-proton chain reaction. The Bohr model most accurately describes this element. For 10 points, name this most abundant element in the universe that typically consists of one proton and one electron.

hydrogen [accept deuterium, prompt on “Hâ€] <SAM>

15. This element can be added to certain molecules with a palladium catalyst named after Lindlar. Standard reduction potentials are normalized to the reduction of this element at a platinum electrode. A type of molecular interaction named after this element results from the tendency of elements like (*) oxygen and fluorine to attract electrons away from this element and give it a partial positive charge. A molecule of methane contains one carbon atom and four atoms of this element. For 10 points, name this element which bonds with oxygen to form water.

hydrogen [or H] <BZ>

5. Besides limits on molecular mass and partition coefficients, two criteria limiting the extent of this phenomenon are used to check if compounds are druglike in Lipinski’s Rule of Five. A broad absorption peak for alcohols in IR spectroscopy is explained by this interaction. Polar protic solvents exhibit this phenomenon, though polar aprotic solvents do not. Three of these interactions occur between (*) guanine and cytosine, while two occur between adenine and thymine. Water’s high specific heat is caused by this phenomenon since its atoms have partial charges. For 10 points, name these interactions between molecules containing nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine and the lightest element.

hydrogen bonding [or H-bonding; prompt on intermolecular forces and dipole-dipole forces] <Chemistry, VS><ed. OC>

This phenomenon is often wrongly believed to be the reason why DMSO can be needed during PCR, when in reality pi stacking is the cause. By connecting carbonyl groups to amino groups four residues away, it creates alpha helices. This interaction is responsible for causing hydrofluoric acid to (*) boil at a higher temperature than hydrochloric acid. Only two of these interactions occur between thymine and adenine, while three occur between guanine and cytosine, and these interactions are responsible for making ice float on water. For ten points, name this interaction that is responsible for the high specific heat of water, as well as its cohesive and adhesive nature.

hydrogen bonds <LP>

The ratio between the volume of these entities and the volume of their counterparts defines the compressibilityfactor, and the Sackur-Tetrode equation solves for the entropy of a specific type of these substances. A molecule ofthese substances has an average kinetic energy of three-halves times Boltzmann's constant times the absolutetemperature. Johannes van der Waals generalized these substances' namesake equation by accounting fordifferences in pressure and volume; that law can be written as "PV equals nRT." For 10 points, name thesetheoretical substances that consist of randomly moving point particles unaffected by intermolecular forces.

ideal gases [prompt on "gases"]

The internal energy of a fixed mass of this type of substance is a function only of temperature according to Joule’s law. The entropy of a specific subtype of these substances contains a term proportional to the log of the thermal wavelength to the negative third power. The fugacity coefficient and compressibility factor are equal for these substances, and multiplying the (*) Boltzmann constant by three-halves T gives the average kinetic energy for a molecule of this substance. The van der Waals equation uses the parameters “a†and “b†to account for the intermolecular attraction and particle volume that these substances lack. For 10 points, name this theoretical substance whose namesake law states that PV = nRT.

ideal gases [prompt on “gases†and “monatomic gasâ€; do not accept “real gasesâ€]

This element is generated in situ in a Karl Fischer titration. This element is detected in solution by adding lead (II) [two], forming a bright yellow precipitate. Its binary acid is the strongest common acid. This element is used in redox titrations with thiosulfate, and it gets regenerated in a clock reaction that cycles between colorless and (*) blue. A radioisotope of this element with mass 131 is produced in uranium fission. It is the only diatomic element to be solid at room temperature, though it does sublime. This element is vital to thyroid function, which is why it’s added to salt. For 10 points, name this heavy purple halogen with symbol I.

iodine [or I until it is read]

2. The energy associated with this phenomenon can be calculated using the Born-Mayer equation, in which the proportionality constant is a factor of the Madelung constant. The stability of compounds exhibiting this interaction is the subject of Pauling’s rules. The enthalpy change associated with this phenomenon can be calculated by using a (*) Born-Haber cycle to determine the final lattice enthalpy. This type of interaction typically occurs between a metal and a nonmetal due to a large electronegativity difference. For 10 points, name this type of bonding which can be modeled as the donation of electrons and is exemplified by Na plus and Cl minus in table salt.

ionic bonding [prompt on electrostatic or Coulombic interaction, prompt on bonding; do not accept or prompt on “covalent bonding†or any other specific type of bonding] <Chemistry, CT><ed. OC>

These interactions are modelled by a constant equal to 1.748 over the nearest-neighbor distance. In Pearson’s theory, hard acids and bases interact in this way. The energy of this interaction is estimated in a Born-Haber [HAW-ber] cycle. Compounds forming these bonds have van’t Hoff factors greater than one. The (*) lattice energy estimates the energy from these interactions. A difference greater than 1.7 on the Pauling scale indicates this type of bond. These bonds form between metals and nonmetals. For 10 points, name these bonds that form when atoms transfer electrons, in contrast with covalent bonds.

ionic bonds [or Coulombic forces; prompt on crystal lattices; prompt on lattices or lattice energy until it is read; prompt on bonds]

The van’t Hoff factor is often lower than expected due to the “pairing†or “association†of these species. Water is often softened by exchanging these species using a namesake resin. Adding this kind of species decreases in the solubility of a solid in an application of Le Châtelier’s principle named for a (*) “common†one of them. Alkali metals require the least energy to be turned into one of these species. Dissociation splits salts into these species, which are the main constituents of plasmas. For 10 points, name these atoms or molecules with nonzero net charge.

ions [accept first ionization energy; accept common ion effect; accept ion exchange resin] <AF/JR>

A “bog†variety of this element can be created via the purification of goethite (GUR-tite). Sedimentary rocks dating back to the Precambrian contain banded formations of this element that formed during the Great Oxygenation Event. Elements which sink into the core, such as gold and palladium, are known as (*) siderophiles due to their affinity for this element. The most common ore of this element is the reddish-brown hematite, and it can be found with sulfur in the mineral pyrite. Along with nickel, this element composes a majority of the Earth’s core. For 10 points, name this metal whose oxide forms rust.

iron <Earth Science â€" Schwartz> [Ed. Bandara]

An allotrope of this element, Austenite, has vanadium or molybdenum stuck in its interstitial spaces to prevent corrosion in the new substance. Mossbauer spectroscopy is often used on this substance to assess bonding properties. This substance is used to produce ammonia or fuel in the (*) Haber-Bosch process. This element, when treated with acids made from halogens, produces ferrous and ferric halides. This metal has a “wrought†and “pig†type, and when it oxidizes, it forms rust. For ten points, name this transition metal with periodic number twenty-six and symbol Fe.

iron [accept Fe until mentioned] <CL> BONUSES

The reason why thalidomide caused birth defects can be explained because thalidomide exhibits this phenomenon, and Friedrich Wohler first discovered this property when experimenting with silver cyanate. Branching hydrocarbons often exhibit this property, and molecules that exhibit one form of this property are labelled as (*) “cis†or “transâ€; that form is the “stereo†type of this phenomenon. Two molecules that exhibit the optical form of this phenomenon are analogous to left and right hands. For ten points, name this property of molecules which have the same molecular formula but different chemical structures.

isomerism [accept isomers, accept enantiomer before Wohler] <MS>

If you take the natural log of a quantity denoted by this letter, then take the derivative with the respect to temperature, the result is the change in enthalpy over “R-T-squared,†by the Van ‘t Hoff equation. A quantity denoted by this letter is proportional to the exponential of negative activation energy over “R-T.†A quantity denoted by this letter has units of inverse (*) seconds for first-order reactions and can be calculated with the Arrhenius equation. A quantity denoted by this letter is given by product concentrations over reactant concentrations. For 10 points, give this letter that denotes both the rate constant and the equilibrium constant.

k <AF>

One example of these compounds is produced by the oxidation of 2-butanol [BYOO-tah-nol], and a common test for these substances looks for the creation of iodoform [ie-oe-doe-FORM]. When humans produce too much of these chemicals because of too much fatty acid breakdown, their blood turns acidic, which is a diabetes symptom. The simplest example of this, used as nail polish remover, is acetone [A-suh-tone]. Name these carbonyls [KAHR-buh-nils] that are not aldehydes [AL-duh-hides] because the central carbon is bonded to two other carbons.

ketones (prompt on "carbonyl")

If the latent heat is independent of temperature, the Clausiusâ€"Clapeyron equation gives this function of a ratio of two pressures in terms of two inverse temperatures. This function of product concentration is written linearly with respect to time in the integrated rate law for a first-order reaction. “pH minus pKa†equals this function of the ratio of concentrations of an anion and its (*) conjugate acid according to the Hendersonâ€" Hasselbalch equation. This function is applied to the acid dissociation constant to get pKa. Negative this function of the concentration of H-plus ions gives the pH of a system. For 10 points, name this function whose inverse function is the exponential function.

logarithm [accept natural logarithm or ln; accept base-10 logarithm] <AF>

This function of the vapor pressure is given by "A minus B over T plus C" in Antoine's equation. The derivative of this function of the equilibrium constant with respect to temperature is related to the enthalpy of reaction by the Van't Hoff equation. This function is applied to the reaction quotient, then multiplied by RT over nF, in the Nernst equation. pKa can be calculated as the negative of this function of the acid dissociation constant, and analogously, pH is the negative of this function of hydronium ion concentration. For 10 points, name this function, the inverse of exponentiation.

logarithm [or common logarithm; or natural logarithm; or ln]

The formation of one of these entities in an organic reaction mechanism is indicated by a double-barbed "curly" arrow pointing from a bond to an atom. Twice the number of these is subtracted from the number of valence electrons in the calculation of formal charge. Coordinate covalent bonds are formed from the (*) sharing of these entities. Their number is given by the E value in AXE theory. VSEPR [ves-per] theory gives the geometry of both bonds and these around a central atom. The two of these possessed by the oxygen atom in water give the molecule a bent geometry. Two dots represent, for 10 points, what pairs of unbonded electrons?

lone electron pairs (accept unbonded electron pairs before end of question; before end of question, prompt on "electrons" or "electron pairs")

This element is oxidized in the titanium-producing Kroll process. Reagents containing this element participate in reactions which transform nitriles into ketones and aldehydes or ketones into alcohols; these are (*) Grignard reagents. It can be used to remove sulfur from steel, and when used in benchtop reactions, this element is usually in the form of a ribbon. When this element is burned, a bright white flare is produced. Located in the porphyrin ring of chlorophyll, this element has a hydroxide whose aqueous solution is commonly known as a "milk," as well as a sulfate known as Epsom salt. For 10 points, identity this alkaline earth metal with atomic number 12 and chemical symbol Mg.

magnesium (accept Mg before mention)

The Pidgeon process uses a silicothermic reaction to produce this substance, which is the primary treatment for the pregnancy disorder pre-eclampsia. This substance is used as a reductant to produce pure titanium in the Kroll Process, and a Schlenk equilibrium takes place in certain compounds containing it. Alkyl halides of this element are added to ketones to form carbon-carbon bonds in the (*) Grignard reaction. The oxide of this element is soluble in ammonia and acids despite being considered practically insoluble in water. An intense white light is emitted in the burning of this element, whose sulfate is known as Epsom salt. For ten points, name this alkaline earth metal with symbol Mg.

magnesium [accept Mg before mention] <CL>

Zinc only has this quality between 100 and 150 degrees Celsius, which is one of several examples of materials that can transition between having this property and being brittle. The element lead has this property, which describes how materials react to compressive stress. These materials can be hammered or put through rollers without breaking, especially elements such as gold and aluminum that can be made into foils. Name this property of metals that is similar to ductility.

malleability (or malleable)

The Castner-Kellner Process produces a mixture with this substance and sodium while producing chlorine. In the patio process, this element is used to extract silver from ore. The most common source ore for refining this substance is the red sulfide mineral cinnabar. The chloride of this element is a common component of reference electrodes, known as (*) calomel. This element cannot form a monocation with a charge of 1+, and its alloys are known as amalgams. This transition metal’s sulfide is cinnabar it is commonly used in thermometers. For ten points, identify this element, a liquid at room temperature, with symbol Hg.

mercury (accept Hg before mention) <CL+PA>

The discovery of oxygen by Carl Scheele [SHAY-luh] and Joseph Priestley was accomplished by heating the oxide of this element. This compound was used with salt and copper sulfate to extract silver in the patio process. This is combined with silver, tin, and copper to make dental fillings known as amalgams, though its use is controversial because of its high toxicity. Similar concerns have decreased its use in vaccines and thermometers. Name this element formerly known as quicksilver, a metal that is liquid at room temperature.

mercury (prompt on "Hg")

8. In one experiment, an atom of this element emitted light with energy equivalent to an electron colliding with it to show that atomic energy levels were quantized. It's not silver, but this element's chloride is reduced in a reference electrode used to determine pH; that compound is called calomel. This metal is bound to sulfur in thiomersal, which is used to preserve vaccines. Alloys of this metal called (*) amalgams are commonly used to fill cavities. The pressure caused by a one millimeter tall column of this element is about 1 torr, which is why this metal was once used in barometers. For 10 points, name this toxic metal which is liquid at room temperature and has chemical symbol Hg.

mercury [accept Hg before mention] <Chemistry, CT><ed. KLei>

This element’s acetate reacts with alkenes in a Markovnikov addition to form alcohols. A chloride of this element is known as calomel, and the most common ore of this element contains its sulfide in the form of cinnabar. When bonded to a methyl group, this element forms a bioaccumulative toxicant commonly found in large (*) fish. Alloys of this metal are called amalgams, and this element forms a convex meniscus. One atmosphere is equivalent to the pressure of 760 “millimeters of†this substance, a unit also called torr. For 10 points, name this element, a metal that is liquid at room temperature.

mercury [accept oxymercuration reaction or oxymercuration-demercuration or oxymercuration- reduction or methylmercury or millimeters of mercury; accept Hg or mmHg before "Hg" is mentioned] <Chemistry â€" Bandara> [Ed. Gurazada] Packet 12 Bonuses

Most UV fluorescent lamps pass a current through this element. This element's plus-one oxidation state is dimeric and divalent. It forms a convex meniscus in a glass tube because it preferentially exhibits adhesion, not cohesion. This element dissolves gold to form an amalgam. 760 millimeters of this element is equivalent to one atmosphere of pressure, as it is commonly used in manometers. It is bonded to sulfur in a compound used as a preservative in vaccines, and foolishly blamed for autism, thiomersal. Like bromine, it is a liquid at room temperature. For 10 points, name this metal with atomic number 80 and symbol Hg.

mercury [or Hg before mention]

18. This element is bonded to four iodine atoms in Nessler’s reagent, which it can precipitate out of when reacted with ammonia. This metal is found in the red pigment vermilion, since it is bonded to sulfur in cinnabar. Alloys of this metal used for dental fillings are called (*) amalgams. Measuring the height of this element in a column can determine pressure, with 760 millimeters corresponding to 1 atmosphere, and this element is also present in some thermometers. For ten points, identify this toxic metal that is liquid at room temperature with chemical symbol Hg.

mercury [or Hg early] <EC>

A nitrate of this element is used to create picric [PIK-rik] acid in the WolffensteinÂâ€"Böters reaction, and the previous name used for thiols ["THIGH"-awlz] came about because of their ability to bond with this element. This is the cause of Minamata disease, and the use of this element to make a vaccine preservative called Thiomersal ["thigh"-o-MER-sul] is now in decline because of rumored health effects. Because this element has a high boiling point and a high coefficient of expansion in addition to being a dense liquid, it has traditionally been used in barometers and thermometers. Name this element formerly known as quicksilver whose chemical symbol is Hg.

mercury [prompt on Hg]

This element binds to four atoms of iodine to form Nessler’s reagent, and was used to minimize friction in the Michelson-Morley experiment. Along with zinc, this metal is used as a reducing agent in the Clemmensen reduction. When bound to acetate, it can be used to transform an alkene into an alcohol. This metal, which is found in its (*) +2 state in the mineral cinnabar, forms alloys called amalgams. Despite its toxicity, it was used during the Renaissance as a treatment for syphilis, and it has also been used to preserve vaccines and fill glass thermometers. For 10 points, identify this element with symbol Hg.

mercury [prompt on “Hg†before read]

Water and this compound are formed in the Sabatier (sa-ba-T’YAY) process. This compound reacts with water in steam-[this compound] reforming to make syngas. This compound is found trapped inside of ice in clathrates on the ocean floor. Hydrogen gas, water, ammonia, and this compound were the starting reagents in the (*) Miller-Urey experiment. When one mole of this compound combusts fully, one mole of carbon dioxide and two moles of water form. Carbon is in its most reduced state in this compound. This tetrahedral compound is the main constituent of natural gas. For 10 points, name this simplest hydrocarbon, which has the chemical formula CH4 (C-H-4).

methane [accept CH4 (C-H-4) before “CH4â€; prompt on natural gas; do NOT accept or prompt on “ethaneâ€] <Chemistry â€" Hong> [Ed. Bandara/Gurazada]

Adding one of these groups to homocysteine [HOH-moh-SISS-teen] results in methionine [meh-"THIGH"-uh-nin]. The enzyme MutH ["mute-H"] specifically targets regions without the presence of this modification, and the enzyme Dam performs this modification on GATC sites. The formation of tightly packed and transcriptionally inactive hetero·chromatin is associated with adding two or three of this group to the lysine at the ninth position on histone ["HISS-tone"] H3. Barr bodies have large amounts of this modification. In bacteria, this group prevents restriction enzymes from digesting their hosts' DNA. Name this modification that attaches a group with formula CH3.

methylation [accept answers mentioning the addition of a methyl group]

One form of this technique requires its subjects to be frozen in liquid ethane. Another form of this technique comes in tapping mode and contact mode varieties and utilizes an extremely sharp cantilever. The fluorescent form of this technique allows for z-stacking, allowing one to gain a greater depth of field. Sputter coating is used to coat samples for use in this technique in a thin layer of palladium and (*) gold, and microtomes are commonly used to cut samples into extremely thin slices before they undergo forms of this technique. In general, specimens are stained and coverslipped before undergoing this technique, whose optical form is limited by diffraction. For 10 points, name this technique used to magnify small things.

microscopy [accept word forms; accept cryo-em, cryo-electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, confocal microscopy, fluorescent microscopy, or electron microscopy]

The structure of these compounds is given by the mnemonic “All Altruists Gladly Make Gum in Gallon Tanks.†A single vertical line crossed by four horizontal lines represents their stereochemistry. These compounds often form either five or six-member rings with an oxygen atom, and a carbon hanging off the ring. Their condensation makes a (*) glycosidic bond. The ends of DNA are named for the 3 and 5 carbons of these compounds, which bond to a phosphate and a nucleobase to make a nucleotide. These monomers condense to form amylopectin, starch, and cellulose. For 10 points, name these building blocks of carbohydrates, like glucose.

monosaccharides [or sugars; or hexoses; or pentoses; prompt on carbohydrates; prompt on saccharides; ask players to be less specific for answers of glucose or deoxyribose or ribose]

21. The deflection of this element’s ionized particles provided J. J. Thomson with evidence of atomic isotopes. This element can be produced by reacting oxygen and helium in the alpha process, and it is the lightest element whose neutral atom has a filled p shell. Although it is the fifth most abundant element in the universe, it is rarely found on Earth due to its chemical (*) inertness. It is mixed with helium to form a laser that produces red light, and it is commonly used in bright advertising signs. For ten points, identify this noble gas with atomic number 10 and symbol Ne.

neon (accept Ne before read) <EnC>

7. The amount of this element in a substance can be determined with the Dumas and Kjeldahl methods. A process that combines this element with hydrogen typically uses a porous iron catalyst prepared by reducing magnetite. Four atoms of this element are bonded to the iron in a heme group, and it is bonded with two hydrogen atoms in an (*) amine group. Legumes engage in a symbiotic relationship with Rhyzobium bacteria because of their ability to “fix†this element into a more usable form. Its triply-bonded diatomic molecule is the most common in Earth’s atmosphere. For ten points, identify this element found in fertilizers and ammonia, with symbol N.

nitrogen <MS>

A functional group containing hydrogen and this element can be added to an alkyl halide using potassium phthalimide (THAL-imide) in the Gabriel synthesis. Two atoms of this element and an R group comprise a diazonium cation (CAT-“eyeâ€-on). A compound containing two atoms of this element is often used with an iridium catalyst as rocket fuel; that compound is (*) hydrazine. The inert diatomic gas formed by this element has a triple bond between two atoms of this element. The Haber process synthesizes a compound containing one atom of this element and three atoms of hydrogen. For 10 points, name this element, which is present with hydrogen in amines and ammonia.

nitrogen [or N] <Chemistry â€" Gurazada> [Edited]

This is the largest homonuclear diatomic molecule with a pi-u molecular orbital at a lower energy than a sigma-g orbital. Along with water, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide, it has a zero enthalpy of combustion. Old airbags produced this compound from sodium azide. It is isoelectronic to carbon monoxide. An iron catalyst is used to break down this compound at very high pressures in the Haber process because it is so unreactive. In nature, the conversion of it to ammonia is called "fixation." This compound makes up about 80% of the atmosphere. For 10 points, name this diatomic gas consisting of element number 7.

nitrogen gas [or N2]

One element in this family can form a Rollin film below a specific temperature. Albert Behnke demonstrated the use of one element in this group as an anesthetic; that element’s hexafluoroplatinate was the first compound containing one of these elements to be synthesized. Lord Rayleigh and William (*) Ramsay discovered many of these elements together. The symbols of these elements are often placed in brackets when writing electron configurations. This family contains the second most abundant in the universe and elements in it possess a filled outer electron shell. For ten points, name this group on the far right side of the periodic table, containing elements like neon, xenon and helium.

noble gas [accept row 8A or other equivalents] <AG/CL>

8. Lee, Osheroff, and Richardson hypothesized that the properties of an isotope of an element in this group were due to fermions forming Cooper pairs. One of these elements forms a Rollin film that exhibits the fountain effect at low temperatures. An element’s abbreviated (*) electron configuration puts the chemical symbol of the last preceding member of this group in square brackets. Neil Bartlett discovered that another one of these elements could form a compound with platinum and six fluorine atoms despite this group’s unreactivity. For ten points, name this group of elements which have full valence electron shells and include helium and xenon.

noble gases (accept group 18) <MiP>

Several members of this group of elements by definition have an acentric factor of 0. Neil Bartlett synthesized a square planar molecule with one of these elements at its center. Barium, three neutrons, and one of these elements is produced by the fission of Uranium-235. The smallest atomic radius is possessed by an element in this group; that element also possesses the highest first (*) ionization energy. Members of this group of elements have a filled shell of valence electrons, making them highly unreactive. The far-right side of the periodic table contains--for 10 points--what group of inert, typically gaseous elements, which include argon, neon, and helium?

noble gases [or group 18; or group 8A] <GC, Chemistry>

Complexes between elements from this group and halides form excimers, which can be used to make a special type of laser. An element in this group is used in a dating method with potassium-40. These elements’ high effective nuclear charges give them the smallest atomic radii. These elements appear in (*) brackets in electron configurations. The synthesis of a hexa·fluoro·platinate confirmed that these elements can form compounds. Elements in this group have the highest ionization energy in each period, since elements in this group have eight valence electrons, making their electron shells full. For 10 points, name this group of inert elements like helium and neon.

noble gases [or group 18; or group VIIIA] <AF> Bonuses

One of these species reacts with fluorine to form square planar tetrafluoride and octahedral hexafluoridemolecules, and another of these can bind with a proton to form a hydride thought to be present in interstellar space.A shorthand method of writing an atom's electron configuration involves putting one of these elements in brackets,followed by any remaining valence electrons. These species' stability comes from their completely filled psubshells, an exception being a member of this group with atomic number two. For 10 points, name these chemicalelements which include neon and helium, known for their full valence shells and limited reactivity under standardconditions.

noble gases [or inert gases; or Group 18]

This process forms a carbon resonance named for Hoyle at 7.65 mega-electronvolts. This process first begins at the ZAMS point. The rate of this process suddenly picks up during carbon detonation. The PPI, PPII, and PPIII chains are variants of this process, which forms electron neutrinos and also generates (*) di-protons in its first step. At high temperatures, a helium flash may lead to a large increase in the rate of this process using only alpha particles. Brown dwarfs cannot sustain this process with only hydrogen. For 10 points, name this nuclear reaction which powers the Sun, the combination of small nuclei, as opposed to nuclear fission.

nuclear fusion [or nucleosynthesis; or proton-proton chain; or CNO cycle; or triple alpha process]

5. An object with this name is modelled by a semi-empirical mass formula named for Bethe and Weizsäcker. snRNPs [snurps] assemble in a biological structure with this name. Cloud seeding uses silver iodide to produce objects with this name around which water vapor condenses. A structure described by this word is contiguous with the (*) rough endoplasmic reticulum. An object described by this word deflected alpha particles in the Rutherford gold foil experiment. For 10 points, name this thing which is made of protons and neutrons in atoms.

nucleus [accept cloud condensation nucleus, cell nucleus, or atomic nucleus] <SAM>

This process was studied by Wilhelm Pfeffer [“Fefferâ€] using his namesake "cell." External pressure is applied to drive the opposite of this process in a common method for the desalination of water. The product of the van't Hoff factor, molality, and RT gives a colligative property; that is this process's namesake(*) "pressure." A Paramecium's contractile vacuole expels water with this process, which involves movement from hypertonic to hypotonic solutions. For 10 points, name this process in which water diffuses across a semipermeable membrane.

osmosis [prompt on diffusion or diffusion of water] <Max Mader>/<ed. AR> Bonuses

The alpha and beta types of this reaction take place in peroxisomes [pur-"OX"-ih-sohmz] and remove a carboxyl [kahr-BAHK-sil] group from a fatty acid to form pristanic acid and then acetyl-coA [uh-SEE-tul KOH-ay]. This type of reaction is used with the Bessemer process to remove impurities. Persulfate is a good agent of this type of reaction, as are the halogens due to their high electronegativity; such agents, as opposed to the reactants, are electron acceptors. In this reaction, electrons are removed from an atom or molecule, often by adding this reaction's namesake element. Name this reaction that often takes place at the same time as reduction.

oxidation [accept word forms; prompt on redox or oxidation-reduction; do not accept "reduction"]

It’s not spin-state, but this quantity is obtained from Mössbauer spectroscopy of iron-containing compounds. A Latimer diagram plots chemical species from left to right by decreasing values of this quantity. Gibbs free energy at different pH values is plotted against this quantity on a (*) Frost diagram. Disproportionation can change the value of this quantity, as it is a specific type of redox reaction. In a permanganate ion, this value for manganese is +7. For 10 points, name this quantity that describes the gain or loss of electrons during chemical bonding.

oxidation state (accept oxidation number)

An increase in this element's concentration in the Earth's past led to a sharp decrease in the concentration of nickel. Banded iron formations arose during the "Crisis" caused by this element, which led to the Huronian ice age and a possible Snowball Earth. When nitrates or phosphates enter water, this element's concentration decreases due to eutrophication. Radical chlorine atoms can abstract an atom of this element in the stratosphere, which limits the ability to absorb UV-B light. A mass extinction of anaerobes occurred when this element was first produced by photosynthetic cyanobacteria 2.4 billion years ago. For 10 points, name this element which makes up ozone.

oxygen [or O2]

The accuracy of the coefficient of this chemical was questioned by Klenk, Komhyr and DeLuisi, who noticed significant inconsistencies in absorption data. A “cyclic†form of this molecule is likely to exist on the surface of magnesium oxide crystals in the air. A corona discharge tube can be used to generate this molecule, whose amount is measured in (*) Dobson units. The cleaving of alkenes and alkynes by this substance leads to rubber cracking. For 10 points, name this substance depleted by CFCs and present in its namesake “layer†in the stratosphere.

ozone (accept O3)

13. The cold plasma process can be used to produce this compound, which can be used to cleave alkenes and alkynes in a reaction that often leads to the cracking of rubber tubes. It can react with cyanides and urea to reduce their toxicity, and unlike its more common counterpart, this molecule is diamagnetic. It can be measured in (*) Dobson units, and the tropospheric variety of this compound present in smog is an eye irritant, while free radical reactions with CFCs in the stratosphere lead to this molecule’s degradation. For ten points, identify this molecule comprised of three oxygen atoms that forms a layer in the stratosphere which shields the Earth from UV radiation.

ozone [or O3] <EC>

This compound is the heaviest compound created in the photocatalyzed Chapman cycle. Pollutants classified as volatile organic compounds or oxides of nitrogen contribute to the dangerous ground-level presence of this compound. Dobson units were first created to measure the concentration of this compound. The Montreal Protocol banned (*) chlorofluorocarbons in response to the discovery of a “hole†over Antarctica lacking this compound. A layer of this compound in the stratosphere absorbs most harmful UV radiation. For 10 points, name this reactive molecule made up of three oxygen atoms.

ozone [or trioxygen or O3 (O-three); accept ozone layer or ozone hole or ground-level ozone or tropospheric ozone] <Atmospheric Science â€" Schwartz> [Ed. French]

The only example of one of these types of orbitals being filled in violation of Madelung's rule is in lawrencium. Examples of these orbitals are generally expressed using a single subscript of x, y, or z, and these have no density a points where the variable matching its subscript equals zero. Pictures of this tend to look like two balloons being pushed together. This orbital corresponds to a value of one for the angular momentum quantum number. Name this orbital type containing three pairs of electrons at each principal quantum level after the first, a dumbbell-shaped orbital contrasted with s, d, and f orbitals.

p orbital(s)

The Charlot equation and Hammett function are useful for calculating this scientific quantity when the Henderson-Hasselbach equation is invalid. A team led by Darrell Nordstrom said this diagnostic equaled negative 3.6 when testing Iron Mountain Mine drainage. These values can be measured using azolitmin, malachite green, gentian violet, and other (*) indicators. Values on this logarithmic scale are often between 0 and 14, with pure water measuring 7. For 10 pointsâ€"give this scale that measures acidity or basicity of solutions.

pH

15. One way of calculating this quantity is through hydration of quinhydrone crystals, while another method pioneered by Sorenson uses a glass electrode. The value of this quantity at which a molecule carries no net charge is called the isoelectric point. Extreme values for this quantity can be computed using the Hammett function, and the (*) Henderson-Hasselbach equation relates the pKa to this property. Buffers resist the change in this quantity, which can be found by taking the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. For ten points, identify this value, measured on a scale from 0-14, that expresses the acidity of a substance.

pH [accept power of hydrogen] <EC>

Quality is defined on these diagrams by measuring the distance to each end of the saturation dome. These diagrams are drawn as triangles to represent extractions. This diagram is drawn using regions labelled with the Roman numerals 1 through 17 for ice. The slope of lines on these diagrams, called (*) coexistence curves, is given by the Clausius-Clapeyron [CLAWS-ee-us CLAP-ee-ron] equation. Carbon concentration is an axis on one of these plots used for steel. Water oddly has a positively sloped line on one of these diagrams. These diagrams abruptly end at the critical point, and they also plot the triple point. For 10 points, name these diagrams that plot gases, liquids, and solids.

phase diagrams [or PVT diagrams; or PT diagrams; or TS diagrams; or PH diagrams]

The lever rule is used to calculate the relative concentration of two of these. Degrees of freedom for a system equal the number of components, minus the number of these, plus two, according to a rule named for Gibbs. There are two of them along the liquidus curve. At a given concentration, the dew point is the highest temperature at which two of these can coexist in a system. The latent heat is the enthalpy associated with a transition between them. At the triple point, three of them exist. Diagrams depicting them usually plot pressure against temperature and are divided into regions. For 10 points, name these things which include solids, liquids, and gases.

phases of matter [prompt on "states" of matter]

An atom of this element is bonded to a sulfur atom in VX, which allows it to inhibit nerve function. The 1906 Berne Convention banned the use of one form of this element, which had caused large numbers of incidents of jaw necrosis. When this element is submerged in molten lead, it can crystallize into a form which sublimates at high temperatures in an inert atmosphere, its (*) violet allotrope. This element was discovered in an attempt to turn urine into gold by Hennig Brand. This element’s white form glows when exposed to oxygen, and in organisms, this element forms the backbone of DNA. For 10 points, name this element found in match heads, symbolized P.

phosphorus [prompt on “Pâ€]

5. It’s not white or brown, but a noise of this color has a power spectral density inversely proportional to one over the frequency. Manganese(II) salts are of this color due to the presence of high spin d5 orbitals. Calcium carbonate from crushed foraminifera shells makes Bermuda sand this color. The pH indicator (*) phenolphthalein turns this color in basic solution. A common example of incomplete dominance is the breeding of a snapdragon of this color. For 10 points, name this color that results from breeding a red snapdragon and a white snapdragon.

pink [accept fuchsia or magenta, do not accept or prompt on “red†or “whiteâ€] <SAM>

The paper introducing this model used a series of calculations to investigate "the stability and periods of oscillation of a number of corpuscles." Though this model is sometimes named for another scientist, it was developed by Lord Kelvin as an improvement on Alfred Mayer's magnets. This model lost support due to an experiment by Marsden and Geiger. This model was the first to account for the location of negative charge in electrons, but this assumed that positive charge was uniformly distributed instead of in a nucleus. Name this J. J. Thomson atomic model named for food.

plum pudding model [accept Thomson model before "Thomson"]

Compounds with this property serve as the mobile phase in reverse-phase HPLC. Compounds with this property have a low log P and low contact angle. Compounds with this property migrate away from the organic layer in a separatory funnel. A difference between 0.4 and 1.7 on the (*) Pauling scale indicates a compound has this property. Acetone and ethanol, but not hexane or carbon dioxide, have this property. This property is symbolized with lowercase delta pluses and minuses. For 10 points, name this property caused by differences in electronegativity, which makes compounds hydrophilic due to the buildup of partial charges.

polarity [or hydrophilicity until it is read; prompt on aqueous]

A combination of titanium and organoaluminum catalysts can induce this process in alkenes. The average degree of this process is given by the equation 1 over 1 minus p in the Carothers equation. One of the first synthetic substances formed by this process was created from the condensation of phenol and formaldehyde units and is called(*) bakelite. This process, which is promoted by Ziegler-Natta catalysts, comes in step-growth and chain-growth types. It can produce products such as LDPE and PVC. For 10 points, name this process that involves the combination of repeating units called monomers.

polymerization [or word forms, such as making a polymer] <David Dennis>/<ed. AR>

The stereoregularity of the production of these substances by metallocene catalysts is explained by the Cossee-Arlman mechanism. These substances can be produced from alkenes using an organometallic titanium-aluminum catalyst named for Ziegler and Natta. The degree of formation for these substances is given by (*) Carother’s equation. A thermoplastic example of these substances is Teflon. They can be produced through step-growth and chain-growth processes. For 10 points, name these compounds composed of many repeating subunits.

polymers

Powder diffraction or NMR spectroscopy can be used to find the tacticity of these compounds. The degree of the production of these compounds is given by one over one minus p, according to the Carothers equation. These compounds can be formed from alkenes using Ziegler-Natta catalysts or through free radical intermediates. These compounds can be synthesized through (*) step-growth or chain-growth reactions. Common compounds of this type are made from styrene and vinyl chloride. Plastics are made of these compounds, and nylon is one of them. For 10 points, name these macromolecules which are made up of repeating monomers.

polymers <Chemistry â€" Bandara> [Ed. Gurazada]

15. These substances can be formed using dithiocarbamates [[“die-thy-o-carb-uh-matesâ€]]in a RAFT reaction. Substances repeatedly used as reactants in processes to make these substances are termed “telechelic.†The equation 1 over 1 minus p gives the degree to which these substances are made and is called Carother’s equation. “Living†types of reactions that generate these compounds don’t terminate and are a subtype of (*) “chain-growth†reactions to synthesize them. Thermoplastics like ABS [[“A-B-Sâ€]] used in 3D printing are examples of these materials, which are strengthened by cross-linking after their formation. For 10 points, name these materials like rubber and nylon, made of repeating subunits called monomers.

polymers <Chemistry, VS><ed. VS>

The synthesis of an iodine-doped conductive one of these molecules won Heeger, MacDiarmid, and Shirakawa the 2000 Nobel prize in Chemistry. The heterogeneity of atoms in these molecules is given by a quantity called the dispersivity. Mechanisms of producing these molecules include (*) “chain-growth†and “step-growth.†Free radical based methods of producing these molecules involve initiation, elongation, and termination steps. Nylon is a synthetically produced one of these molecules, while rubber and proteins are natural examples. For 10 points, name these macromolecules comprised of individual monomers.

polymers [accept conductive polymers; accept polyacetylenes] <GC, Chemistry>

One class of this type of this substance is known for its very low Young’s Modulus and easily returns to its original shape after being warped. Another class of these substances was invented by Wallace Carothers and can be created by heating a namesake salt, and Paul Flory and Maurice Huggins derived an equation to model thermodynamics of solutions with these types of molecules. These materials can be created synthetically or biologically by (*) repeating units of specific molecules. Chain-growth is one of the ways these compounds form, and examples of them include styrofoam and nylon, as well as other plastics. For ten points, identify these compounds formed by linking monomers.

polymers [accept elastomer before “Paul†is read; prompt on prompt on “ideal chain†until mentioned] <CL>

19. This element is oxidized in the preparation of Rieke magnesium, and this metal also forms an extremely sterically hindered strong base known as its tert-butoxide. One compound containing this metal, known as Condy's crystals, can detect unsaturated bonds when it is in solution as Baeyer's reagent; that compound is its (*) permanganate. It is found naturally along with aluminum in muscovite. Electron capture allows one of its species to form argon-40, which is useful for radioactive dating. Like sodium, this element was isolated using electrolysis from its hydroxide, and it is found with nitrogen and phosphorus in many fertilizers. For ten points, identify this alkali metal, with chemical symbol K, found in potash.

potassium <EC>

This element’s tert-butoxide is a prototypical sterically hindered base. A salt of this element is a very strong oxidizing agent that produces an intense magenta color in water. This element's radioactive 40 isotope decays by electron capture to (*) argon-40 and is used in one form of radioactive dating. This element's chloride is used to induce cardiac arrest in lethal injections. This alkali metal sits directly above rubidium and below sodium on the periodic table. For 10 points, name this element with atomic number 19 and symbol K, large amounts of which are found in bananas.

potassium [accept K before mention; accept potassium tert-butoxide or t-BuOK or potassium permanganate or KMnO4 or potassium-40 or 40K or potassium chloride or KCl] <Chemistry â€" Gurazada> [Ed. French]

According to the principle of corresponding states, two gases with equal values of reduced temperature and the reduced form of this quantity will have equal volumes. One form of this quantity is multiplied by its mole fraction in Raoult's Law. According to Dalton's law, the total value for this property is equal to the sum of the(*) "partial" forms of it. This value is commonly plotted against temperature in a phase diagram. A liquid boils when the vapor form of this quantity overcomes its atmospheric form. For 10 points, name this measure of the force per unit area, which can be measured in torrs or bars.

pressure [or vapor pressure before “vapor†is read] <David Dennis>/<ed. AR>

15. In unimolecular reactions following the Lindemann-Hinshelwood mechanism, this quantity becomes doubled at low pressure. It is typically zero in enzyme-catalyzed biochemical reactions when the reactant concentration is much larger than the enzyme concentration. In mechanisms involving homolytic cleavage of bonds and in Michaelis-Menten theory, it often has non-integral values. This number can be measured via the method of flooding, in which a chemical reaction takes place with all reactants in large excess except one. (*) For 10 points, identify this number, the exponent of each chemical species concentration in a rate law.

reaction order [or partial order of reaction] <RK>

Elimination reactions of transition metal complexes are almost always this type of reaction. Sodium borohydride, lithium aluminum hydride, and other hydrides are common reagents used to facilitate this type of reaction. The standard hydrogen electrode is used to standardize the cell potential for this type of reaction, which include the conversion of two protons to (*) hydrogen gas. This type of reaction, which includes the electrolysis of a metal cation to produce solid metal, occurs at the cathode of an electrochemical cell. Electrons are gained in--for 10 points--what type of reaction, which are contrasted with oxidation reactions?

reductions [accept reductive eliminations; accept reduction potential; accept reducing agent; prompt on redox reactions; prompt on electrochemical reactions or electrolysis] <GC, Chemistry> Bonuses

Metallic hydrides almost always catalyze these reactions. In line notation, the species which undergoes this reaction is placed on the right. Protons undergo this reaction in a SHE cell, which sets its namesake potential equal to zero. In general, that potential is multiplied by Faraday's constant in order to determine the Gibbs free energy change of one of these reactions. In organic chemistry, they usually result in addition of hydrogen atoms and removal of oxygen atoms. These reactions occur at the cathode of voltaic cells. For 10 points, name these reactions which occur when a species gains electrons, the opposite of an oxidation.

reductions [prompt on "redox" or "oxidation-reduction" or "reduction-oxidation", but not "oxidation"]

Bredt's rule concerns the placement of double bonds in structures with a certain arrangement of these entities. Molecules containing these entities can display pi-stacking. Degrees of unsaturation can be used to determine the number of double bonds, triple bonds, and number of these structures in a molecule. Aromatic compounds are defined by being planar, having a delocalized pi system, satisfying the 4n + 2 rule, and containing one of these structures. These structures prefer to consist of five or six atoms to minimize a namesake strain. Name these structures found in benzene, which when found in aliphatic compounds cause their names to be prefixed with "cyclo-".

rings [accept cyclic molecules or cycles or similar answers containing an underlined term]

Theodor Zincke’s reaction prepares the pyridinium examples of these compounds which are typically non-combustible. William Christopher Zeise described an organometallic example, and Johann Glauber discovered one in spring water. Other examples include zinc acetate, potassium dichromate, and the (*) magnesium sulfate found in Epsom, England. Water and these compounds are the results of acid-base neutralizations. For 10 pointsâ€"give these compounds that include sodium chloride, which is found on dinner tables.

salt (accept Zincke salt, Zeise salt, or Glauber salt)

This element combines with carbon to form carborundum, which is used as an abrasive. NMR spectroscopy using its 29 isotope can be used to analyze zeolites. This element is used to produce mass amounts of magnesium metal via the Pidgeon Process. It can undergo catenation, similar to alkanes, as it is located below(*) carbon on the periodic table. This non-germanium element is commonly used as a semiconductor, and it combines with oxygen to form quartz. For 10 points, name this metalloid used to make computer chips with symbol Si.

silicon [or Si before it is read] <Max Mader>/<ed. AR> Bonuses

An atom of this element, substituted with methyl groups, is used as a primary standard in proton NMR. Modern calculations of Avogadro's number utilize X-ray crystallography of this element. This element's band gap is 1.1 electron-volts, which is smaller than all other elements except germanium. Naturally, this element is used by diatoms. Quartz is formed when oxygen bonds to it. This tetravalent element is the second metalloid and is found directly below carbon on the Periodic Table. For 10 points, name this element commonly used in semiconductors with atomic number 14.

silicon [or Si]

Pattison's process removes this element from lead. Tollens' reagent is a solution of a nitrate of this element and ammonia, and the nitrate of this metal was often used to prevent conjunctivitis in newborns. The body exhibits argyria after overexposure to this element whose nanoparticles are put in (*) socks to kill bacteria. Useful in photography, a process of reducing a nitrate of it produced 19th century mirrors. For 10 pointsâ€"name this element whose symbol is Ag, which is used in second-place Olympic medals.

silver

11. This number is the denticity of the compound EDTA. The cycloalkane with the smallest ring strain contains this many carbon atoms, and is often drawn in its most stable chair form. This is the total number of electrons shared between the atoms in trigonal planar molecules like boron (*) trifluoride. The simplest aromatic hydrocarbon contains this many carbon atoms, and is often drawn as a circle surrounded by a polygon with this many sides due to the delocalized pi bond electrons. For 10 points, name the number of carbon atoms in benzene and cyclohexane, which is also the atomic number of carbon.

six <BZ>

8. This number is the exponent on the term representing attractive van der Waals forces in the Lennard- Jones potential. EDTA has the ability to form this many bonds with the calcium 2 plus cation. This number is the oxidation state of manganese in the manganate ion, as well as the oxidation state of chromium in potassium dichromate. This is also the number of carbon atoms in 3-methylpentane and (*) fructose, as well as the number of hydrogen atoms in benzene. The combustion of 1 mole of hexane yields this many moles of carbon dioxide. For 10 points, give this number, which is equal to the atomic number of carbon and number of fluorine atoms in sulfur hexafluoride.

six [or plus six or six plus, accept negative six before “EDTAâ€] <Chemistry, CT><ed. KLei>

16. Proteins in polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis are sometimes denatured by a surfactant containing this element’s cation and a dodecyl sulfate anion. When determining the chirality of a compound, it is common to use light at 589 nanometers, which is in this element’s D line. Ion-exchange technology replaces calcium and magnesium ions with ions of this element to (*) soften hard water. Crystals of this element’s chloride are known as halite, and this element’s bicarbonate is often referred to as baking soda. For 10 points, name this alkali metal that bonds with chlorine to form table salt.

sodium [or Na] <BZ>

Lysis buffer is a mix of S-D-S and this compound. White liquor, used in pulping paper, consists of this compound and sodium sulfide. It is produced along with hydrogen and chlorine in the chlor-alkali process, and it turns bauxite into alumina in the Bayer process. In industry, this compound is just called “caustic.† This compound is sold in small (*) pellets which dissolve in water, releasing a lot of heat, and generating lye. Stocks of this compound are often made to titrate weak acids, and it reacts with HCl [H-C-L] to make water and table salt. For 10 points, name this strong base used in drain cleaner, which has formula NaOH.

sodium hydroxide [or NaOH until it is read; or caustic until it is read; prompt on partial answer]

Differences of this quantity are represented by specific ratios in the partition coefficient. Substances with aninfinite value of this quantity in relation to each other are miscible, and the addition of a compound containing theprecipitate leads to the decrease of this quantity in the common ion effect. This quantity for a gas in a liquid isproportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid according to Henry's law. The value of this quantityunder normal conditions is exceeded during supersaturation. For solids in liquids, this quantity is usuallyproportional to temperature. For 10 points, name this measure of how well a substance dissolves in another.

solubility

Substances like EMIM chloride and other ILs are used as these substances in the laboratory. The polarity of these substances is described by their dielectric constants. These substances can be classified as protic or aprotic. These substances are removed using a rotavap. A molecule can be transferred from one of these substances to another in the procedure of extraction. These substances cannot (*) mix if they are immiscible with respect to each other. Hexane is a commonly used one of these substances in organic chemistry used to dissolve nonpolar molecules. For 10 points, name these substances in which solutes are dissolved to produce solutions.

solvents <GC, Chemistry>

On an adiabat, “pressure times volume, raised to the ratio of two forms of this quantity†is constant. A solid is treated as a collection of 3D harmonic oscillators with the same frequency in a 1907 model of this quantity. The ratio of “this quantity at constant pressure†to “this quantity at constant volume†is called the adiabatic index. Einstein showed why this value for most crystalline substances is 3 times the (*) gas constant in the Dulongâ€"Petit Law. Due to hydrogen bonding, water has an extremely high value for this quantity, at one calorie per gram per degree celsius. For 10 points, name this quantity, which is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a substance.

specific heat capacity [prompt on “Cp†or “Cvâ€] <AF>

One form of this technique uses the transfer of spin-polarization via cross-relaxation, the nuclear Overhauser effect. Another variety of this technique that relies on inelastic scattering employs notch or edge filters. That version involves a Stokes or anti-Stokes shift and is named for (*) Raman. The result of this technique can be plotted on a wavenumber vs. transmittance graph, which peaks between 3700 and 3200 inverse centimeters in the presence of terminal alkynes or amides. For 10 points, name this method of analyzing compounds that comes in NMR and infrared forms.

spectroscopy

Theodore Richards won the 1914 Chemistry Nobel for determinations of these values. This calculation is properly expressed using Weiser and Coplen intervals in some cases. Prout's hypothesis said these had to be integers, but careful study of chlorine resulted in a decimal value. Because they are defined using terrestrial sources, increasing (*) protons does not always imply an increase in these values. For 10 pointsâ€"give this value determined by calculating an average based on the abundances of an element’s isotopes and their atomic masses.

standard atomic weight (accept relative atomic mass before “atomic massesâ€, but do not accept "atomic mass")

3. One way to study heat transfer involves analyzing this process in naphthalene, and a cold finger is commonly used in an apparatus involving this process. Caffeine is commonly purified using this process, and the enthalpy of this process equals the sum of the enthalpies of fusion and vaporization. This process occurs when temperature increases at pressures and temperatures (*) below the triple point, and the reverse of this process is deposition. For ten points, identify this process that occurs in dry ice, in which a solid changes directly into a gas without entering the liquid phase.

sublimation (do not accept deposition at any point) <EnC>

These molecules can interconvert between anomeric forms through the process of mutarotation. When these molecules possess a free hemiacetal or aldehyde group, they can act as reducing agents. These molecules can be detected using Benedict’s reagent. The stereochemistry of these molecules can be visualized using Haworth or Fischer projections. Polymeric forms of these molecules are connected by (*) glycosidic bonds and include cellulose, glycogen, and starch. These molecules often contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1 to 2 to 1 ratio. The names of these molecules end in the suffix “-ose.†For 10 points, name these molecules which include fructose and glucose.

sugars [or carbohydrates; or reducing sugars; or monosaccharides; or disaccharides; or polysaccharides; or aldoses; or ketoses; or pentoses; or hexoses; or glycans; accept specific sugars like glucose or mannose] <GC, Chemistry>

The hormone DHEA usually is connected to this ion, and a test measuring their level together is used to monitor adrenal gland function. Turpentine with this ion is generated by the Kraft process, which is sometimes named for this ion. This ion combines with magnesium to form Epsom salt, or with calcium to form gypsum. This ion combines with barium to form barite, and that same combination is used as an X-ray contrast agent. The most common iron supplements combine iron with this ion. Acids with this ion have become a problem in many lakes due to acid rain. Name this ion that combines with hydrogen to form sulfuric acid.

sulfate ion [accept SO2âˆ' 4 or SOâˆ'2 4 ; do not accept "sulfur" or "sulfite"]

This is the element common to the minerals troilite and orpiment, and this and mercury comprise cinnabar. A Bunte salt contains at least two atoms of this element, and is formed as an intermediary for synthesizing thiols. Compounds containing this element are responsible for the moon Io’s distinctive color, a result of (*) volcanic activity. A gas containing hydrogen and this element is present in the “rotten egg†smell. Known in ancient times as brimstone, this period 3 chalcogen is a yellow solid at room temperature. For 10 pointsâ€"name this element whose chemical symbol is “Sâ€.

sulfur

11. The genus Chromatium produces this element through oxidation, and the 3d orbitals in this element may contribute to catenation. This element’s phase diagram has three triple points because it has two solid phases. Thiol groups of it function in biomolecular binding, such as in Coenzyme A, and this element also forms (*) crosslinking polymer chains during vulcanization. As a pure solid, this element forms a cyclic molecule with eight atoms, and one compound of this element and hydrogen smells like rotten eggs. For ten points, identify this yellow element with atomic number 16.

sulfur [or S] <EC>

This compound protonates nitric acid in the precursor step to the nitration of benzene. Sodium nitrate is reacted with this compound in one method of producing it which uses Glover towers known as the lead chamber process, while another method uses a vanadium oxide catalyst and is called the (*) contact process. The "fuming" form of this strong diprotic acid is known as oleum. This compound is reformed during the recharging of lead acid batteries, and the reaction of sulfur trioxide with water forms this compound, leading to its presence in the atmosphere of Venus and acid rain. For 10 points, name this acid with formula H2SO4.

sulfuric acid (accept H2SO4 before read; accept oil of vitriol)

This phenomenon can generate singlet oxygen that becomes subsequently quenched by carotenoids. A form of this phenomenon can cause the formation of thymine dimers. Transducin becomes activated after this phenomenon triggers an isomerization reaction in rhodopsin. The Calvin cycle is often named for occurring (*) independently of this phenomenon. This phenomenon causes electron excitation in chlorophyll, which converts the energy of this phenomenon in chemical energy stored in the form of carbohydrates. Photosynthesis requires--for 10 points--what phenomenon produced by the sun?

sunlight [or photons; or electromagnetic radiation; or electromagnetic waves; accept specific forms of light like blue or ultraviolet] <GC, Biology>

Molecules can only be used effectively for this purpose when they are above their Krafft temperature, and low concentrations of these form a layer named for Irving Langmuir and Katharine Blodgett. These substances are often added to fluids flowing through pipes to prevent corrosion, and they are added to windows and lenses to prevent them from fogging up. William Griffin and J.T. Davies devised measurements of the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance of these substances, based on the fact that molecules of these chemicals have soluble and insoluble ends. Name these chemicals, used in soaps, which lower surface tension.

surfactants [or surface-active agents or surface-acting agents]

14. The kinetic energy of each degree of freedom is proportional to this variable, according to the equipartition theorem. The root mean squared velocity of a fixed number of gas particles is proportional to the square root of this quantity. The entropy of vaporization is defined as the (*) heat of vaporization divided by this quantity. Gay-Lussac discovered that all else equal, increasing this quantity will also increase the pressure of a gas. For 10 points, name this quantity that measures the average kinetic energy of a substance and can be measured in degrees Celsius.

temperature [prompt on “Tâ€] <SAM>

This number is the highest power of the compressibility factor in the Peng-Robinson equation of state. This is the number of exposed methyl groups in caffeine. It is the number of ring atoms in an epoxide, and in VSEPR (ves-per) theory, for a T-shaped trigonal bipyramidal molecule, it is the number of (*) bonding electron pairs in the molecule. The Debye model states that specific heat is proportional to this power of temperature. This is the negative charge on a borate ion and a phosphate ion. For 10 points, identify this number which is the atomic number for lithium and the number of carbon atoms in propane.

three

5. Xenon difluoride has a linear shape because this many lone pairs surround its central atom. This is the coordination number of carbon in graphite, ethylene, and formaldehyde. Nitrate ions have this many resonance structures, and there are this many p orbital electrons in phosphorus and nitrogen. Two of the carbons in an (*) alkyne have a bond order of this number, and methyl groups contain this number of hydrogen atoms. There are this many valence electrons in aluminum and boron, and this many oxygen atoms in an ozone molecule. For ten points, give this atomic number of lithium and mass of the hydrogen isotope tritium.

three <MS>

4. This metal is found naturally in minerals like rutile and ilmenite, and compounds containing this metal combine with organoaluminum compounds to form polymerizing catalysts named after Giulio Natta and Karl Ziegler. This element was first produced industrially using the Hunter process, but is now formed after being reduced by magnesium in the (*) Kroll process. This metal’s nitride is commonly used to coat drill bits, and its dioxide is used as a white pigment. For ten points, name this silver-colored transition metal with atomic number 22 and symbol Ti.

titanium (accept Ti before read) <EnC>

It’s not phosphorus, but a compound of this element with chlorine has three violet “layered†forms with a tendency to flake. That same compound is essential to a reaction that couples ketone or aldehyde groups to an alkene, the McMurry reaction. Another compound with this element was formerly used as a Lewis acid in the (*) Mukaiyama aldol condensation. This element can be extracted from ilmenite using the Hunter process or the commercially used Kroll process. For 10 points, name this lightweight and durable metal, which is commonly used in aerospace technology.

titanium (accept Ti)

This process is used with thiosulfate [thie-uh-SUL-fate] in the last step of the Winkler test to measure oxygen in water. A variation of this process used to test for the presence of water was invented by Karl Fischer. Graphs representing this process usually have a point of inflection called the equivalence point. Those graphs usually show volume on the x-axis and pH [p h] on the y-axis. Name this process of adding a reactant to determine the concentration of a solution, often using an indicator.

titration (accept other word forms)

One form of this process involving hard water and EBT ends with the solution turning steel blue. In that "complexometric" form of this process, magnesium and calcium ions are chelated by EDTA. Performing this process on a weak polyprotic acid yields multiple(*) equivalence points which can be approximated using methyl orange or phenolphthalein [“fee-nol-THAY-leenâ€] as indicators. This technique uses a burette to slowly add a solution to the analyte. For 10 points, name this lab technique used to measure the concentration of an unknown solution.

titration [or complexometric titration before “complexometric†is read] <David Dennis>/<ed. AR>

Thiosulfate ions and starch are usually added to solid iodine in a form of this technique called iodometry. Another form of this lab technique uses Eriochrome Black T, along with a hexadentate ligand with four carboxylic acid groups known as EDTA; that is its “complexometric†type. Its “redox†type may use potassium permanganate, which is especially useful due to its role as a (*) “self-indicator.†This procedure is commonly conducted by slowly dripping a solution of known concentration from a burette into a flask until the equivalence point. For 10 points, name this lab technique used to determine an unknown solution’s concentration.

titration [or volumetric analysis; accept complexometric titration; accept redox titration; accept acid-base titration] <LZ, Chemistry>

Though enzymes containing this element are unusual, two of them, AOR and GAPOR, are used by Pyrococcus furiosus. For many living things, this element is toxic because it interferes with the use of molybdenum and copper. Found with calcium and oxygen in scheelite, this element is often used for electrodes in arc welding and in high-speed steel. This element with the highest melting point is combined with rhenium in X-ray tubes. In the early 20th century, this element started being used as a light bulb filament. Name this element that was known as wolfram, which is why its symbol is W.

tungsten

4. Z-ligands accept this many electrons from their metal centers while donating zero, and naphthalene consists of this many fused benzene rings. Oxygen’s paramagnetism is due to having this many unpaired electrons in its antibonding pi orbitals, and this value is the most common oxidation number of cadmium due to its full (*) d-shell. This is the number of hydrogen atoms in the empirical formula for glucose, and also the maximum number of electrons allowed in the first electron shell. The number of valence electrons found in alkaline earth metals is, for ten points, what value that is also the atomic number of helium?

two <EC>

3. Though not an alkali metal, this element’s carbonate is water-soluble, and this is the lighter of the two elements typically found in MOX fuel. ADU is mixed with hydrofluoric acid to produce this element’s hexafluoride, and this element is most commonly found in an ore whose crystals consist of three of this element and eight oxygen atoms. Penetrative (*) bullets often consist of the depleted variety of this element, which can be extracted from pitchblende or “yellowcake.†For ten points, identify this element whose isotope-238 has a very long half-life, and whose atomic symbol is U.

uranium (accept U before mentioned) <MS> MODERATOR NOTE: Please emphasize in a manner that makes it clear first line is a quote, not just vagueness.

After an attempt to use this element instead of tungsten in lamp filaments was unsuccessful, the Westinghouse Lamp Plant in New Jersey supplied this element to the government during World War Two. An isotope of this element decays into barium, krypton, and three neutrons. This element's depleted form is used in dense weapons, while its enriched form is used by nuclear power plants. Name this element just before neptunium and plutonium on the Periodic Table whose 235 isotope is used in chain reactions.

uranium (prompt on "U")

The oscillating behavior of the isotherm formed by this equation caused it be unable to describe real substances along its increasing portion. This flaw was accounted for by Maxwell’s equal area rule. One term in this equation accounts for (*) attraction between particles while another accounts for the size of a mole of particles. This equation includes modification parameters symbolized a and b. For 10 points, name this equation that modifies the Ideal Gas law and is named for its Dutch developer.

van der Waals equation

Potential energy due to these forces is often modeled as proportional to the inverse sixth power of distance, and a subtype whose strength depends on polarizability and dipole moment is sometimes named for Debye. Another subtype accounts for the higher boiling points of straight molecules compared to spherical molecules with an equal number of electrons and for the ability of (*) geckos to climb glass surfaces; those induced dipole-induced dipole forces are also known as London dispersion forces. For 10 points, identify this type of intermolecular force, weaker than covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds, named for a Dutch scientist.

van der Waals force [accept van der Waals interaction] BONUSES

The unit commonly used to measure this quantity equals one-tenth of a pascal-second. The kinematic form of this quantity, found by dividing the more common form by density, can be measured in square centimeters per second, which is a stokes. That more common form of this quantity, the dynamic type, equals shearing stress divided by velocity gradient. Though this quantity measured in poise [pwahz] can apply to gases, it is more applicable to liquids that are not inviscid [in-VIH-sid]. Name this quantity high in syrup and other liquids called "thick", a measure of resistance to flow.

viscosity [do not accept word forms]

In an isothermal process, the change in entropy is proportional to the natural log of the ratio of the final and initial value of this quantity. This is constant in isochoric [eye-suh-KAWR-ik] processes. In isobaric processes, the amount of work is the integral of pressure with respect to this quantity. Enthalpy equals internal energy plus pressure times this quantity. Name this quantity that varies inversely with pressure in Boyle's Law and is multiplied by pressure in the Ideal Gas Law, often measured in liters, gallons, or cubic length units.

volume

4. The difference between the molar heat capacity at constant pressure and the molar heat capacity at a constant value for this quantity is equal to the ideal gas constant. The Van der Waals equation subtracts the “b†term from this quantity because ideal gases are assumed to be perfectly elastic and have a value of (*) zero for this quantity. The inverse of density equal to the “specific†form of this quantity. In Charles’ law, this quantity is proportional to temperature, whereas it is inversely proportional to pressure in Boyle’s law for gases. For 10 points, identify this quantity that can be measured in cubic centimetres, or milliliters.

volume [prompt on “Vâ€] <BZ>

This compound reacts with penicillin to inactivate transpeptidase. The transfer of four electrons to complex IV of the electron transport chain produces two molecules of this compound. Excitation of P700 causes the “splitting†of this compound by P680. At 25 degrees celsius, a reaction in this compound is described by the constant “10 to the negative-14th.†In vascular plants, this compound is transported in the (*) xylem. During the day, CAM plants close their stomata to prevent loss of this compound. K-w measures this compound’s autoionization and K-s-p measures a compound’s solubility in this liquid. For 10 points name this “universal solvent†with formula H-2-O.

water [accept H-2-O until it’s read] <CK> Bonuses

20. This substance’s spontaneous reaction with cobalt is problematic because cobalt catalyzes of the Fischer-Tropsch reaction, which produces it. Carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas are synthesized from this substance in its namesake gas shift reaction, and the product of the Ka [[“K-Aâ€]] of an acid and the (*) Kb [[“K-Bâ€]] of its conjugate base is always equal to the equilibrium constant of the autoionization of this amphoteric substance. This substance attains its maximum density at 4 degrees Celsius, and its high polarity leads it to be called the “universal solvent.†For 10 points, name this substance with chemical formula H2O.

water [accept H2O before mention] <Chemistry, CT><ed. KLei> Bonuses

20. This compound is produced with graphite in the Bosch reaction, and organic reactions in this medium have been demonstrated to be faster than in toluene and cyclohexane by Sharpless. This compound notably has a solid-liquid boundary with a (*) negative slope on a phase diagram, and the absolute temperature scale is based on this compound’s triple point. It is produced with carbon dioxide during combustion, and this molecule has a bent geometry and two lone pairs, allowing the formation of multiple hydrogen bonds that reduce its density when solid. For ten points, identify this “universal solvent†with formula H2O.

water [accept H2O or dihydrogen monoxide early] <EC>

The molecular characteristics of this substance are studied by Richard J. Saykally. The presence of this substance is necessary for olation to occur, and the rate of the Dielsâ€"Alder reaction is enhanced when it occurs in this substance. This substance is produced, along with graphite, in the (*) Bosch reaction. In a common clathrate, methane is surrounded by molecules of this substance, the “heavy†type of which is formed with deuterium. The triple point of this substance is used to define the Kelvin scale. For 10 points, name this life-sustaining molecule with formula H2O.

water [accept H2O until mention or oxidane]

This compound displaces one of the two chlorine ligands in the mechanism of cisplatin. This compound is oxidized into oxygen gas above its upper stability limit on a Pourbaix diagram. Trace amounts of this compound can be found in a Fischer titration. In common calculation, an extremely dilute acid does not have basic pH because of this compound’s (*) autoprotolysis. Because of the leveling effect, no acid stronger than the hydronium ion exists in this compound. Despite its low atomic mass, this compound has higher than expected specific heat and boiling point due to its ability to form hydrogen bonds. Two lone pairs are found on the central oxygen atom in, for 10 points, what chemical commonly known as the “universal solvent�

water [or H2O]

17. One procedure to perform this task uses a polymer of m-phenylene [[“fen-ill-eneâ€]] diamine and trimesoyl chloride; that procedure also uses a cellulose triacetate membrane. Another procedure used to perform this task uses heat exchangers and is called multi-stage flash. The substance that has undergone this process can be labelled Milli-Q, dd, or (*) DI. This task can be performed by electrodeionization or reverse osmosis, which lowers solute concentration and is preceded by using an activated carbon filter to trap chlorine and organic chemicals. For 10 points, name this process of removing impurities from H2O.

water purification [accept water desalination, water distillation, water treatment, water deionization, or other equivalents; prompt with “of what?†on answers not specifying water, accept answers with H2O before mention] <Other Science, KLei><ed. VS>

17. A reaction of this order will produce lines of identical slope when the rate is plotted on a molarity vs. time graph. Having a bond order of this value indicates that a molecule is unlikely to exist due to its instability, and this value is the smallest orbital angular momentum quantum number. This is the number of pi bonds formed by the central carbon when it is sp3-hybridized in (*) methane. The standard electrode potential of hydrogen takes on this value, and this is the number of neutrons found in the hydrogen-1 nucleus. For ten points, identify this number used to represent the charge on a neutral atom.

zero (accept zeroth) <EnC>

The Gatterman reaction can be used to form aldehydes from derivatives of this compound, while it can be reduced to a compound with one fewer double bond in the Birch reduction. Replacing a hydrogen group in this compound with methyl and hydroxyl groups creates its respective derivatives (*) toluene and phenol. August Kekulé theorized the structure of this compound, understood in modern valence bond terms as a resonance structure of alternating double and single bonds. Often drawn as a circle surrounded by a hexagon, for 10 points, name this simplest aromatic organic compound with formula C6H6.

 benzene

The derivative of the natural log of this quantity with respect to time is equal to the enthalpy change over R times T squared, according to the Van't Hoff equation. A constant calculated in the same method as this one is Q, the reaction quotient, and (*)Â pure and inert substances do not affect its calculation. This constant has forms named for the solubility product and acid dissociation, and it can be calculated using the concentrations of the reactants and products. The state at which the rates of the forward and backwards reactions are equal is represented by, for 10 points, what constant symbolized capital K?

 equilibrium constant (or K, Keq, Ksp, Kc, Kp, Ka, or Kb before K is read)

In the Friedel-Crafts reaction, one member of this group bonded to an alkyl group can be used to attach the alkyl group to an aromatic ring. One of these elements was bonded to xenon to form the first noble gas compound. One member of this group is the rarest non-transuranium element. An acid formed by bonding one of these elements to hydrogen can dissolve (*)Â glass, and is the only such acid of this group that is weak. This group contains the only nonmetal that is liquid at standard temperature, and each of its members contains seven valence electrons, making them extremely reactive. For 10 points, group 17 consists of which elements that include chlorine?

 halogen (prompt on "group 17" or "group VII")

Hünig's [HYOO-nig's] type of these substances is a poor nucleophile [NOO-klee-oe-file]. A Brook rearrangement uses these substances, such as a Grignard [grih-NARD] or organolithium [or-GA-noe-LIH-thee-um] reagent, as catalysts. These substances tend to hydrolyze triglycerides [trie-GLIH-suh-rides] in a process called saponification, which is why they often feel slippery, and these substances typically taste bitter. Depending on which definition is used, these substances donate an electron pair, accept protons, or yield hydroxide ions. Name these substances that react strongly with acids.

(strong) bases

Drug lipophilicity is typically expressed in reference to the partition coefficient of an alcohol containing this many carbons and water. A molecule with this many carbons adopts a tub-shaped conformation to avoid the destabilizing property of antiaromaticity. Solid sulfur typically exists as a “puckered ring†of this many atoms. A quantity named after an alkane with this many carbons quantities the (*) anti-knocking ability of gasoline. 3-ethyl-2-methylpentane has this many carbon atoms, while propane has this many hydrogen atoms. For 10 points, identify the number of carbon atoms found in octane.

8 [or Eight] <GC, Chemistry>

Facilitated transport via these systems has been suspected for the long range movement of plutonium on the Nevada Nuclear Test Site. When heavy metals or radionuclides form pure phase versions of these systems, they are known as “eigen [these systems]â€. Particle agglomeration, as described by the Schulze-Hardy rule, leads to the destabilization of these systems, which can subsequently be stabilized through (*) peptization. These systems often appear blue due to the scattering of light in the Tyndall effect. Types of these systems include emulsions and aerosols, and common examples include milk and fog. For 10 points, name these mixtures in which one substance of microscopic particles is suspended in another substance.

: colloids [or colloidal suspensions; prompt on “mixtures†or “suspensionsâ€; do not accept or prompt on “solutionsâ€]

This quantity can be calculated using the Eyring equation. This quantity for a reaction can be determined by finding the slope of inverse temperature versus the natural logarithm of the rate constant, and it appears in the numerator of the exponentiated term of the Arrhenius equation. Catalysts increase the rate of a reaction by lowering this quantity, which is represented by a steep increase on a potential energy curve. For 10 points, name this quantity, the minimum amount of energy input required for a reaction to take place.

Activation Energy

One of these compounds is combined with a carboxylic acid to make esters in Fischer esterification. Converting alkynes to ketones involves an intermediate that is the vinyl type of this compound. In sulfuric acid, these compounds can turn into ketones and aldehydes via (*) Jones oxidation. These compounds can participate in hydrogen bonding because of the presence of the hydroxyl group at the end. For 10 points, name these compounds, whose ethyl variety is commonly used as an intoxicant.

Alcohols Packet 7 â€" Bonuses

One of these compounds participates in a cycloaddition with an alkene and carbon monoxide in the Pauson-Khand reaction. Metal acetylides are obtained by reacting a strong base with terminal ones of these. The Fritsch-Buttenburg-Wiechell rearrangement is the second step of a process that forms these compounds from aldehydes called the Corey-Fuchs reaction. Quinoline can be used to enhance the selectivity of the Lindlar catalyst that reduces these compounds to alkenes. For 10 points, name this class of organic compounds containing a triple bond between two carbon atoms, the simplest example of which is acetylene.

Alkynes [prompt on Hydrocarbons before "triple"]

The law named for this scientist was popularized by Stanislao Cannizzaro. His law was proposed soon after Gay-Lussac's Law, allowing scientists to use volume measurements to find chemical formulas. This person's law was an early step towards the Ideal Gas Law, but it assumed constant pressure and volume. Because of the importance of his law, this scientist's name is used for the number of particles in a mole of substance. Name this early 19th century Italian scientist.

Amedeo Avogadro

This substance's ability to form metal ligands is exemplified in the coordination complex it forms with copper and water, Schweitzer's reagent. This substance is bubbled into a solution of sodium chloride in one implementation of the Solvay process, and is converted to nitric acid in the Ostwald process. One process that produces it uses an iron catalyst at high temperature. That process, known as the Haber-Bosch process, is used to create this chemical commonly used in fertilizers. For 10 points, identify this compound with chemical formula NH3 which is commonly used as a household cleaner.

Ammonia [accept NH3 before mentioned]

Schweizer's reagent is prepared by dissolving a copper hydroxide precipitate in a solution of this substance, while the addition of silver nitrate to an aqueous solution of this substance produces Tollens' reagent. A rhodium-platinum catalyst is employed to convert it to a strong acid in the Ostwald process, and the synthesis of this compound typically requires a ruthenium or iron catalyst. Its hydroxide is commonly used in cleaning agents, and this compound is often used in the production of fertilizers. For 10 points, name this trigonal pyramidal compound most often synthesized through the Haber-Bosch process, with chemical formula NH3.

Ammonia [accept NH3 before the end]

This person experimented with Pierre-Simon Laplace [luh-PLAHSS] on specific heats; they found that animals and flames received the same amount of energy from given compounds. This person also repeated Cavendish's and Priestley's air experiments, naming hydrogen and using the term "azote" [AY-zote] to refer to nitrogen. He included light and caloric in his list of elements, which appeared in a textbook that included his statement of the law of mass conservation. Name this scientist, guillotined during the French Revolution, who disproved phlogiston [fluh-JISS-tun] theory and became known as the Father of Modern Chemistry.

Antoine(-Laurent) Lavoisier

This scientist theorized that solids combine with "caloric" to form liquids, and he also showed respiration to be a type of combustion. He theorized that all acids must contain oxygen, and his research showed that weight changes during combustion arise from mixing with oxygen, disproving the phlogiston theory. This author of Elementary Treatise on Chemistry also named the element hydrogen. For 10 points, name this French scientist who developed the law of conservation of mass, often considered the father of modern chemistry.

Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier

This man predicted the existence of silicon and the elemental nature of sulfur. This scientist proved that breathable air is converted to carbon dioxide, or “fixed air,†using respiration or combustion rather than a mythical element which was thought to be the product of combustion. That element, (*) phlogiston, was discarded along with the four classical elements in exchange for a new nomenclature partially designed by this man to help with his theory of oxygen and chemistry. This man’s measurements proved that although matter may change shape and properties after reactions, its mass always stays consistent. For ten points, name this formulator of the law of conservation of mass, nicknamed the “father of modern chemistryâ€.

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier <CL>

The predecessor to this quantity was named for Loschmidt, and measurements of this quantity are based on an x-ray diffraction of a crystal silicon lattice. When this quantity is multiplied by the elementary charge, it results in the Faraday constant, and the product of this quantity and Boltzmann's constant results in the ideal gas constant. One definition of this quantity is that at standard temperature and pressure, it is equal to the number of particles in 22.4 liters of gas, and this constant approximately equals 6.02 times ten to the twenty-third. For 10 points, name this number named for an Italian scientist, which represents the number of atoms in a mole.

Avogadro's Number [accept Avogadro's Constant]

Like Planck's constant, the modern value of this quantity can be determined with X-ray crystallography, and it was experimentally determined by Jean Perrin. This quantity is equal to the Faraday constant divided by elementary charge, and it is also equal to the ideal gas constant over the Boltzmann constant. This constant is defined as the number of atoms in twelve grams of carbon-12, and at standard temperature and pressure, this number of particles of gas occupies 22.4 liters. For 10 points, name this constant equal to 6.02 times ten to the twenty-third, the number of particles in a mole.

Avogadro's number [accept Avogadro's constant]

One class of these substances is a stable imine with a nitrogen atom attached to an aryl or alkyl group. According to molecular orbital theory, the highest occupied molecular orbital of these compounds interact with their counterpart's lowest unoccupied molecular orbital in reactions, and an example of a "super" variety of these compounds is sodium hydride. One definition states that these compounds are electron pair donors, while the Bronsted-Lowry definition states that they accept protons. "Strong" types of these compounds include rubidium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide. For 10 points, name these compounds that have a pH greater than 7.

Bases

Naphthalene is created when two of these molecules fuse together. A hydrogen halide is produced when this compound reacts with a haloalkane and a Lewis acid catalyst in the Friedel-Crafts alkylation. Replacing one of its hydrogen atoms with a functional group can produce phenol and toluene, and one of its properties arises from its 4n + 2 pi electrons where n equals 1 according to Hückel's rule. Kekule proposed this molecule's alternating double bonds and ringlike structure. For 10 points, name this simplest aromatic hydrocarbon with formula C6H6.

Benzene [accept C6H6 before end]

One compound that has this color has a seven to eighteen ratio between its central metal and the bonding ligand, and that same compound was believed to be two different materials, one of which is named for Turnbull. The 2014 Nobel Prize was awarded for creating a diode of this color. A coordination complex containing iron and cyanide is known as (*) Prussian [this color]. Indicators, such as litmus paper, turn this color upon the presence of a base, and a variety of corundum called sapphire is this color. For 10 points, name this color that describes elements such as indium and cobalt.

Blue

A hydride of this element can be produced when reacting with peroxides in the Brown reaction, and halides react with this element's acid in Suzuki coupling. The mineral form of this element's acid is sassolite, and the bonding of this element to hydrogen is specified by Wade's rules. The hydride of this element has banana bonds, and this element can be isolated from ulexite and borax. This is the lightest element to have an electron in the p-shell, and it can violate the octet rule, with an incomplete octet of only six electrons around it. For 10 points, name this element discovered by Humphry Davy, with atomic number 5 and symbol B.

Boron

The capacity of these entities can be written as the derivative of one quantity with respect to the co-logarithm of another quantity. Geologists use the redox variety of these to contain the fugacity of oxygen in minerals, and an ICE table can be used to calculate the (*) equilibrium constant for these entities. One equation related to these entities adds the logarithm of the concentration of a conjugate base over the concentration of an acid and is known as the Henderson-Hasselbach equation. For 10 points, name these systems that use conjugate acids and bases in order to resist pH changes.

Buffer

A barbital variety of these is commonly used to separate serum proteins, while a Tris variety of these can be used as a primary standard in analytical chemistry. Criteria for these were put forth by Norman Good, who also compiled a list of twelve of them. Their effectiveness can be determined by their namesake capacity, and carbonic acid and bicarbonate in human blood are an example of one of these solutions. Their pH can be calculated by using pKa in the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. For 10 points, name this type of solution which can resist changes in pH.

Buffer Solutions

This molecule is produced in the process of calcining limestone, and in the Bosch reaction, it is reacted with hydrogen to form water. The Keeling curve is used to measure the concentration of this molecule, and the supercritical form of this molecule has been used as a green solvent for decaffeination. Along with ethanol, this molecule is produced in the fermentation of glucose by yeast, and in water, this molecule is in equilibrium with carbonic acid. In the Calvin cycle, this molecule is catalyzed by RuBisCO, and this molecule is found as a gas in fizzy soft drinks. For 10 points, name this molecule with chemical formula CO2.

Carbon Dioxide [accept CO2 until read]

A linear polyatomic ion containing three atoms of this element has a negative four charge and is only found bonded with lithium and magnesium. In stars, three alpha particles undergo a fusion reaction to produce this element in the triple alpha process, and it is used with nitrogen and oxygen to convert hydrogen to (*) helium. The 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for work with one-atom thick planar sheets of this element. Sixty atoms of this element are bonded together in a buckminsterfullerene, and its other allotropes include diamonds and graphite. For 10 points, identify this element, symbolized C, which is present in all organic compounds.

Carbon [accept C before mentioned]

Peter Waage and Cato Guldberg developed a mathematical model to describe one form of this condition. The van't Hoff equation relates the change in temperature with the change in one quantity related to this condition, and in this condition, the Henderson-Hasselbach equation assumes that the acid does not dissociate and that the conjugate base does not hydrolyze. The law of mass action describes this state, which is reached when Gibbs Free Energy equals zero. Le Chatelier's principle is used to describe changes in this state. For 10 points, name this state in which both forward and reverse reaction rates are the same.

Chemical Equilibrium

In the Miller process, this element is used to purify a mixture of gold. This element forms at the anode in the Castner-Kellner process, and it was originally produced by the Deacon process. This element has the highest value for electron affinity, and an acid made up of the anion of this element mixes with nitric acid to form aqua regia. Compounds made up of this element with carbon and fluorine have been shown to cause destruction of the ozone layer, and this element is used to kill bacteria in swimming pools. For 10 points, name this element whose anion combines with sodium to make table salt.

Chlorine

Proteins are purified by a ligand interaction in the affinity version of this technique, and peak area is proportional to concentration in another variant of this procedure. Quantities important in this technique include retention time and retardation factor, which is commonly abbreviated as the R.F. value. Those values are important in the gas and thin layer types of this procedure, and this technique involves a mobile phase traveling through a stationary phase. For 10 points, name this chemical technique used to separate the components of a mixture, which is often utilized to separate the pigments in ink.

Chromatography

The Purnell equation analyzes this procedure which can be quantified in terms of theoretical plate number and graphically depicted with van Deemter plots. The overlap of peaks in this procedure is measured by resolution, and each component has a unique ratio of two concentrations called a partition coefficient. Differences in charge are exploited in the ion-exchange variant, and adsorbent materials are used in the thin-layer type. Performed by passing a mobile phase through a stationary phase, For 10 points, name this method of separating mixtures named for its initial application to colored dyes.

Chromatography

The first few steps in MudPIT protein analysis involve this process. Van Deemter's equation can be used to find the optimal velocity of this process, and one form of this technique is done on glass coated with absorbent material. One variety of this technique has dry and wet methods, and a material often used in this process is sepharose. These procedures rely on a ratio known as partition coefficient, and they involve stationary and moving phrases. For 10 points, name this laboratory technique which can be used to separate the different pigments of a pen's ink.

Chromatography

This equation was derived in a work that gave the first visualization of the Carnot [kar-NOH] cycle and an early version of the ideal gas law. Its first derivation was correct because it applies to a situation in which heat change equals enthalpy change. In one version of this equation, temperature squared is multiplied by the ideal gas constant, while in another version temperature is multiplied by specific volume change. Both versions can be used to find the derivative of pressure with respect to temperature. Name this equation that uses latent heat to calculate a slope on a phase diagram.

ClausiusÂâ€"Clapeyron equation or relation

Scattering in these materials is subject to the equation n theta equals two d times sine of theta, and the structure of these materials can be visualized with diagrams named for Bravais. Each of these materials has an associated Madelung constant, and these materials are the subject of Bragg's law. At absolute zero, entropy is also equal to zero in a perfect one of these according to the third law of thermodynamics, and the energy required to separate one of these into a gas is its lattice energy. For 10 points, name these materials in which atoms or ions are arranged in a repeating three-dimensional pattern.

Crystals

Phonons are the quantization of the vibration of these entities. The intercepts of the three axes of one of these entities are used to determine its Miller index. The coordination number describes how many nearest neighbors a constituent of one of these structures has, and they are described by one of fourteen structures studied by Bravais, which include hexagonal and face-centered cubic. The highest atomic packing factor for one of these structures is 74 percent. Bragg's law is used in conjunction with X-ray diffraction when studying these objects. For 10 points, name these solids that consist of a regular pattern of molecules, exemplified by quartz.

Crystals [accept Crystal Lattices]

This process can make use of a Perkin triangle or a Kugelrohr apparatus in its vacuum form. Glass beads are often added during this process to increase its speed by providing nucleation points, especially in its fractional form. (*) In this process, Raoult’s law is applied in order to separate out components of a solution. This process cannot be used to separate azeotropes. The fractional form of this process can also be improved through the use of a fractionating column. For 10 points, name this process that, in its fractional form, involves boiling a solution to separate out components with different boiling points.

Distillation

This property can be measured using the reciprocal of atomic volume, which can be used to determine molecular geometry under Sanderson's Equalization Principle. The square of covalent radii is used to define this property under the Allred-Roschow Scale, and another way to measure this property uses the average energy of valence electrons, a method named after Allen. Electron affinity and ionization energy are averaged together in order to measure this property on a scale named for Mulliken, and the first scale to define this property is named after Pauling. For 10 points, name this ability of an atom to attract electrons, of which fluorine has the highest value.

Electronegativity

This quantity can be found for a compound by taking the geometric mean of its values for the individual atoms, and ionization energy and electron affinity can be averaged to calculate this quantity. This quantity is defined through the use of effective nuclear charge on the (*) Allred-Rochow scale, which is taken over the radius squared to yield this quantity’s value on that scale. Measuring 4.0 for fluorine on the Pauling scale, for 10 points, name this quantity that measures the ability of an atom to attract electrons.

Electronegativity

This quantity remains constant for a system in a throttling process, as well as when gases in a pipe are forced through a valve in the Joule-Thomson effect. Kirchhoff's law can be used to calculate the change in this quantity when a substance changes temperature, and the differential amount of this quantity is equal to T dS plus V dp. This quantity is equal to the sum of internal energy plus the product of pressure and volume, and Gibbs free energy is equal to this quantity minus the product of temperature and entropy. For 10 points, name this thermodynamic quantity used to calculate heat transfer, symbolized H.

Enthalpy

system."

Entropy

Multiplying one of these by RT raised to the delta-n power yields a different one of these, and standard enthalpy change over R times T-squared is set equal to the change in the natural logarithm of one of these with respect to temperature in the Van't Hoff equation. These are calculated as the product of the concentrations of the products over the product of the concentrations of the reactants when the reverse and forward reactions are proceeding at equal rates. Including acid and base dissociation varieties, For 10 points, name these constants denoted by K.

Equilibrium Constant

One of these organic compounds reacts with phosphorous pentaflouride to form Lawesson’s reagent and is known as anisole. Another one of these organic compounds is a common solvent for Grignard’s reagent and is often referred to as THF. One of these occurs as an oligomer and can form complexes with metals like potassium and lithium; these are known as the “crown†type of these organic compounds. The simplest one reacts with carbon monoxide and water to form acetic acid and is the “dimethyl†type of this compound while the simplest cyclic one of these is known as ethylene oxide. FTP, identify these organic compounds consisting of an oxygen bonded between two functional groups, whose diethyl variety is used as an anesthetic.

Ether

An alkali metal can be used to create alkoxides, which are used to synthesize these compounds in an SN2 displacement reaction. Mercury is combined with an acetate ion that is used alongside sodium borohydride in a method known as oxymercuration in order to synthesize these. (*) Williamson names a method for the synthesis of these compounds, and Grignard reagents are stored in them. A cyclic variety of these compounds are known by the name “crown.†For 10 points name these compounds which consist of oxygen bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups, and include epoxides.

Ethers

Polymerization techniques using these compounds include ATRP and RAFT. These compounds can be detected by NMR using a CIDNP or by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. Persistent examples of these compounds include Fremy's salt and the triphenylmethyl one which was discovered by Moses Gomberg. During polymerization, these compounds are created by the hemolytic cleavage of (*) bonds. The electron transport chain creates the superoxide one, and these compounds are neutralized by antioxidants. For 10 points, name these compounds that contain an unpaired electron.

Free Radicals

This scientist's last paper, written with one of his students, used Fenton chemistry to explain the generation of hydroxyl [hie-DROK-sil] radicals from hydrogen peroxide and superoxide. In addition to that work with Joseph Weiss, this scientist worked with Max Born on a method to calculate lattice energies, which is known as their cycle. In 1909, this person used osmium as a catalyst in a very high pressure reaction that combines hydrogen and nitrogen. Name this scientist whose process for creating ammonia was improved by Carl Bosch.

Fritz Haber

The temperature dependence of this quantity is calculated by an equation partially attributed to Helmholtz, and the partial derivative of this quantity with respect to number of particles is chemical potential. Surface tension is this quantity per unit area, and for a galvanic cell it can be calculated as negative n times the Faraday constant times cell potential. The change in this quantity is equal to the negative gas constant times temperature times the natural logarithm of the equilibrium constant, or alternatively as enthalpy minus the product of temperature and entropy. For 10 points, name this quantity decreased in spontaneous reactions, symbolized G.

Gibbs Free Energy [accept Gibbs Function; prompt on Free Energy]

An algorithm for the minimization of this quantity is used with the Pengâ€"Robinson Equation to model water-gas shift reactions. The residual of this quantity divided by RT is the natural logarithm of the fugacity coefficient. Taking the partial derivative of this quantity with respect to the mole fraction yields (*) chemical potential, and the change in this quantity is the negative product of RT and the natural logarithm of the equilibrium constant. This quantity is equal to enthalpy minus the product of entropy and temperature. For 10 points, name this quantity, used to predict the spontaneity of a reaction.

Gibbs free energy (prompt on “free energy†and “energyâ€) HALFTIME

The departure function of this quantity is divided by the quantity ideal gas constant times temperature, and then placed in a power that is multiplied by pressure to find fugacity. The partial molar measurement of this quantity is equivalent to chemical potential. This quantity is applied to systems that are both isothermal and isobaric, and a basic formula for this quantity includes a pressure times volume term if that formula uses internal energy rather than enthalpy. Identify this quantity used to determine whether reactions will occur simultaneously, often contrasted with a similar quantity named for Helmholtz.

Gibbs free energy [or Gibbs function or free enthalpy; prompt on free energy; do not accept "energy" or "enthalpy"]

Chemical potential is the partial derivative of this quantity with respect to the mole fraction, and an equationpartially named for Helmholtz relates this quantity to the inverse square of temperature. Surface tension is thechange in this quantity per unit surface area. This quantity is the negative of the ideal gas constant times the absolutetemperature times the natural logarithm of the equilibrium constant. This quantity is also calculated as the enthalpyminus the product of temperature and entropy, and it is defined as the maximum amount of work that can be used bya system. For 10 points, name this thermodynamic quantity that is negative for spontaneous processes.

Gibbs free energy [or Gibbs function; prompt on "free energy"]

16. The surface tension at constant temperature and pressure can be calculated by dividing this quantity by the surface area. The change in this quantity is equal to the inverse of Faraday’s constant time chemical potential times the number of moles of transferred electrons. If the change in this quantity for a reaction is negative, it is both exergonic and (*) spontaneous. The change in this quantity is equal to the change in enthalpy minus temperature times the change in entropy. For 10 points, identify this measure of the free energy of a system named after an American scientist.

Gibbs free energy [prompt on “free energy†or “energyâ€] <BZ>

Chemical species named for this scientist are classified based on their size and polarizability in hard-soft theory. An electrophilic aromatic substitution named for Friedel and Crafts is catalyzed by species named for this scientist, such as aluminum trichloride. Constructs named for this scientist are created by minimizing (*) formal charge and satisfying the octet rule. This scientist’s definition classifies acids and bases as electron-acceptors and electron-donors, respectively. Diagrams named for this scientist count valence electrons on each atom in a compound. For 10 points, name this American scientist whose dot structures are used to visualize bonding.

Gilbert Newton Lewis <Chemistry â€" Gurazada> [Edited]

One variety of this quantity is proportional to the volume of distribution divided by clearance and is used when computing the "effective" variety of this quantity for drug concentration. For a second order reaction, it is one over the initial concentration times the rate constant, while this quantity is independent of concentration in first order reactions. Isotopes in the island of stability are expected to have comparatively large values for this quantity for decay, with values on the order of minutes to days. For 10 points, name this term denoting the amount of time it takes a quantity to drop to a certain fraction of its initial value, which for Carbon-14 is 5,730 years.

Half Life

The addition reaction of these elements occurs when one of these elements is added to the carbon double bond of an alkene functional group. These elements act as electrophilic species in their namesake bonds, which are used in crystal engineering, and the pseudo form of these elements is often made of cyanides and cyanate ions bonded to members of this group. With less electronegative elements they form halide compounds, and this is the only group which has members existing in solid, liquid, and gaseous states at room conditions. For 10 points, name this group of elements with seven valence electrons, which includes bromine and iodine.

Halogens [accept Group 17 or Group 7A]

Members of this group of elements act as electrophiles when interacting with a Lewis base in its namesake bonding. Antoine-Jerome Ballard is often credited with extracting one of its members from seaweed, and magnesium reacts with one element in this group to form a Grignard reagent. Another member of this group is used to detect starch in a process named for Lugol. It is the only group to have solid, liquid, and gaseous elements at standard temperature and pressure, and four members of this group are diatomic. For 10 points, name this group of elements which includes astatine, bromine, iodine, chlorine, and fluorine.

Halogens [accept Group 17 or Group VIIA]

In gel electrophoresis, an ethidium salt of one of these elements is used as an intercalating agent. An element from this group is found in a compound with potassium in Lugol’s solution. In one compound, an element from this group substitutes the hydrogens in hydrocarbons. That compound is used to treat the surfaces of (*) cookware and is called teflon. Another element from this group is used to treat drinking water and disinfect swimming pools and is also found in table salt. For 10 points, name this group of elements that includes fluorine and chlorine.

Halogens [accept Group 17]

This law can be applied to ionic solutions through the Sechenov equation. This law is applied in geochemistry in order to determine the potential volatility of magma. This law acts as an analogue to Raoult’s Law in low concentration solutions. This law explains the formation of bubbles of oxygen and nitrogen in the joints and bloodstream of (*) deep sea divers, leading to a condition known as “the bends.†For 10 points, name this law, shown in action whenever a soda is opened, which states that the amount of gas that can dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure.

Henry’s Law

This was used in 2004 to explain the bizarre behavior of a mixture of cyclodextrine and methylpyridine. In NMR, they cause a shift in the signal of a proton to a lower field. A system of them helps antibodies bind to their corresponding antigens, and they help keep molecules in DNA bound together. The IUPAC determined that one criterion for classifying bonds as these is that they are primarily electrostatic attractive forces, not dispersive forces. Their bond length is approximately 2 Angstroms, twice that of covalent bonds, and the strength of these bonds is about one tenth of covalent bonds. FTP, name this type of intermolecular bond that is responsible for the extremely high boiling point of water, an extremely strong type of dipole-dipole forces.

Hydrogen Bonds (prompt on dipole-dipole before it is mentioned)

These entities are present in Hoogsten base pairing, and they are strongest when symmetric. These entities are considered electrostatic attractive forces, and one form of these is present in borane-ammonia complexes. They allow for the bonding of nucleotides in adenine and thymine, in addition to other nucleotides in DNA. These types of bonds occur between a highly electronegative element such as nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine with a certain element. For 10 points, name these strongest intermolecular forces in covalent molecules which are responsible for surface tension and many of the other properties of water.

Hydrogen Bonds [accept Hydrogen after "bonds" is mentioned]

The bifurcated variety of these entities are present in beta-sheets, and they are considered electrostatic attractive forces rather than dispersive ones. They are responsible for the stability of alpha helices, and they keep nucleotides in DNA bonded together. These entities form between nitrogen, fluorine, or oxygen and a namesake element, and account for the high boiling point of water. For 10 points, identify these interactions named for the element that must be present for them to occur.

Hydrogen bond

This element forms a red solution when it complexes with thiocyanate, and although it is not aluminum, a chloride of this element catalyzes a Friedel-Crafts alkylation. The oxide of this element is used industrially to produce ammonia in the Haber-Bosch process, and this element exists in a solid solution with carbon in its gamma variety austenite. This element is derived from the ore hematite, and its brass-colored pyrite is commonly known as "fool's gold". For 10 points, name this transition metal with chemical symbol Fe.

Iron

9. This scientist introduced the idea of a statistical ensemble to create a system that considers all possible microstates. This man names an equation that relates changes in chemical potential for a thermodynamical system with Duhem, while he also proposed that the number of degrees of freedom is equal to the number of components minus the number of phases plus two in his namesake (*) phase rule. Enthalpy minus the product of entropy and temperature is the formula for one of this man’s quantities, the change in which is negative for spontaneous reactions. For ten points, name this American scientist who names a type of free energy symbolized G.

Josiah Willard Gibbs <EnC>

This letter denotes the constant describing why one substance can conduct electricity even in its pure form. This letter is the result of one equation in which only fluids are accounted for and in which the coefficient of the reactants is taken as an (*) exponent. This letter followed by the letter w is equal to one times ten to the negative fourteenth at room temperature. This letter is the result of two processes derived from the ideal gas law, which are equal when one is multiplied by the quantity RT to the power of delta-n. For 10 points, name this letter, used to signify the equilibrium constant and elemental potassium.

K

One result of this statement is a decrease in moles being produced in a reaction when gases are reacted at high pressures. This statement explains why the Haber-Bosch process is operated at low temperatures and high pressures, and it also explains why adding sodium chloride to a solution of silver chloride will cause the silver chloride to precipitate out. That phenomenon is known as the common-ion effect, and this statement explains why adding heat to an endothermic reaction or increasing reactant concentration will cause an increase in products. For 10 points, name this principle which states that equilibrium will shift to counteract any changes.

Le Chatelier's Principle

With Wolter Kotuna and Robert Corey, this man names a color scheme often used for ball-and-stick chemical models. He theorized that amino acids link to make proteins and was the first to describe the alpha helix, though he incorrectly predicted DNA to be a (*)Â triple helix. This scientist formulated a model of chemical bonds in which methane consists of four equal orbitals termed sp3; that concept is orbital hybridization. This man proposed that ionic bonds and covalent bonds are two ends of a spectrum, leading to him giving fluorine a value of 3.98 for a certain property. For 10 points, identify this scientist who created a scale of electronegativity.

Linus Pauling

19. He’s not Boltzmann, but the value of one quantity named after this scientist was verified using the diffusion coefficient of Brownian motion by Jean Perrin. One of his laws can be used to calculate atomic weights and states that under constant temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain the same (*) number of molecules. His namesake constant is equal to the ideal gas constant divided by Boltzmann’s constant and is the number of particles in a mole. For ten points, identify this scientist whose constant equals approximately 6.022 times ten to the twenty-third.

Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro di Quaregna e di Cerreto <EnC>

This eponymous process can be represented by the ChapmanÂâ€"Kolmogorov equation. Bayesian probabilities are used with these processes to get a result similar to the Viterbi algorithm, which is a max-sum algorithm. These eponymous processes, comparable to having no memory, are used bythe Google PageRank algorithm. These processes use arrangements of nonnegative numbers whose columns add to one, called transition matrices. These processes are used to solve problems in which probability plays a role in moving from one state to the next, which are called stochastic processes. Name these processes that are also called chains.

Markov processes [or Markov chains; prompt on stochastic processes]

In a modification to a law named for this man, the ratio of Boltzmann’s constant and Planck’s constant replaces the “frequency†factor. The first chapter of this scientist’s book Worlds in the Making examines the role of volcanic eruptions on the environment, thus leading to his prediction of global (*) warming based on the rising amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This man’s namesake equation raises e to the ratio of activation energy and the product of the ideal gas constant and temperature and is used to calculate the rate constant for a reaction. For 10 points, name this man, whose definition of acids and bases is based on whether a substance dissociates into hydroxide or hydronium ions.

Svante (August) Arrhenius

This man used Armand Seguin as a test subject in his studies of human respiration. With Laplace, he developed an early calorimeter that used melted ice to measure heat production. By burning mercury, this scientist found that air was composed of two gases and named one of them (*) azote, a substance this man later included among the thirty-three elements in his Elementary Treatise on Chemistry. This man used the discoveries of Priestley and Cavendish to disprove the phlogiston theory of combustion, and he pioneered stoichiometry by defining the law of conservation of mass. For 10 points, name this French scientist who is considered the father of modern chemistry.

Antoine Lavoisier [or Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier]

In one reaction, heating one of these compounds creates a gamma delta-unsaturated carbonyl, and in another reaction, nucleophiles react with aryl halides to create these compounds. Those reactions are the Claisen Rearrangement and the Ullmann condensation, respectively. One cyclic version of this functional group is oxolane, which was formerly known as tetrahydrofuran. These groups can be synthesized by SN2 reactions between (*) alcohols and alkyl halides in the Williamson reaction. These compounds come in “crown†varieties. For ten points, name this functional group consisting of an oxygen bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups.

Ethers

One step of a catalytic cycle partially named for this man is the Fenton reaction. That reaction generates hydroxyl radicals from hydrogen peroxide and superoxide, and is also named for Joshua Weiss. This man names a cycle used with Hess’s law to calculate (*) lattice energies of ionic solids, which was developed with Max Born. Gerhard Ertl mapped out detailed mechanisms of a process named for this chemist, which involves three additions of hydrogen and the breaking of a triple bond. For 10 points, name this German chemist who invented an ammonia-creating process improved on by Carl Bosch.

Fritz Haber (accept Joshua Weiss before mention)

A 2008 analysis of this experiment’s results determined that it’s “volcanic†version produced several more molecules of a certain class. The crashing of the Murchison meteorite raised questions concerning the validity of this experiment’s results, which sought to validate the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis. Joan Oro used the results of this experiment to attempt a synthesis of (*) adenine. Researchers have varied the spark mechanism originally used in this experiment to explain how other compounds may have been created. For 10 points, name this experiment which investigated the origins of life on Earth and demonstrated that carbohydrates and amino acids could spontaneously form from inorganic compounds in Earth’s early atmosphere.

Miller-Urey experiment [or Urey-Miller experiment; prompt on partial answer]

A compound with this anion is produced in a process whose first step uses a solution of ammonia and salt. This is the anion in the unstable mineral vaterite. This is the anion produced in the Leblanc and Solvay processes. This anion is formed along with a proton in a reaction catalyzed by a zinc-containing (*) anhydrase enzyme. Like chromates, hydroxides, phosphates, and sulfides, most compounds of this anion are insoluble. This anion is formed in ocean acidification, and a form of this anion is used in blood as a buffer. Adding acid to minerals containing this ion releases carbon dioxide. For 10 points, name this anion found in limestone, with formula “C-O-3 2-minus.â€

bicarbonate ion [or H-C-O-3 2-minus before mentioned] <AF>

These are the most common elements used to form carbon-carbon bonds in coupling reactions. Several of these elements take an electron or two from a higher-energy s orbital to get a round 5 or 10 electrons in another orbital. Orbitals of these elements split according to crystal field theory. These elements include the lightest elements that violate the (*) Aufbau principle. Ligands bind to these elements in colorful coordination complexes. They include the only elements with partially filled d-shells. For 10 points, name these metals in the central block of the periodic table, which include copper and nickel.

transition metals [or transition elements; prompt on metals] <AF>

Potassium bitartrate crystals that look like glass shards may form in this substance during production. A technique to make one kind of this substance is called saignée, or “bleeding.†Containers for this substance are a good source of astringent tannins, which act as antioxidants in this substance. Homemade kinds of this substance are often made from (*) elderberries or dandelions. Spices like nutmeg and cloves are used to make a “mulled†kind of this substance. Sake is one several East Asian kinds of this substance made from fermented rice. For ten points, name this alcoholic beverage most often made from grapes.

wine [accept rosé wine or red wine or elderberry wine or dandelion wine or mulled wine or rice wine before “riceâ€; prompt on alcohol or alcoholic beverages] <Mixed/Other â€" Gray> [Edited]

This color precipitate occurs in the triiodomethane reaction of ketones. The heating of nitric acid with tryptophan produces xanthoproteic acid, a substance of this color. The section of the NFPA safety diamond with this color indicates chemical reactivity. When there is a positive result, this is the color of Ellman’s reagent and (*) Nessler’s reagent. Below pH 6.8, the indicator phenol red is this color, which is also seen in the Fraunhofer line of helium and in the flame test of sodium. For 10 points, name this color of crystalline sulfur.

yellow (accept equivalents)

The Marsh test uses six equivalents of this metal to detect the presence of arsenic. Small crystals of this metal known as “spangles†are usually produced when this element is deposited in the “hot dip†method. This metal often stabilizes two histidine and two cysteine residues. This metal binds the substrate in alcohol dehydrogenase. This metal was stacked with copper and (*) brine-soaked disks to make Alessandro Volta’s “pile,†an early battery. This group-12 metal, which forms a namesake “finger†motif, is alloyed with copper to make brass. To prevent rusting, metals are coated with this element in galvanization. For 10 points, name this metal with symbol Zn.

zinc [or Zn before mentioned] <AF>