CJ 220 Exam 2

Neurophysiological Conditions and Crime: ADHD & Brain Chemistry

*ADHD* - a developmentally inappropriate lack of attn, impulsivity & hyperactivity --higher rates of retention in grade level, HS dropout, unintentional injuries, and emergency dept visits; greater risk for antisocial acitivity & drug abuse/use --two views: 1) assoc. is direct and that hyperactivity leads to aggressive antisocial behavior & 2) indirect: hyperactivity results in poor school achievement; school failure leads to substance abuse and depression, conditions that have long been assoc. w/ onset of antisocial behaviors *Brain Chemistry* - neurotransmitters influence or activate brain functions --Those related to aggression: Dopamine, Norepinephrine, Serotonin, Monoamine Oxidose & Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid --Low levels of MAO = high violence and property crime (women have high levels)

Family Relations: Parental Efficacy, Child Maltreatment & Chicken or the Egg?

*Efficacy*: Effective parenting can help neutralize the effect of both individual and social forces that promote delinq. behaviors; Antisocial behavior will be reduced if parents provide the type of structure that integrates children into fams, while giving them the ability to assert their individuality and regulate their own behavior (*parental efficacy*); One reason for poor communication is parents who rely on authoritarian disciplinary practices (requiring obedience may instead produce kids who are rebellious and crime prone) *Maltreatment*: Sign. assoc. btwn child maltreatment and serious self-reported and official delinq, even when taking into account gender, race, and class; Children, males/females, black/white, who experience abuse, neglect, or sexual abuse are believed to be more crime prone and suffer from other social probs; Children who *observe* the phsy. abuse of a sibling are more likely to externalize misbhevaior themselves; Abused kids are less likely to graduate from HS, hold a job, and be happily married *Chicken/Egg*: Bad kids create bad parents (David Huh); Little evidence that poor parenting is a direct cause of children's misbheavior probs but instead discovered that a child's prob behaviors undermine parenting effectiveness; Parental control weakens *after* kids get involved in delinq and not before; Parents do not give up easily on their troubled teens

Family Relations (Socialization & Crime): Family Stress, The Effects of Divorce & Family Deviance

*Family Stress*: Living in disadv. neighborhood places terrific strain on family functioning, esp. single parent fams experiencing soc. isolation; Children who are raised w/in such distressed fams are at risk for delinq.; Economic stress appears to have a harmful effect on parents and children (Conger)--low income and income loss increase parents' sadness, pessimism about the future, anger, despair, and withdrawal from other fam members; Disrupted parenting increases children's risk of suffering developm. probs; Economic stress decreases children's ability to function in a competent manner in school and w/ peers *Divorce*: 35%+ of children live in single-fam homes; Children raised in homes with one or both parents absent may be prone to antisocial behavior; # of single-parent households in the pop. is significantly related to arrest rates; Single parents may find it difficult to provide adeq. supervision, exposing kids to the neg. effects of antisocial peers; Assoc. between crime & divorce may be due to econ. factors; Children living w/ a step-parent exhibit as many probs as youth in single-parent fams *Family Deviance*: Parental deviance has a powerful influence on children's future behavior; The effect is intergenerational- children of deviant parents produce delinq. children themselves; Cambridge Study in Delinq. Develop. = sign. # of delinq. youths have criminal fathers, school yard bullying may be both inter- and intragenerational (bullies have children who are bullies), kids whose parents go to prison are more likely to be at risk for delinquency; Having a parent in prison may produce strain and anger--more likely to manifest internalizing (depression) and externalizing (aggression/delinq) probs; Children of incarcerated parents have more phys. health, school, and adult life probs; *One key is the age at which child rearing takes place*- the younger the parent, the greater the risk of intergenerational criminality

Neurophysiological Conditions and Crime: Brain Development

*Guido Frank* - finds that aggressive teen behavior may be linked to the amygdala Found that reactively aggressive adolescents frequently misinterpret their surroundings, feel threatened & act inappropriately aggressive Research helps explain what goes on in the brains of some teenboys who respond w/ inapprop. anger & aggression to percieved threats

Primary and Secondary Deviance

*Primary Deviance*: Involves norm violations or crimes that have little influence on the actor and can be quickly forgotten. (Ex: a college student successfully steals a text book at the bookstore, gets A in course, graduates, admitted to law school, and becomes famous judge. Because his shoplifting goes unnoticed, it is relatively unimportant event that has little bearing on his future life.) *Secondary Deviance*: Occurs when a deviant event comes to the attention of significant others or social control agents, who apply a negative label; The newly labeled offender then reorganizes his/her behavior and personaility around the consequences of the deviant act. (Ex: The shoplifting student is caught by a security guard and expelled from collge. The law school dreams dashed and his future cloudy, options are limited, people say he lacks character, he begins to share their opinion. He eventually becomes a drug dealer and winds up in prison)

Differential Reinforcement Theory

-*Akers and Burgess*: a version of social learning that employs both differential assoc. concepts with elements of psychological learning theory aka *direct conditioning*; strike a balance btwn two opposing poles of behavior (ppl learn to be neither "all deviant" nor "all conforming") -*Direct Conditioning*: when behavior is reinforced by being either rewarded or punished while interacting with others (*neg. reinforcement*) -People learn to evaluate their own behavior through their interactions w/ sign. others and groups in their lives; the more inds. learn to define their behavior as good or justified, rather than as undesirable, the more likely they are to engage in it -Principle influence on behavior comes from "those groups that control individuals' major sources of reinforcement and punishment and expose them to behavioral models and normative definitions"

Theory of Differential Opportunity (Cloward's and Ohlin's book "Delinquency and Opportunity")

-*Cloward and Ohlin* found that independent delinq. subcultures exist w/in society & portray inner-city kids as individuals who want to conform to middle-class values but lack the means to do so --*Most important finding*: All opportunities for success, both illegal and conventional, are closed for the most truly disadvantaged youth -*Differential Opportunities*: People in all strata of society share the same success goals, however, those in the lower cass have limited means of achieving them --Ppl who conclude that there's little hope for advancement by legitimate means may join w/ like-minded peers to form a gang -Because of differential opportunity, kids are likely to join one of three types of gangs: 1. *Criminal Gangs* - exist in stable lower-class areas; new recruits learn the techniques and attitudes of the criminal world and how to "cooperate successfully w/ others in criminal enterprises" 2. *Conflict Gangs* - develop in comms. unable to provide either legitimate or illegitimate opp.; crime in this area is "individualistic, unorganized, petty, poorly paid, and unprotected"; no successful adult criminal role models; violence is used as a means of gaining status/acquire a "rep"; according to Cloward and Ohlin they "represent a way of securing access to the scarce resources for adolescent pleasure and opp. in underprivileged areas" 3. *Retreatist Gangs* - double failures, unable to gain success through legitimate means and unwilling to do so through illegal ones; some have tried crime/violence but are too clumsy, weak, or scared to be accepted in criminal/violent gangs; constantly search for ways of getting high; develop a "hustle"; *personal status is derived from peer approval*

Biosocial Theory & Biochemical Conditions & Crime

-*Core Principle*: physical, environmental, and social conditions work together to produce human behavior -*Biochemical Conditions & Crime*: Biochemical conditions may affect ppl throughout their life course (ex: smoking & drinking, Exposure to chemicals & minerals, Diet & Crime, Sugar intake, Glucose metabolism/Hypoglycemia, Hormonal Influences, Prementrual Syndrome, Allergies, Environmental Contaminants)

Differential Association Theory

-*Edwin Sutherland* - criminality is a function of a learning process that could affect any individual in any culture; acquiring a behavior is a social learning process -Principle that criminal acts are related to a person's exposure to an excess amount of antisocial attitudes and beliefs -Principles of *Differential Association* 1. *Criminal behavior is learned* - implied that it can be classified in the same manner as any other learned behavior (writing ,reading, painting) 2. *Learning is a by-product of interaction* - people have the greatest influence on their deviant behavior and attitude development 3. *Criminal techniques are learned* - acquiring the techniques of committing the crime 4. *Perceptions of legal code influence motives and drives* - *culture conflict*; conflict of social attitudes and cultural norms is the basis for the concept of differential assoc. 5. *Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity* - social interactions of *lasting duration* = greater influence; *frequent* contacts = greater effect than rare and hap-hazard contacts; Sutherland didn't specify his meaning dor *priority*, but it has been assumed that the age of children when they first encounter definitions of criminality - *contact made early in life probably have a greater/more far-reaching influence*; *intensity* - importance and prestige attributed to the individual or groups from whom the definitions are learned 6. *The process of learning criminal behavior involves all of the mechanisms involved in any other learning process* - not a matter of mere imitation 7. *Criminal behavior is an expression of needs and values* - only the learning of deviant norms through contact w/ an excess of definitions favorable toward criminality that produces illegal behavior -According to Sutherland, individuals become law violators when they're in contact w/ people, groups, or events that produce an excess of definitions favorable toward criminality and are isolated from conteracting forces -Theory holds that people learn criminal attitudes and behavior while in their adolescence from close and trusted friends and/or relatives

-Foundations of Social Disorganization Theory -Transitional Neighborhoods -Concentric Zones

-*Foundations*: It was popular to view crime as the property of inferior racial and ethnic groups --*Shaw and McKay* began their analysis during a period when Chicago was experiencing a rapid pop. expansion -*Trans Neighb.*: Poverty ridden neighborhoods suffered high rates of pop. turnover, and were incapable of inducing ppl to stay and defend the neighborhood against criminals --Informal social control mechanisms that had restrained behavior in the "old country" or rural areas were disrupted, exposing neighborhood youth to the lure of criminal gangs and groups --Successive changes in the pop. composition, disintegration of trad. cultures, diffusion of divergent cult. stand. & gradual industrialization of the area = dissolution of neighorhood culture and org. -*Concentric Zones*: Shaw and McKay's identified distinct ecological areas, comprising a series of 5 concentric circles, or zones (excessive CR) --Stable and significant differences in interzone CR --Areas of heaviest concentration of crime = *transitional inner-city zones* --Transitional neighborhoods req'd children to choose btwn conventional and deviant lifestyles, many inner-city kids see the value in opting for the latter --Zone 1 & 2 (central city & transitional areas) = highest CR; areas retained high rates even when their ethnic composition changed

Lombroso's Contemporaries

-*Garofalo*: a lower degree of sensibility to phys. pain seems to be demonstrated by the readiness with which prisoners submit to the operation of tattooing -*Ferri*: added social dimension; criminals should not be held personally or morally responsible for their actions because forces outside their control caused criminality -*Inheritance School advocates (Goddard, Dugdale, Estabrook)*: traits deemed socially inferior could be passed down from generation to generation through inheritance (conflicting research exists that social factors were at play instead of biological) -*Somatotype (body build) School*: Sheldon identified 3 types of body builds: 1. Mesomorphs: well-developed muscles/athletic 2. Endomorphs: heavy builds & are slow moving 3. Ectomorphs: tall, thin, less social and more intellectual -Pure types = rare; most are a mix -*Dionysian temperament*: excess of mesomorphy w/ deficiency in ectomorphic restraint = impulsive and into self-gratification, that could produce crime

Intelligence and Crime

-*Intelligence*: a person's ability to reason, comprehend ideas, solve probs, think abstractly, understand complex ideas, learn from experience, and discover solutions to complex probs -*Nature Theory*: argues intelligence is largely determinned genetically and that low intelligence is linked to criminal behavior -IQ tests were believed to measure the inborn genetic makeup of individuals, and many criminologists accepted the idea that individuals w/ substandard IQs were predisposed toward delinquency & adult criminality -*Nurture Theory*: intelligence must be viewed as partly biological but primarily sociological -*IQ Controversy*: some question the IQ-crime link citing spurious data and inadequate research methodologies --*Hirschi & Hindelang* - low IQ increases the likelihood of criminal behavior (taken quite seriously) --*Hernstein & Murray* - IQ-crime link in book *"The Bell Curve"*

Neutralization Theory & Observations (4) & Techniques (5)

-*Matza & Skyes*: Views the process of becoming a criminal as a learning experience in which potential delinquents and criminals master techniques that enable them to counterbalance or neutralize conventional values and *drift* back and forth btwn illegitimate and conventional behavior -*Subterranean Values*: morally tinged influences that have become entrenched in the culture but are publicly condemned (e.g., viewing porn) -Based on these observations: 1. Criminals sometimes voice a sense of guilt 2. Offenders frequently respect & admire honest, law-abiding people 3. Criminals draw a line btwn those whom they can victimize & those whom they cannot 4. Criminals are not immune to the demand of conformity -Criminality is the result of the neutralization of accepted social values through the learning of a standard set of techniques that allow ppl to counteract the moral dilemmas posed by illegal behavior -Techniques of neutralization are a set of justifications for law-violating behavior 1. Deny Responsibility 2. Deny Injury 3. Deny the victim 4. Condemn condemners 5. Appeal to higher loyalties

Personality and Crime

-*Personality*: reasonably stable patterns of behavior, including thoughts and emotions, that distinguish one person from another -There is an association btwn the personality traits and repeat and chronic criminal offending -*Glueck's*: identified 16 personality traits that they believe characterize antisocial youth -*Eysenck*: believes that personality is controlled by genetic factors and is heritable; linked personality to crime when he identified 2 traits assoc. w/ antisocial behavior: 1) *Extroversion-Introversion* (extroverts= unaroused & seek sensation, lack ability to examone their own motives & behaviors) 2) *Stability-Instability* (instability = *"neuroticism"* = anxious, tense, & emotionally unstable) --Believes personality is controlled by genetic factors and is heritable -*Sadistic Personality Disorder*: repeating pattern of cruel and demeaning behavior; those suffering seem prone to engage in serious violent attacks

Quetelet and Durkheim

-*Quetelet* instigated the use of data and statistics in performing criminological research; challenged Lombrosian biological determinism --began the cartographic school of criminology: made use of social statistics --found a strong influence of age and sex on crime & uncovered evidence that season, climate, population composition, and poverty were related to criminality --found that CR were greatest in the summer, in southern areas, among heterogeneous populations, and among the poor and uneducated; influenced by drinking habits -*Durkheim*, considered one of the founders of sociology, defined crime as a normal and necessary social event --crime is part of human nature because it has existed during periods of both poverty and prosperity (due to heterogeneity of society) --as long as human differences exist, then, crime is inevitable and one of the fundamental conditions of social life --argued that crime can be useful and healthy for society --universal conformity would stifle creativity and independent thinking; *benefit of crime is that it calls attention to social ills* --Wrote *The Division of Labor in Society* - consequences of the shift from a small, rural society, which he labeled "mechanical," to the more modern "organic" society w/ a large urban population, division of labor & personal isolation; *anomie flowed from this shift* --research on suicide indicated that anomic societies maintain high suicide rates; by implication, anomie might cause other forms of deviance as well

Cultural Deviance Theories: Theory of Delinquent Subcultures (Albert Cohen's "Delinquent Boys" book)

-*Status Frustration*: Delinquent behavior of lower-class youths is actually a protest against the norms and values of middle-class US culture --As a result: many join together in gangs (criminal, conflict, retreatist) -Viewed the delinquent gang as a separate subculture, possessing a value system directly opposed to that of the larger society -Development of the delinquent subculture is a consequence of socialization practices found in the ghetto or inner-city environment; also lack proper education --Consequences of deprivation: developmental handicaps, poor speech and communication skills, and inability to delay gratification

Neurophysiological Conditions and Crime

-*The relationship between impairment in executive brain functions and aggressive behavior is significant* -An association btwn a neurological disorder and antoscial behavior may be either: 1. *Direct*: presence of brain abnormaility causes irrational and destructive behaviors 2. *Indirect*: possession of a neurological impairment leads to the devleopment of personality traits that are linked to antisocial behaviors 3. *Interactive*: Neurological deficits may interact w/ another trait or social condition to produce antisocial behaviors -Measuring neurological impairment- memorization and visual awareness tests, memory and verbal IQ tests and EEG -EEG: device that can record the electronic impulses given off by the brain, commonly called brain waves --*Studies show that it finds that violent criminals have far higher levels of abnormal EEG recordings than nonviolent or one-time offenders*

Socioeconomic Structure and Crime: The Underclass, Child Poverty, and Minority Group Poverty

-*UC*: Apathy, cynicism, helplessness, and mistrust of social insitutions such as schools, gov't agencies, and the police mark the culture of poverty --*Oscar Lewis coined the term underclass* --Lewis's work was the first of a group that described the plight of *at risk* children and adults -*Gunnar Myrdal* - described worldwide underclass that was cut off from society; members lacking education and skills needed to be effectively in demand in mod. society -*CP*: Poverty during early childhood may have a more severe impact than if experienced later in life --15 million youths in US live in fams w/ incomes below the poverty line --Less likely to achieve in school and to complete school; more likely to suffer from health probs and to recieve inadequate health care --# of homeless children in US has surged in recent years (1:30)--2.5 million children homeless -*MGP*: minority group probs are exacerbated by the lack of meaningful social effort to integrate communites --Latino and AA children are *more than 2x as likely* to be poor/living in poverty compared to Asian and white children --Median fam income of Hispanics and AAs is 2/3 that of whites --unemployment rate for blacks 2x that of whites --*Divergent Social Worlds book (Peterson & Krivo)* = among urban dwellers more than 2/3 of all whites, 1/2 of all AAs & 1/3 of Hispanics live in segregated local neighborhoods --Interracial differences in the CR could be significantly reduced by improving levels of educ., lowering levels of poverty, ending rac. segregation in housing and neighborhood makeup, and reducing the extent of male unemployment among minority pop.

Personality and Crime: Antisocial Personality

-A pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood -*Psychopath*: a product of an inherited genetic defect or aberration within themselves -*Sociopath*: a product of a destructive home environment -Best understood as a continuum rather than as discrete categories

Biological Positivism

-Abnormality in the human mind was being linked to criminal behavior patterns -Early research efforts shifted attention to *brain* functioning and personality as the keys to criminal behavior -*JK Lavater*: studied facial features of criminals to determine whether the shape of ears, nose, and eyes and the distance between them were assoc. w/ antisocial behavior -*Gall & Spurzheim*: studied shape of the skull and bumps on head -*Pinnel*: French psychiatry; some people behave abnormally even w/o being mentally ill; coined the phrase *manie sans delire/psychopathic personality* -*Rush*: described patients with an *"innate preternatural moral depravity"* -*Maudsley*: belived insanity and criminal behavior were strongly linked -*Freud*: worked on the unconscious and forever established the psychological basis of behavior

Concept of Anomie

-An anomic society is one where rules of behavior (values, customs, norms) have broken down -Anomie is more likely to occur in societies moving from mechanical to organic solidarity --*Mechanical*: preindustrial society; traditions, shared values, and unquestioned beliefs --*Organic*: postindustrial; connected by interdependent needs and division of labor -Anomie undermines society's social control function

Genetics and Crime

-Antisocial behavior characteristics and mental disorders may be genetically inherited (directly or indirectly) -Testing Genetic Theory: Parental criminality and deviance do in fact have a powerful influence on delinquent behavior --Sibling: if one sib engages in antisocial behavior, so do his/her brothers and sisters (effect greatest among same-sex sibs) --Twin: similarities btwn twins are due to genes, not the environment (MN Twin Family Study) ---Dispute: some that have found an assoc. note that it is at best "modest"; assoc. may be explained by environmental factors or possible *contagion effect* -Adoption Studies: Several studies indicate that some relationship exists btwn biological parents' behavior and the behavior of their children, even when their contact has been nonexistent -Evaluating Genetic Research --*Contagion Effect*: belief that the genetic predisposition and early experiences which make some people, including twins, susceptible to deviant behavior is transmitted by the presence of antisocial siblings in the household --Some critics suggest that available evidence provides little conclusive proof that crime is genetically predetermined --Newer, better-designed research studies, critics charge, provide less support than earlier, less methodically sound studies --*Burt & Simons*= social environment plays more critical role

Psychological Trait Theories

-Associations among intelligence, personality, learning, and criminal behavior -*Charles Goring ("English Convict")*: found little difference in the phys. charac. of criminals and noncriminals, but he uncovered a sign. relationship btwn crime and a conduction he referred to as *defective intelligence* -*Defective Intelligence*= traits like feeblemindedness, epilepsy, insanity & defective social instinct -*Gabriel Tarde*: believed ppl learn from one another through a process of imitation (sim. to social learning) -Different Focuses: 1) *Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Perspective*- focus on early childhood experience and its effect on personality 2) *Behaviorism*: stresses social learning and behavior modeling as the keys to criminality 3) *Cognitive Theory*: analyzes human perception and how it affects behavior

Social Learning Theory

-Assumes people are born good and learn to be bad (human interaction) -Crime is a product of learning the norms, values, and behaviors assoc. w/ criminal activity -People learn criminal attitudes and behavior while in their adolescence from close and trusted friends and/or relatives -*Differential Association Theory* -*Differential Reinforcement Theory* -*Neutralization Theory*

Personality and Crime: Research on Personality

-Attempts have been made to devise accurate measures of personality and determine whether they can predict antisocial behavior -*Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)* - one of the most widely use psych. test that has subscales designed to measure many diff personality traits, includ. psychopathic deviation, schizophrenia, and hypomania -*California Personality Inventory (CPI)* - frequently administered personality test used to distinguish deviant groups from nondeviant groups -*Multidimensional Personality Questionairre (MPQ)* - allows researchers to assess such personality traits as control, aggression, alienation, and well-being --Evalutations using this have shown that adolescent offenders who are crime prone maintain "neg. emotionality," a tendency to exp. aversive affective states, such as anger, anxiety & irritability; predisposed to weak personal constraints and have difficulty controlling impulsive behavior urges

Creating a Critical Criminology

-Became prominent during the 1960s 1. 1968: *National Deviancy Conference*: --Critical of the positivist view of crime --Called attention to the ways in which social control might actually cause deviance rather than just respond to antisocial behavior --Many members became concerned about the political nature of social control 2. 1973: Critical theory published *"The New Criminology"* --Criminologists began to view the justice system as a mechanism to control the lower class and maintain the status quo 3. *"Law, Order, and Power" (Chambliss/Seidman)* --Described how the control of the political and economic systems affect how criminal justice is administered 4. *"Social Reality of Crime" (Quinney)* --Law represents the interests of those who hold power in society --Power: the ability of persons and groups to determine and control the behavior of others and to shape public opinion to meet their personal needs -Crime is a function of power relations and an inevitable result of social conflict -Unequal distribution of power causes conflict *Because economic competitiveness is the essence of capitalism, conflict increases and eventually destablizies both social institutions and social groups*

Strain Theories

-Belief that most people share similar values and goals but the ability to achieve these personal goals is stratified by socioeconomic class -Sharp division between rich and poor creates an atmosphere of envy and mistrust that may lead to aggression and violence -Generalized feelings of *relative deprivation* are precursors to high CR (exists when ppl of wealth & poverty live in close proximity to one another) -Two formulations of strain theories: 1. *Structural Strain* - economic & social sources of strain shape collective human behavior 2. *Individual Strain* - individual life experiences cause some ppl to suffer pain and misery, feelings that are then translated into antisocial behaviors

Cesare Lombroso

-Biological Determinism -Attempted to scientifically determine whether law violators were physically different from people of conventional values and behavior -Believed that serious offenders were *"born criminals"* with a set of primitive traits (*atavistic anomalies*) -*Atavistic Anomalies*: the physical characteristics that distinguish born criminals from the general pop. and are throwbacks to animals or primitive ppl -Crime producing traits: enormous jaws and strong canine teeth which can be acquired through *indirect heredity* (from degenerate fam whose members suffered from such ills as insanity, syphilis, and alcoholism) OR *direct heredity* (being the offspring of criminal parents)

Public Policy Implications of Trait Theory

-Biological and psychological views of criminality have influenced crime control and prevention policy 1) *Primary prevention programs* - seek to treat personal probs before they manifest themselves as crimes 2) *Secondary prevention programs* - provide treatment such as psychological counseling to youths and adults who are at risk for law violation 3) *Tertiary prevention programs* - may be a requirement of a probation order, part of a diversionary sentence, or assoc. w/ aftercare following a prison sentence -Biologically oriented therapy is also being used in the CJ system; programs have altered diets, changed lighting, compensated for learning disabilties, treated allergies, etc. -Controversial: mood-altering chemicals to control behavior -Cog. Therapy: attempt to teach explosive ppl to control aggressive impulses -Evidence that positive outcomes can be achieved with the right combination of treatment modalities

Labeling Effects

-Children neg. labeled by their parents routinely suffer a variety of probs, including antisocial behavior and school failure -Empirical evidence supports the view that labeling plays a sign. role in persistent offending -Evidence that ppl who are involved w/ official labeling agencies such as the police are the ones most likely to engage in future deviant and criminal behaviors, esp. if they are the most vulnerable, at-risk adolescents -Those w/ weak social bonds and delinquent peers are the ones most likely to be affected by the neg. consequences of police contact

Socialization & Crime: Educational Experience

-Children who fail in school commit more serious and violent offenses and persist in their offending into adulthood -*Dropping Out*: Approx. 1.2 million students fail to graduate from Hs (don't like school or they wanted to get a job- pursue an adult lifestyle) --Risk factors: low academic achievement, poor prob-solving ability, low self-esteem, dissatisfaction w/ school, and being too old for their grade level --Almost *half* of all female dropouts left school bc they were *pregnant* or already gave birth --*Research* on the effect is a *mixed bag* --If there is a dropout effect it's bc those who leave school early already have a long history of poor school perform. and antisocial behaviors

Collective Efficacy 3 Forms: 1. Informal Social Control 2. Institutional Social Control 3. Public Social Control

-Cohesive communities with high levels of social control develop mutual trust and shared responsibilities (intervention in the supervision of children & maintenance of public order) 1. *Informal Social Control*: involve peers, families & relatives by rewarding or withholding approval, respect, trust, and admiration (include: direct criticism, ridicule, ostracism, desertion, phys. punishment) --*Most imp. wielder of inf. control = family*; greater imp. in neigh. w/ few social ties among adults & limited collective efficacy --Some form around the theme of comm. preserv. 2. *Institutional Social Control*: involves businesses, stores, schools, churches & social service & volunteer orgs. --Children are at risk for recruitment into gangs & law-violating groups when there is a lack of effective public services --When these institutions are effective, CR decline --Neighborhood youth orgs. & recreation centers for teens, have been found to lower CR bc they exert a pos. effect on both the ind. & institutional levels 3. *Public Social Control*: involve level of policing; community org. in low-income areas that are able to devleop ties w/ the larger comm. experience a decrease in crime --An effective police presence, cracking down on hot spots & strictly enforcing the law at a neigh. level, sends a message that the area will not tolerate dev. behavior --CR are highest in areas where police are mistrusted bc they engage in misconduct --Sign. assoc. btwn the amount of welfare $$ ppl recieve and lowered crime rates --Ppl living in disorg. areas may also be able to draw on resources from their neigh. in more affluent surrounding comms.

Cultural Deviance Theories -Conduct Norms -Focal Concerns

-Combines social disorganization and strain to explain how people living in deteriorated neighborhoods react to social isolation and economic deprivation -Subcultural norms often clash w/ conventional values -*Conduct Norms*: rules governing daily living conditions within *subcultures* (*Sellin's work "Culture Conflict and Crime"*) --Can be found in almost any culture and are not the property of any particular group, culture, or political structure --*Culture Conflict*: Occurs when rules expressed in the criminal law clash w/ the demands of group conduct norms -*Focal Concerns*: Unique value system that dominates lower-class culture (trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fate, and autonomy) (*Walter Miller's paper "Lower Class Culture as a Generating Milieu of Gang Delinquency"*) --Do not necessarily represent a rebellion against middle-class values; rather, these values have evolved specifically to fit conditions in lower-class areas --It is this adherence to the prevailing cultural demands of lower-class society that causes urban crime

Social Reaction Theory (Labeling Theory) Symbolic Interaction Theory

-Commonly called *labeling theory* -Explains how criminal careers form based on destructive social interactions and encounters -Assumes that, whether good or bad, people are controlled by reactions of others -Roots found in *symbolic interaction theory (Cooley/Mead/Blumer)*: ppl communicate via symbols (gestures, signs, words, or images that represent something else) -Symbols are used by others to let ppl know how well they're doing and whether they are liked or appreciated -These symbolic messages and their interpretation also determine how ppl view themselves--develop a self image -*Cooley*: presented his idea of the *"looking-glass self"*: an individual's view of self is formed by interpreting how others in society view him/her

Testing Differential Association Theory

-Correlation between having deviant friends, holding deviant attitudes, and committing deviant acts *Important findings*: 1. Crime appears to be intergenerational 2. More deviant an adolescent's social network and network of affiliations, the more likely that adolescent is to engage in antisocial behavior 3. Ppl who report having attitudes that support deviant behavior are also likely to engage in deviant behavior 4. Assoc. w/ deviant peers has been found to sustain the deviant attitudes 5. Influence of deviant friends is highly supportive of delinquency, regardless of race and/or class 6. Romantic partners who engage in antisocial activities may influence their partner's behavior, which suggest that partners learned from one another 7. Deviant peers keep kids in criminal careers 8. Ppl who engage in antisocial activities also perceive and believe that their best friends and close associates engage in antisocial activities too 9. Diff. Assoc. is multicultural -Esp. relevant in trying to explain the onset of substance abuse and a career in the drug trade

Social Reaction (Labeling) Theory: Defining Crime & Deviance

-Crime and deviance are defined by the social audience's reaction to ppl and their behavior and the subsequent effects of that reaction; they are not defined by the moral content of the illegal act itself -A crime exists only when an act is labeled a crime; a criminal is someone so label -Difference btwn an excusable act and a criminal one is often subject to change and modification -*Becker* refers to ppl who create rules as *moral entrepreneurs* -Labels help define a whole person, not just 1 trait -*Stigma* can harm and diminish both the public and private self

Evaluation of the Biosocial Branch of Trait Theory

-Critics find some theories racist and dysfunctional -Biological theory seems to divide ppl into criminals and noncriminals on the basis of genetic and physical makeup while ignoring self-report data -Supporters suggest behavior is a product of interacting biological and environmental events -Most significant criticism: lack of adequate empirical testing

Analysis of Differential Association Theory

-Despite criticisms, this theory provides a consistent explanation of all types of delinquent and criminal behavior -Not limited to the explanation of a single facet of antisocial activity -Theory can account for the extensive delinq. behavoir found even in middle- and upper-class areas -Appears to be flexible and able to explain current trends in crime and is not bound by those that existed when the theory was first created

Sociobiology

-Differs from earlier theories of behaior in that it stresses that biological and genetic conditions affect how social behaviors are learned and percieved--linked to existing environmental structures -Sociobiologists view the *gene* as the *ultimate unit of life* -People are controlled by the need to have their genetics survive and dominate others -Even when people come to the aid of others (*reciprocal altruism*), people are motivated by the belief that their actions will be reciprocated and their gene survival capability will be enhanced -*Biophobia*: view that no serious consideration should be given to biological factors when attempting to understand human nature -*Edmund Wilson* ("Sociobiology")- biological basis for crime reintroduced

Contemporary Trait Theories

-Each offender is unique, physically and mentally -Trait theorists focus on basic human behavior and drives such as aggression, violence, and the tendency to act on impulse -Environment, Traits, and Crime --Combination of phys. traits and the environment produces individual behavior patterns -Trait theorists do not suggest that a single biological or psychological attribute adequately explains all criminality

*The Social Ecology School* 1. Broken Windows/Comm. Deterioration 2. Poverty Concentration 3. Chronic Unemployment

-Emphasizes the association of community deterioration and economic decline to criminality (disorder, poverty, alienation, disassociation, fear of crime) but places less emphasis on the value and norm conflict (core of McKay and Shaw's vision) 1. Community Deterioration/*Broken Windows* (James Q. Wilson & Kelling): serious crime is the result of neighborhood disorder that creates fear in the minds of residents and reduces the comm's ability to exert social control --Process creates feedback loop: *disorder causes crime; crime causes further disorder* --Comm. deterioration, exhibited by unrepaired broken windows, serves as a magnet for crime bc it sends a message: deviant and disorderly behavior will be tolerated 2. Poverty Concentration (William Wilson): working- and middle-class fams flee inner-city areas, resulting in the most disadv. pop. being consolidated in the most disorg. urban neighborh. --Associated w/ income & wealth disparities, nonexistent employment opportunities, inferior housing patterns, and unequal access to health care 3. Chronic Unemployment: aggregate CR and aggregate unemployment rates seem weakly related: CR sometimes rise during periods of economic prosperity and fall during periods of economic decline --Chronic unemployment and resulting poverty may have a more sign. impact on conditions at the comm. or neigh. level --Conflict may also occur when ppl of the same age cohort compete for relatively scant resources --*Elijah Anderson* - old heads may admire the fruits of crime, but they disdain the violent manner in which they were acquired; displaced by younger street hustlers & drug dealers

General Strain Theory (GST) - Robert Agnew

-Explains why individuals who feel stress and strain are more likely to commit crimes; helps identify the social-psychological, individual-level influences that produce strain (individual phenomenon) -The greater the intensity and frequency of strain = greater their impact and the more likely they are to cause criminality; each type of strain will increase the likelihood of experiencing negative emotions -Individual strain episodes may serve as a situational event or trigger that produces crime -*Multiple Sources of Stress* --Criminality is the result of *negative affective states*--the anger, frustration, and adverse emotions that emerge in the wake of negative and destructive social relationships 1. *Failure to Achieve Positively Valued Goals* - lack financial and educational resources, assume goals are impssoble to achieve 2. *Failure to Achieve is Relative* - compare selves to others/peers 3. *Removal of Positively Valued Stimuli* - divorce, romantic breakup, loss of a friend who moves away & death of a loved one can all produce strain 4. *Effect of Removal of Positive Stimuli May be Class Bound* - lower classes may be able to take failure in stride whereas middle classes may be less able to cope 5. *Presentation of Negative Stimuli* - child abuse and neglect ; may develop into angry emotionality and subsequent antisocial behaviors

August Comte

-Father of sociology -Societies pass through stages that can be grouped on the basis of how people try to understand the whole in which they live --Final satge = *positive stage* (*birth of positivism*) -Postivism two main elements: 1) all true knowledge is acquired through direct observation & not through conjecture or belief 2) the scientific method must be used if research findings are to be considered valid -Positivism: people are a product of their social and psychological traits, influenced by their upbringing and environment

Social Disorganization Theory

-First popularized by *Shaw and McKay* -Focuses on the conditions within the urban environment that affect crime rates -Links crime rates to neighborhood ecological characteristics -There is constant pop. turnover; ppl aren't interested in investing in these communities -Normal sources of social control common to most neighb. become ineffective, weak & disorg. -Any attempt at comm-level prob solving ends in frustration *Gang Formation* -Because social institutions are frayed or absent law-violating youth groups and gangs form -Both boys and girls who feel detached and alienated from their social world are at risk to become gang members

Cognitive Theory (*Wundt, Titchener, James*) -Social Info Processing -Shaping Perceptions -Moral Development -Humanistic Psych

-Focus on mental processes and how ppl perceive and mentally represent the world around them and solve probs -*Social Info Processing*: focuses on the way ppl process, store, encode, retrieve, and manipulate info to make decisions and solve probs --*crime-prone ppl may have cog. deficits and use info incorrectly when they make decisions* --*some may be sensation seekers who are constantly looking for novel experiences, whereas others lack deliberation & rarely think through probs* -*Shaping Perceptions*: skewed or faulty cognitive processes may be the result of mental scripts learned in childhood --there is evidence that delinq. boys who engage in theft are more likley to exhibit cog. deficits than non-delinq. youth -*Moral Development*: concerned w/ the way ppl morally represent and reason about the world (*Jean Piaget founder*) --people who obey the law simply to avoid punishment or have outlooks mainly characterized by self-interest are more likely to commit crimes --*Kohlberg*: criminals were found to be signif. lower in moral judgement devleopment than noncriminals of the same social background -*Humanistic Psychology*: stresses self-awareness & "getting in touch w/ feelings"

Historical Development of Critical Criminology: *Productive Forces & Production Relations*

-Marx identified the economic structures in society that control all human relations -*Productive Forces*: technology, energy sources, and material resources -*Productive Relations*: the relationship that exist among the ppl producing goods and services -Marx proposed the notion that unequal distribution of power and wealth produce crime -Crime develops as a result of social conflict

Evaluating GST

-Generally does well at explaining crime -Fails to adequately explain gender differences -Researchers have continued to show that ppl who perceive strain are the ones most likely to engage in delinquent activity

Branches of Social Conflict Theory

-Globalization -Forms of Critical Theory: Left Realism, Critical Feminism, Power-Control Theory, Peacemaking Criminology & Restorative Justice -Struture Theory & Instrumental Theory -Roots: Social and political unrest, Race, class, and gender discrimination, Exploitation of the working class

Supporting Research for Social Bond Theory

-Hirschi's research has been corroborated by numerous studies showing that delinquent youth often feel detached from society -Strong pos. attachments help control delinquency -Cross-national surveys have also supported the general findings of Hirschi's control theory -The weight of existing empirical evidence supports control theory

Elements of Psychodynamic Theory (3-Part Structure of the Human Personality)

-Human personality contains a three part structure: 1) ID: primitive part of an individual's mental makeup present at birth (pleasure principle) 2) Ego: develops early in life, when a child begins to lean that his/her wishes cannot be instantly gratified (reality principle) 3) Superego: develops as a result of incorporating w/in the personality the moral standards and values of parents, comm, and sign. others; *moral aspect of an individual's personality* (conscience and ego ideal)

Institutional Anomie Theory: Impact of Anomie & Institutional Effects

-Impact: According to Messner & Rosenfeld, anomie pervades American culture bc capitalist culture promotes intense pressures for economic success --People are so interested in making $$ that their behavior cannot be controlled by the needs of family or the restraints of morality -Effects: The dominance of economic concerns weakens informal social control exerted by the family, church, and school, reasons: 1. Noneconomic functions and roles have been devalued 2. When conflicts emerge, noneconomic roles become subordinate to and must accomodate economic roles 3. Economic language, standards, and norms penetrate into noneconomic realms

The Effect of Collective Efficacy

-In areas where collective efficacy is high, children are less likely to become involved with deviant peers and engage in problem behaviors -When residents are satisfied that their neighborhoods are good places to live, they feel a sense of obligation to maintain order; areas where social institutions & processes are working adequately, residents are willing to intervene personally to help control unruly children and uncivil adults

Social Reaction (Labeling) Theory: Labeling Effects and Consequences -*Reflected Appraisals* -Labeling & Deviance -Joining Deviant Cliques -Damaged Identity -Retrospective Reading -Dramatization of Evil

-Kids who perceive that they have been negatively labeled by sign. others are at risk of adopting a deviant self-concept; court intervention increases likelihood of future criminality -Labeling not a one way street: what some ppl are quick to reject, others are willing to defend -*Reflected Appraisals*: When parents are alienated from their children, their neg. labeling reduces their children's self-image and increases delinquency 1. *Labeling and Deviance* - Depending on the visibility of the label & the manner and severity with which it is applied, a person will have an increasing commitment to a deviant career; Devalued status from an officer or judge during the self-stigma process the neg. label may cause permanent harm; Labels conferred early in life can have lifelong conseq. 2. *Joining Deviant Cliques* - The desire to join may stem from a self-rejecting attitude, which eventually results in a weakened commitment to conventional values and behaviors; Membership in a deviant subculture often involves conforming to group norms that conflict w/ those of conventional society 3. *Damaged Identity* - Hard to shake; Provokes some ppl into repeating their antisocial behaviors, creating new labels and amplifying old ones; Although labels may not have caused them to initiate antisocial behaviors, once applied, they increase the likelihood of persistent offending 4. *Retrospective Reading* - Reassessment of a person's past to fit a current generalized label; Not unusual for the media to lead the way 5. *Dramatization of Evil* - Labels become the basis for personal identity; As the neg. feedback of law enforcement agencies, parents, friends, teachers, and other figures amplifies the force of the orig. label, stigmatized offenders may begin to reevaluate their own identities; The person becomes the thing he's described as being

Research on Social Reaction Theory

-Labels are not equally distributed across class and racial lines -Empirical evidence suggests that neg. labels have a dramatic influence on the self-image of offenders -Those who criticize it point to its inability to specify the conditions that must exist before an act or individual is labeled deviant

Foundations of Trait Theory

-Late 19th century: scientific method took hold in Europe rather than relying on pure thought and reason, scientists began to use careful observation and analysis of natural phenomenon -Movement inspired new discoveries in biology, astronomy & chemistry (ex: Charles Darwin and evolution of man) -August Comte = father of sociology

Hirschi's Social Bond Theory & Its Elements

-Links the onset of criminality to the weakening of the ties that bind people to society -All individuals are potential law violators, but they are kept under control bc they fear that illegal behavior will damage their relationships with friends, parents, neighbors, teachers & employers -In all elements of society ppl vary in how they respond to conventional social rules and values; ppl whose bond to society is weak may fall prey to criminogenic behavior patterns -Elements of *Social Bond* 1. *Attachment* - w/o a sense of attachment, psychs. believe a person becomes a psychopath; a person who doesn't form strong attachments to others will be less likely to internalize or recognize the imp. of these social boundaries and more likely to engage in risky behaviors; parents, peers & schools as the imp. social institutions (*attachment to parents is the most important*) 2. *Commitment* - represents a person's willingness to accept and observe social norms; if ppl build a strong commitment to conventional society, they will be less likely to engage in acts that will jeopardize their hard-won position 3. *Involvement* - heavy involvement in conventional activities leaves little time for illegal behavior 4. *Belief* - common moral beliefs shared btwn people who live in same social setting; if these beliefs are absent or weakened, individuals are more likely to participate in antisocial or illegal acts

The Legacy of Biological Criminology

-Lombrosso and his contemporaries' work is regarded today as a historical curiousity, not scientific fact -Today, criminologists believe that environmental conditions interact w/ human traits and conditions to influence behavior -The term biosocial theory has been coined to reflect the assumed link between physical and mental traits, the social environment, and behavior

Social Control Theory

-Maintains that all people have the potential to violate the law and that modern society presens many opportunities for illegal activity -Ppl obey the law bc behavior and passions are being controlled by internal and external forces (*commitment to conformity*) -Ppl's behavior, including criminal activity, is controlled by their attachment and commitment to conventional institutions, individuals, and processes -Assumes people are born bad and must be controlled in order to be good

Behavioral Theory (Social Learning Theory)

-Maintains that human actions are devleoped through learning experiences -Theorists concerned w/ the actual behaviors people engage in during the course of their daily lives; views crimes, esp. violent crimes, as learned responses to life situations -*Social Learning Theory* (*Bandura*): people are not actually born w/ the ability to act violently, but that they learn to be aggressive through their life experiences --Branch of behavior theory *most relevant* to criminology -*Social Learning and Violence*: aggression is learned through *behavior modeling* of family interaction, environmental experiences, and mass media -4 Factors that may contribute to violent/aggressive behavior: 1)An event that heightens arousal 2)Aggressive skills 3)Expected outcomes 4)Consistency of behavior with values

Social Structure Theories

-Maintains that the social and economic forces operating in deteriorated lower-class areas are the key determinants of criminal behavior patterns -Social forces begin to affect ppl while they're relatively young and continue to influence them throughout the life course; those exposed to the incivity present in deteriorated inner-city neighb. are ones most likely to persist -Because CR are higher in poor urban centers than in middle-class suburbs, social forces must be operating in these blighted inner-city areas that influence or control behavior

Public Policy Implications of Social Process Theory

-Major influence on social policy-making since 1950s -Resulting programs: 1. Head Start programs - improve basic skills and create an atmosphere in which youths will devleop a bond to their schools 2. *Diversion* programs - programs of rehabilitation that remove offenders from the normal channels of the CJ system, thus avoiding the stigma of a criminal label 3. Restitution - offender is asked to either pay back the victim of the crime for any loss incurred or do some useful work in the comm. in order to avoid formal trial -There are efforts to reduce labeling and stigma if someone has been charged, convicted, and even sent to prison -Stigma-reducing programs have *not* met w/ great success -Programs usually screen out violent and repeat offenders -Little hard evidence that the recidivism rate of ppl placed in alt. programs is less than that of ppl sent to trad. programs

Social Control Theory: Self-Concept & Crime Containment Theory

-Maladaptive social relations produced weak self-concept and poor self-esteem, rendering kids at risk to crime -*Albert Reiss*: described how delinquents had weak egos -*Briar/Piliavin*: youths who believe criminal activity will damage their self-image and their relationships w/ others will be most likely to conform to social rules -*Containment Theory (Reckless)*: a strong self-image insulates a youth from the pressures and pulls of criminogenic influences in the environment -*Hirschi "Causes of Delinquency"* remains the dominant version of the theory

Evaluation of Anomie Theory

-Merton's view has been one of the most enduring and influential sociological theories of criminality -By linking deviant behavior to the success goals that control social behavior, anomie theory attempts to pinpoint the cause of the conflict that produces personal frustration and consequent criminality -Still unanswered questions/Criticisms: 1. Merton doesn't explain why people choose to commit certain types of crime 2. Cannot explain why most young criminals desist from crime as adults 3. People pursue a # of different goals; achieving these goals is not a matter of social class alone 4. Anomie theory assumes that all ppl share the same goal and values = false

Mental Disorders and Crime

-Mood Disorders and Crime --*Disruptive Behavior Disorder 2 Forms:* 1) *ODD (Oppositional Defiant Disorder)* - ongoing pattern of uncooperative, defiant & hostile behavior toward authority figures that seriously intereferes w/ the youngsters day-to-day functioning; may abuse drugs as a form of self-medication 2) *CD* - repetitive and persistent patterns of behavior in which the rights of others or basic social rules are disrupted (involve aggressive behavior); viewed as severely antisocial by others 3) *Alexithymia* - deficit in emotional cognition that prevents them from being aware of their feelings or being able to understand or talk about their thoughts and emotions -All associated with antisocial behavior ^^^^^ -Psychosis and Crime --*Psychosis*: extreme impairment of a person's ability to think clearly, respond emotionally, communicate effectively, understand reality, and behave appropriately ---may hear nonexistent voices, hallucinate, make inappropriate behavioral responses -Psychosis brought about by various mental disorders: schizophrenia, depression, manic depression & bipolar disorder -Assoc. btwn mental health issues and crime crosses gender, age, and cultural lines -Direct or Indirect Linkage: still uncertain --Despite this evidence, there are still questions about whether mental disorder is a direct cause of crime and violence

Psychosexual Stages of Human Development (Freud)

-Most basic human drive present at birth is *eros*: instinct to preserve and create life; *thanatos*: death instinct (aggression) -According to Freud, the roots of adult behavioral problems can be traced to problems developed during the *oral*, *anal*, and *phallic stages* of development 1) *Oral*: first year of life, a child attains pleasure by sucking and biting 2) *Anal*: second & thirds years of life, focus of sexual attn is on the elimination of bodily wastes 3) *Phallic*: third year of life, when children focus their attn on their genitals --Males begin to have sexual feelings for their mothers (*Oedipus complex*) and girls for their fathers (*Electra complex*) -If conflicts are encountered during any of the psychosexual stages of devleopment, a person can become *fixated* at that point

Socialization & Crime: Religion and Belief

-Mounting evidence about the important role religion plays -Association btwn religious attendance and belief and delinq. behavior patterns is negligible & insign. (*Hirschi & Stark*) -Numerous research efforts to review this, most have found that *maintaining religious beliefs and attending religious services significantly helps reduce crime* *Richard Petts* -Whether they reside in single-parent or two-parent fams, kids who are involved in religion are less likely to engage in delinq. -Religious participation helps reduce deviant behavior involvement throughout the life course, from adolescence until marriage

Psychodynamic Theory

-Originated by Sigmund Freud -A broad range of theories that focus on the influence of instinctive drives and forces and the importance of developmental processes in shaping personality -Contemporary Psychodynamic Theory: places greater emphasis on conscious experience and its interaction w/ the unconscious and the role of social factors play in development

Socialization and Crime -Family Relations -Social Process Approach

-People are influenced by interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes of society such as education, employment, and family life and peer relations -*Family Relations*: Parenting factors, such as the ability to communicate and to provide proper discipline, may play a critical role in determining whether ppl misbehave as children and even later as adults --Evidence that parenting factors may play a critical role in determining whether people misbehave as children and later as adults --Even those children living in high-crime areas will be better able to resist the temptations of the streets if they recieve fair discipline, care, and support from parents -Anyone with a positive self-image; learned moral values; support of their parents, peers, teachers, and neighbors can resist inducement to crime -*Social Process Approach*: An individual's socialization determines the likelihood of criminality 1. *Social Learning Theory* 2. *Social Control Theory* 3. *Social Reaction Theory*

Socioeconomic Structure and Crime

-People in US live in a *stratified society* (status-based hierarchy based on wealth, power, prestige) -It is common to identify ppl as upper, middle & lower-class citizens -Lower class areas are scenes of inadequate housing and healthcare, disrupted family lives, underemployment, and despair -The poor are members of a society that extols material success above any other, they are unable to satisfactorily compete for such success w/ members of the upper classes (46 million Americans living in poverty)

Arousal Theory

-People who have a high arousal level seek powerful stimuli in their environment ro maintain an optimal level of arousal; stimuli are often assoc. w/ violence and aggression -For a variety of genetic and environmental reasons, some people's brains function differently in response to environmental stimuli -Factors determining a person's level of arousal: 1) Brain Chemistry - some ppl have brains w/ many more nerve cells w/ receptor sites for neurotransmitters than others 2) Heart Rate - ppl with *low* HR more likely to commit crime bc they seek stimulation to increase their feelings of arousal to normal levels 3) Autonomic Nervous System - ppl w/ abnormally exaggerated skin conductivity may react w/ above avg. neg. emotional intensity to stimulus that would have little effect on the avg. person

Coping with Strain

-Ppl who are impulsive and lack attachments to others are less able to cope than those who are bonded to others and maintain higher levels of self-control -Some defenses are cognitive, others seek behavioral solutions, others will try to regain emotional equilibrium w/ techniques ranging from phys. exercise to drug abuse -*Strain and Criminal Careers*: GST recognizes that people with explosive tempers, overly sensitive or emotional, laow tolerance for adversity, and poor problem-solving skills are more crime prone --Criminality can provide relief and satisfaction for someone living an otherwise stress-filled life

Testing Neutralization Theory

-Recent evidence shows that ppl *do* drift in and out of antisocial behavior -Also been used to explain the onset of white-collar crime -Is a major contribution to the literature of crime and delinquency bc it *explains aging-out and non-chronic delinquency*

Socialization & Crime: Peer Relations

-Relationship is unclear -Peer influence on crim. behavior appears to be a universal norm; peer effect follow ppl over the life course -The more antisocial the peer group, the more likely its members will engage in delinquency -Kids involved in delinq are 5x more likely than nonoffenders to associate w/ delinq. peers -*May be more important than parental nurturance* in the development of long-term behavior -Some debate over the path of the relationship: 1. Delinq. friends cause law-abiding youth to get in trouble 2. Antisocial youths seek out & join up w/ like-minded friends; deviant peers sustain & amplify delinq. careers 3. Antisocial friends help youths maintain delinq. careers & obstruct the aging-out process 4. Troubled kids choose delinq. peers out of necessity rather than desire 5. Most at-risk kids may choose older peers; choices may backfire when their more mature companions enmesh them in a deviant subculture; Amplify the likelihood of a troubled kid getting further involved in antisocial behaviors; loyalty of delinq. peers may outweigh the fear of punishment 6. What appears to be a peer effect on crime is in reality an ecological one

The Psychodynamics of Antisocial Behavior -Inferiority Complex -Identity Crises -Latent Delinquency -Conduct Disorder -Bipolar Disorder

-Several psychodynamic results can lead to criminal behavior, such as *inferiority complexes*, *identity crises*, and a host of *disorders*, such as *conduct disorders* -*Inferiority Complex (Adler)* - describe ppl who have feelings of inferiority and compensate for them w/ a drive for superiority -*Identity Crises (Erikson)* - a period of serious personal questioning ppl undertake in an effort to determine their own values and sense of direction -*Latent Delinquency (Aichorn)* - mental state found in youngsters whose personality requires them to act in these ways: 1) seek immediate gratification (act impulsively) 2) consider satisfying their personal needs more important than relating to others 3) satisfy instinctive urges w/o considering right and wrong (lack guilt) -*Conduct Disorder* - long histories of antisocial behavior, or mood disorders characterized by disturbance in expressed emotions -*Bipolar Disorder*: moods alternate between periods of wild elation and deep depression -Crime is a manifestation of feelings of oppression and people's inability to develop the proper psychological defenses and rationales to keep these feelings under control

Legacy of Shaw and McKay

-Social Disorganization concepts have remained a prominent fixture of criminological scholarship -*Most important elements of their findings:* 1. CR are sensitive to the destructive social forces operating in lower-class urban neighb. 2. Environ. factors, rather than ind. differences, are the root cause of crime 3. Crime = constant fixture in distressed areas regardless of racial or ethnic makeup 4. Neighb. disorg. weakens formal & informal social control, the primary cause of crim. behavior 5. Comm. values, norms & cohesiveness affect individual behavior choices -Introduced the new variable, *ecology of the city*, to the study of crime; paving the way for a focus on the social influences of crim. & delinq. behavior

Public Policy Implications of Social Structure Theory

-Social structure theory has a significant influence on social/public policy -Provide direct financial aid through welfare programs that assist needy families = CR decrease when fams recieve supplemental income -Improve the comm. structure in high-crime inner-city areas (traced back to Clifford Shaw's Chicago Area Project) -Social structure concepts critical ingredient in Kennedy and Johnson admin's *War on Poverty* & a gov't funded program *Weed and Seed* -Comm. that Care (CTC) model: nat'l prog. that emphasizes the reduction of risk factors and the enhancement of protective factors against crime & delinquency (ex: Project COPE) --COPE: first focused on substance abuse prevention in youth, the coalition expanded its intiatives to include the prevention of fatal and nonfatal opiate overdoses, teen suicide, teen pregnancy, bullying & violence, and obesity -Community Policing (Broken Windows): holds that police admins would be well advised to deploy their forces where they can encourage public confidence, strengthen feelings of safety, and elicit cooperation from citizens --Emphasizes sharing power w/ local groups and indiv. --Key element: citizens must actively participate w/ police to fight crime --Agencies have tried to decentralize; prob solving is best done at the neighborhood-level where issues originate

Evolutionary Theory Rushton's Theory of Race and Evolution R/K Selection Theory Cheater Theory Violence & Evolution Gender & Evolution

-Some believe that human traits that produce violence and aggression are produced through the long process of human evolution -*Rushton's Theory of Race and Evolution*: evolution explains racial differences in crime (accused of racial bias & singular focus on street crimes) - *"Race, Evolution, and Behavior"* --Said there was evidence that modern humans evolved in Africa --As they evolved into present day Asians/Europeans, their *brain mass increased* & they developed *slower rates of maturation and lower levels of sex hormones* ---*Phys. change produced reductions in sexual potency and aggression & increases in family stability and longevity = these evolutionary changes are responsible for present-day crime rate differences btwn races* -*R/K Selection Theory*: criminal behavior is explained by approaches to sexual reproductivity --Those along the *"R"* reproduce rapidly whenever they can and invest little in their offspring (males; violent crime committers) --Those along the *"K"* reproduce slowly and cautiously and take care in raising their offspring (females) -*Cheater*: some men have evolved w/ genes that incline them toward extremely low parental involvement -*Violence*: violent offenses are often driven by evolutionary and reproductive factors (*Daly & Wilson's book "Homicide"*) --high rates of spouse abuse may be a function of aggressive men seeking to control and possess mates --violent episodes common among men who are unemployed & unmarried (want to show their phys. prowess & display resources w/ which to conquer rivals & attract mates) -*Gender*: linked to gender-based differences in the CR --most aggressive males have strong sexual drive, a reduced ability to form strong emotional bonds, a lack of conscience, and aggressive and violent tendencies --antisocial men produce many offspring, who are prone to criminal behaviors

Opposing Views to Social Bond Theory (6)

-Some findings question the following social bonds: 1. *Friendship* - some delinquents may be "lone wolves"; friendship patterns seem quite close to those of conventional youth; rebuttal: what appears to be a close friendship is really a relationship of convenience suiting their crim. activities 2. *Not all elements of the bond are equal* - as kids get involved in behaviors outside the home, it's possible that parental control weakens, and youths have greater opp. to commit crime 3. *Deviant Involvement* - adolescents who report high levels of involvement, actually report high levels of criminal behavior 4. *Deviant peers and parents* - attachment to deviant fam members, peers, and associates may help motivate youths to commit crime and facilitate their antisocial acts 5. *Restricted in scope* - control variables seem better able to explain minor delinquency than more serious criminal acts and associations; variables are more predictive of female behavior 6. *Crime and social bonds* - inverse relationship: youth who break the law find that social bonds become weak bc of their crimes

Personality and Crime (Trait Theories): Cause of Antisocial Personality Disorder

-Still disagreement -Some focus on family experiences -Another view is that antisocial personality disorder is passed down genetically and inherited -May be a link btwn psychopathy and autonomic nervous system (ANS) dysfunction --Psychopaths' reduced anxiety levels result in behavior that are more impulsive and inappropriate and in deviant behavior, apprehension, and incarceration -Another view is that psychopathy is related to abnormal brain structures --*James Blair*: amygdala dysfunction gives rise to impairments in aversive conditioning, instrumental learning, and the processing of fearful and sad expressions

Attachment Theory (John Bowlby)

-The ability to bond to other ppl has important lasting psychological implications across the life span -Failing to develop proper attachment may cause people to fall prey to a number of psychological disorders -Bowlby's most important finding: to grow up mentally healthy "the infant and young child should experience a warm, intimate, and continuous relationship w/ his *mother* in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment

Who Gets Labeled? Differential Enforcement

-The law is differentially applied, benefiting those who hold economic and social power and penalizing the powerless -Police more likely to arrest lower class minority males -Minorities and the poor are more likely to be prosecuted and to receive harsher sentences (e.g., war on drugs) -Personal characteristics & social interactions are more imp. variables in developing criminal identities than merely violating the law

The Chicago School and Beyond

-The primacy of sociological positivism as the intellectual basis of criminology was secured by research begun in the early 20th century by *Albion Small* -Scholars concluded that social forces operating in urban areas create "natural areas" for crime and that crime and social ecological conditions were linked (*Robert Park, Ernest Burgess, Roderic McKenzie found that some neighborhoods form these natural areas of weath and affluence, while others suffered poverty and disintegration*) -School's sociologists supported the view that neighborhood conditions, and not individual pathology, were the key influence on behavior and in so doing shaped the direction of crime rates; writings became the core of sociological criminology

Historical Development of Critical Criminology

-The roots of critical criminology can be traced to the social philosopher *Karl Marx* (1818-1883) -Marx identified the economic structures in society that control all human relations -Marx's *Communist Manifesto* (1848) 1. Oppressive labor conditions prevalent during the rise of industrial capitalism 2. Dehumanized workers 3. Human relations controlled by economic structures -Most important relations in industrial culture between: --*Capitalist Bourgeoisie*: owners of production --*Proletariat*: ppl who do the actual work --*Lumpen Proletariat*: bottom of society, the fringe members, who produce nothing and live off the work of others *capitalist society is subject to the development of a rigid class structure w/ the capitalist bourgeoisie at the top* -Capitalist business cycle creates social conflicts containing the seeds of its own destruction, from its ashes would grow a socialist state -Marx used the *dialectic method* (Hegel) arguing that for every idea (*thesis*), there exists an opposing argument (*antithesis*); since neither position can ever be truly accepted, the result is a merger of the two ideas (*synthesis*) --*When conditions are bad enough, the oppressed will rise up to fight the owners and eventually replace them, thus, in the end, the capitalist system will destroy itself*

Evaluating Social Structure Theories

-The social structure approach has significantly influenced both criminological theory and crime-prevention strategies -Very well supported by research, generally -However, most members of the lower class are not criminals: law violators must be motivated by some indiv. mental, phys., or social process or trait -A "lower-class culture" may not even exist: researchers found that gang members and other delinq. youths seem to value middle-class concepts

Evaluating Social Process Theories

-The three branches are compatible bc they suggest that criminal behavior is part of the socialization process -Seems to be little question that social interactions shape the behavior, beliefs, values, and self-image of the offender -The major strength of the social process view is the vast body of empirical data showing that delinquents and criminals are ppl who grew up in dysfunctional fams, who had troubled childhoods, and who failed at school, at work, and in marriage -These theories do not always account for the patterns and fluctuations in the crime rate

Critical Criminologists & Contemporary Critical Criminologists

-The view of crime as a function of social conflict and economic rivalry between the have and have-nots -View crime as a function of the capitalist mode of production and not the social conflict that might occur in any society regardless of its economic system -Believe law is an instrument of power -Real "true" crimes: acts of racism, sexism, imperialism, unsafe working conditions, inadeq. child care, substandard housing, pollution of the environment, and war-making as a tool of foreign policy *Contemporary* -View that capitalism produces haves and have-nots, each engaging in a particular branch of criminality; mode of prod. shapes social life; economic competitiveness is the essence of capitalism, conflict increases and eventually destablilizes social instits. and the indvs. w/in them -Explain crime within economic and social contexts and to express the connections among social class, crime, and social control -Concerned with: 1. Role government plays in creating a crime-producing environ. 2. Relationship btwn personal/group power and the shaping of criminal law 3. Prevalence of bias in justice sys. operations 4. The relationship btwn a capitalist, free-enterprise economy and crime rates

Are Learning Theories Valid?

-Theorists fail to account for the origin of criminal definitions -Theories fail to adequately explain spontaneous and wanton acts of violence and damage and other expressive crimes that appear to have little utility or purpose -Little evidence to substantiate that ppl learn the techniques that enable them to become criminals before they actually commit criminal acts -Are not limited to explanation of a single facet of antisocial activity -May be used to explain criminality across all class structures, including white-collar offenders

Relative Deprivation Theory (RDT)

-There is ample evidence that neighborhood-level income inequality is a significant predictor of neighborhood crime rates -Sharp divisions between the rich and the poor create an atmosphere of envy and mistrust -Generalized feelings of *relative deprivation* are precursors to high CR (exists when ppl of wealth & poverty live in close proximity to one another) -Under these circumstances young males will begin to fear and envy "winners," which may lead to criminal behavior -Research studies using nat. data sets do show a strong positive assoc. btwn income inequality and violent crime -Felt most acutely by AA youths -*Blaus' view*: lower-class ppl may feel both deprived and embittered when they compare their life circumstances to those of the more affluent

Testing Differential Reinforcement

-Those who believed they would be rewarded for deviance by those they respect were the ones most likely to engage in deviance -The learning-deviant behavior link is not static (showing little change) -Considers how the content of socialization conditions crime -Concurs w/ research that demonstrates that parental deviance is related to adolescent antisocial behavior -Fits well w/ rational choice theory bc they both suggest that people learn the techniques and attitudes necessary to commit crime

Is Labeling Theory Valid?

-Those who criticize it point to its inability to specify the conditions that must exist before an act or individual is labeled deviant (labeling often comes after, rather than before, chronic offending) -Sign. research showing that ppl who suffer official labels are prone to a delinq. and criminal way of life -Labeling process creates a new damaged identity for the individual that places them in the company of other damaged ppl -Supporting evidence/features that are imp. contributions to the study of criminality includes: 1. Identifies the role played by social control agents in the process of crime causation 2. Recognizes that criminality is not a disease or pathological behavior 3. Distinguishes btwn criminal acts and criminal careers and shows that these concepts are interrelated and treated differently -Supported by research showing that convicted criminals who are placed in treatment programs aimed at reconfiguring their self-image may be able to develop revamped identities and desist from crime ("redemption rituals")

Trait Theories: Individual Vulnerability Model VS Differential Susceptibility Model

-Trait theorists today recognize that crime-producing interactions involve both personal traits & environmental factors -*Individual Vulnerability Model*: assumes there is a direct link btwn traits and crime; some ppl are vulnerable to crime from birth -*Differential Susceptibility Model*: belief that there is an indirect association btwn traits and crime; some ppl possess phys. or mental traits that make them vulnerable to adverse environmental influences -While a positive environment provides benefits, unfortunately those ppl whose genetic makeup makes them predisposed to violence manifest more aggression when their surroundings become troubled -Contemporary Trait Theories divided into 2 subdivisions: 1) Psychological functioning 2) Biological (biosocial) makeup

Robert Merton's Theory of Anomie

-Two culture elements interact to produce anomic conditions: 1. *Culturally Defined Goals*: acq. wealth, success & power 2. *Socially Approved Means of Obtaining Them*: hard work, education & thrift -*Social Adaptations*: Each person has a concept of the goals of society and how to attain them: 1. *Conformity*: embrace conventional social goals and also have the means of attainment at their disposal 2. *Innovation*: accepts the goals of society but rejects or is incapable of attaining them through legitimate means (*most closely assoc. w/ criminal behavior) 3. *Ritualism*: gained the tools to accumulate wealth but reject established cultural goals of contemp. society; should have the lowest level of crim. behavior bc they have abandoned the success goal, which is at the root of criminal activity 4. *Retreatism*: reject both the goals and the means of society; they attempt to escape their lack of success by withdrawing either mentally or physically 5. *Rebellion*: substituting an alt. set of goals and means for conventional ones; may be a reaction against a corrupt and hated gov't

Historical Development of Critical Criminology: *Marxist Vision on Crime*

-Viewed crime as the product of law enforcement policies akin to a labeling process theory -Identified a connection btwn criminality and the inequities found in the capitalist system -*Friedrich Engels ("Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844")*: portrayed crime as a function of social demoralization; workers are social outcasts, ignored by the structure of capitalist society and treated as brutes --Working ppl commit crime bc their choice is a slow death of starvation or a speedy one at the hands of the law

Institutional Anomie Theory (IAT)

-Views antisocial behavior as a function of cultural and institutional influence in US society (*Crime and the American Dream* (Messner & Rosenfeld)) -Anomic conditions occur bc the desire to succeed at any cost drives people apart, weakens the collective sense of community -Those who cannot succeed become willing to risk everything, includ. prison sentence -"Culture of Competition" = self-interest prevails and generates amorality, acceptance of inequality, and disdain for the less fortunate -Capitalist culture "exerts pressures toward crime by encouraging an anomic cultural environment, an environment in which ppl are encouraged to adopt an 'anything goes' mentality in the pursuit of personal goals... the anomic pressures inherent in the American Dream are nourished and sustained by an institutional balance of power dominated by the economy"

Testing Social Bond Theory

-Youth strongly attached to their parents are less likely to commit crimes (*attachment*) -Holding positive beliefs (i.e., religious beliefs) is inversely related to criminality (*belief*) -Youth who are committed to school and educational achievement are less likely to become delinquent (*commitment*) -Youth involved in conventional activities behaved in conventional ways, conversely those who behaved in unconventional behavior were likely to be delinquent (*involvement*)

Branches of Social Structure Theory (3)

1. *Social Disorganization Theory* - focuses on the conditions w/in the urban environment that affect crime rates (social control has broken down) --Indicators of disorg: high unemployment, school dropout rates, deteriorated housing, low-income levels & large numbers of single-parent households (experience conflict & despair = antisocial behavior flourishes) 2. *Strain Theory* - crime is a function of the conflict between goals ppl have and their means to legally obtain them --Strain: felt by underclass; feelings of anger, frustration & resentment --Choose alternative/illegal means to obtain success 3. *Cultural Deviance Theory* - combines elements of strain and social disorganization --Criminal behavior is a natural expression of conformity to lower-class subcultural values that are handed down from one generation to the next *Each holds the view that socially isolated ppl, living in disorg. neighborhoods, are the ones most likely to experience crime-producing social forces*

Sources of Strain

1. *Social Sources of Strain* -People who report feelings of stress and anger are more likely to interact w/ others who are similarly stressed out -Strain may become magnified as ind. attempt to comply with peer group demands -Experiments show that ppl who percieve strain bc they're being treated unfairly report (1) high levels of situational anger that lead to (2) higher levels of theft from an employer 2. *Adolescent Sources of Strain* -Crime peaks during late adolescence bc it's a period of social stress caused by the weakening of parental supervision and the development of relationships w/ a diverse peer group -Trauma of family breakup and freq. changes in fam structure = high degree of strain -Hormone levels peak - moderating parts of brain not fully developed -As kids mature, their expectations increase = some find they are unable to meet academic and social demands (very concerned about their standing w/ peers) 3. *Community Sources of Strain* -Blocked opportunities and lack of social support, that produce feelings of strain -According to Agnew, several examples: *Influence goal ppl pursue & ability ppl have to meet them *Influence feelings of rel. depriv. and exposure to aversive stimuli (family conflict, incivility, econ. deprivation) *Influence the likelihood that angry, strain-filled inds. will interact w/ one another

Biochemical Conditions and Crime 1. Smoking/Drinking 2. Exposure to Chemicals and Minerals 3. Diet and Crime 4. Sugar Intake 5. Glucose Metabolism/Hypoglycemia 6. Hormonal Influences 7. PMS 8. Allergies 9. Environmental Contaminants

1. Smoking and Drinking - increased psychopathology in offspring & conduct disorder (maternal smoking/secondhand) 2. Exposure to Chemicals and Minerals - depression, mania, cog. probs, memory loss, and abnormal sexual acitivty = correlates of crime 3. Diet and Crime - excessive amounts of harmful substances such as caffeine, food dyes, and artificial flavors seem to provoke hostile, impulsive, and otherwise antisocial behaviors; *Adrian Raine*- diet enrichment study found that youngsters given nutritious diet did better on personality tests, greater levels of mental health & lower levels of self-reported crimes 4. Sugar Intake - debate; mixed evidence; people who have trouble metabolizing or using glucose in their bodies show more evidence of aggression & less willingness to forgive others 5. Glucose Metabolism/*Hypoglycemia* - occurs when glucose (sugar) levels in the blood fall below the necessary level for normal and efficient brain functioning; has been linked to outbursts of antisocial behavior and violence & w/ a syndrome characterized by aggressive and assaultive behavior, glucose disturbance, and brain dysfunction; studies of prisoners have found higher than normal level of hypoglycemia 6. Hormonal Influences - *James Wilson ("Moral Sense")*- hormones, enzymes, and neurotransmitters may be the keys to understanding human behavior, help explain gender differences in the CR; help explain the aging-out process; abnormal levels of androgens produce aggressive behavior; excessive levels of testosterone have been linked to violence and aggression; as heat rises, people get irritable, and the body produces excess hormones, which are directly related to aggression and antisocial behaviors 7. *Premenstrual Syndrome*- first popularized by *Katharina Dalton*- females are more likely to commit suicide and be aggressive and otherwise antisocial just before/during menstruation (methodological issues/debate/spurious); lawyers used finding as legal defense and was accepted in courts; *Diana Fishbein*- there's an assoc. btwn elevated levels of female aggression and menstruation; *any link btwn PMS and crime is tenuous at best* 8. Allergies- *Cerebral*- cause excessive reaction in the brain; *Neuroallergies*- affect nervous system; may cause swelling of the brain and produce sensitivity in the CNS, conditions linked to mental, emotional & behavioral probs; pot. seriousness of the prob has been raised by studies linking the avg. consumption of one suspected cerebral allergen, corn, to cross-national homicide rates 9. Environmental Contaminants- suspected contaminants that have been linked to developmental delays and emotional probs are chemicals used in the agric. business in insecticide and pesticides; lead ingestion is linked to aggressive behaviors; low levels of lead in blood have been shown to affect IQ, ability to pay attn & academic achievement; areas with high concentrations of lead also report highest levels of homicide

*The Social Ecology School* 4. Community Fear 5. Community Change 6. The Cycles of Change 7. Racial Threat

4. *Community Fear*: those living in neighborhoods that suffer social and physical *incivilities* are much more likely to be fearful (*disorder breeds fear*) --The existence of fear incites more crime, increasing the chances of victimization, producing even more fear (never ending loop) --Assoc. w/ comm. level factors: 1. Race & Fear - racial & ethnic conflicts 2. Gangs & Fear - police & comm. become hopeless about their ability to restore comm. stability, producing greater levels of comm. fear 3. Mistrust & Fear - living in neigh. w/ high levels of crime = suspicious & mistrusting; *siege mentality* 5. *Community Change*: urban areas undergoing rapid structural chnages in racial and economic composition also seem to experience the greatest change in CR --High pop. turnover can have a devastating effect on comm. culture 6. *Cycles of Change*: urban areas seem to have life cycles, which begin w/ building residential dwellings and are followed by a period of decline, with marked decreases in socioeconomic status and increases in pop. density --*Later stages* = changing racial or ethnic makeup, pop. thinning & a renewal stage in which obsolete housing is replaced & upgraded (*gentrification*) --Areas undergoing such change =*increase in CR* --Neigh. most at risk for high CR increases contain large #s of single-parent fams and unrelated ppl living together --Ecological disruptions strain existing social control mechanisms & inhibit ability to control crime & delinquency 7. Racial Threat

Neurophysiological Conditions and Crime: Minimal Brain Dysfunction (MBD) & Learning Disabilities

MBD- an abruptly appearing, maladaptive behavior that interrupts an individual's lifestyle and life flow --most serious form, MBD has been linked to serious antisocial acts Learning Disabilities (specific type of MBD)- a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using spoken or written languages --people w/ learning disabilities who give up school at early stages due to their disabilities are more likely to intiate a criminal career at an early age --Two popular explanations about the association to crime: 1. *Susceptibility Rationale* - certain side effects of learning disabilities (e.g., impulsiveness, poor ability to learn from exp., and inability to take social cues) 2. *School Failure Rationale* - poor school performace leading to a neg. self-image and acting-out behavior