CJ 490

Colombia Today

-Now, cocaine in Colombia is controlled mostly by numerous paramilitary criminal gangs -These gangs are not as organized, not as powerful as the cartels before them. -Because of this, and also government efforts, the global cocaine industry is now mostly coming out of Peru and Bolivia, as well as Colombia -Colombia used to control 80% of the market, but now they control about 45%

Offenders with Co-Occuring Disorders

-Offenders with co-occurring disorders have a substantially higher rate of recidivism, are less likely to complete substance abuse treatment, and have greater risk of relapse. -This is aggravated by lower social support and greater social consequences for minority offenders with co-occurring disorders. -This results in higher recidivism rates and overrepresentation in the criminal justice system.

Cost

-Office of National Drug Control (ONDCP) requested a budget of $25.4 billion for fiscal year 2013 to reduce drug use and its consequences in the US -One researcher, Jeffry Miron (2010) suggested that legalizing drugs would save state and local governments $33.1 billion through reduced law enforcement, court, and incarceration costs -These costs are usually associated with crime, not health and welfare issues

Under Treating vs. Over Treating

-Physicians struggle with the issue of over prescribing or under prescribing with these medication that can be abused -In a study of 1,204 adults, 19% reported chronic pain and 34% reported recurrent pain -Most of them (63%) had seen a doctor, but did not see much relief -Only 31% of these patients said that their pain was well managed

Who Uses?

-In 2011, 6.1 million people (2.4%) of the population said that they used prescription medication non-medically in the last month (SAMSHA, 2012) -Males - 2.6% and Females - 2.2% (last month) -Young people 18-25 - 5% (last month) -Average age for first use - 22.4 -In 2012 (Monitoring the Future surveys) found that 21.2% of 12th graders used a prescription drug non-medically in the past, 14.8% used in the past year, and 7% used in the past 30 days -In 2012, 10% of whites used in the last year, 5.5% of -Hispanics, and 3.4% of African Americans used in the last year -9.3% of males and 6.5% females use in the last year

Pizza Connection

-Massive operation involving heroin smuggling and money laundering by Sicilian Mafia members in the US -Headed by crime boss Gaetano Badalamente -Pizza Connection arrests were made through the use of crime-boss-turned-witness Tommaso Buscetta -His testimony and following arrests led to the 1984 indictments in New York of 35 alleged members of the Sicilian Mafia - exposed the Mafia's heroin business -This investigation expanded worldwide: Mafia members were indicted in Brazil, Canada, Spain, Switzerland, Italy, and the US

MPACT

-Maximizing Potential through Academics, Community and Treatment • MPACT is the University "drug court" program • MPACT is a court recognized and accepted treatment program and UA's is one of the first in the nation to be court recognized.

Violence

-Needed to collect debts, prevent/deter informants, compete with other dealers for business, prevent robberies and other rip-offs -Violence amongst upper level drug traffickers is uncommon - most think of it as bad for business -Higher level dealers have said that the market, not violence, governs business relationships - some would rather just stop doing business with an individual than engage in violence with that individual

Neurotransmitter

-Neurotransmitter - plays an important role on determining the effects of drugs on the brain, i.e. cocaine and heroin -Transmit messages through the brain -Different drugs affect the neurotransmission differently - some cause more neurotransmitters to build up in the synapse, either though over production or reduction reabsorption

What services does the High Intensity Drug Trafficking Areas Program provide?

-Provides assistance to federal, state, local, and tribal law enforcement agencies in areas that have been determined to be critical drug trafficking regions. -The High Intensity Drug Trafficking Areas Program or H.I.D.T.A is responsible for helping fund and coordinate multi-jurisdictional drug task forces and assist in the investigation and prosecution of drug traffickers. There are 28 H.I.D.T.A offices around the country.

Public Service Announcements

-Public Service Announcements (PSAs) also serve as a preventive strategy for juvenile drug use --Radio, television, and the internet -Nancy Reagan's "Just Say No to Drugs" --It is known as one of the most notable public service announcements to prevent juvenile drug use --First Lady Nancy Reagan started the campaign during the 1980s --The catchphrase, "just say no" came from an encounter Nancy Reagan had with a schoolgirl who asked her what she should do if she was offered drugs --It gained support from schools and organizations throughout the US --It proved to be an effective campaign -Many Public Service Announcements are ineffective --Most PSAs are ideas, rather than psychological principles --There is often an absence of theory --They may be lacking data -Public Service Announcements aim to change attitudes about drugs --The content is very important in changing the audience's attitude --PSAs that target dangerous drugs, such as methamphetamine and heroin, are most effective in convincing people not to use them --However, PSAs that target drugs in general or drugs that seem less dangerous, such as marijuana and alcohol, are not as effective ---Marijuana and alcohol are the most popular used drugs used by juveniles, so PSAs may not seem as effective

Most Research

-Qualitative -Difficult to generalize beyond narrow parameters -Small sample sizes -Reliance on case studies and autobiographical sources -Interviews will convicted and incarcerated offenders -Use of police generated data

Extent

-Rate of substance dependency (2011) for men was 11.1% and for women 6.5% -Married women and men have lower rates of substance abuse compared to divorced or never married women and men -Women and men who live with children are less likely to have substance abuse issues -Employment is also a protective factor

Drug Theft

-Recent study found that among drug users, the most popular things to steal: cash, jewelry, guns, and prescription medication -Drug theft is also common in pharmacies and other places where pharmaceutical drugs are stored

What is the most logical goal for drug enforcement agencies?

-Reduce drug usage, ultimately reducing crime and disorder -Many see drug enforcement as arresting drug offenders and confiscating as many drugs as possible. This is sometimes referred to as "bean counting". In order to be effective, drug enforcement must focus significantly on drug trafficking problems and the areas were these problems are located.

Goals of Civil Forfeiture

-Removes financial incentive to engage in illegal activity -Restored economic integrity in the marketplace -Compensates society for economic damage suffered to to illegal activity by rededicating forfeited property so socially benefited sue

Strategies

-Research and program development are needed to better understand youth gangs -Screenings are needed to make sure that juveniles are placed in the correct juvenile detention centers -Programs are needed to prevent gang formation, membership, and victimization -Ex-convicts need alternatives to returning to the drug market, including job training and opportunities -Help students stay in school -Strengthen social institutions -Reduce the amount of guns on the streets

Differential Opportunity

-Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin (1960) -Agreed with Merton that legitimate opportunities vary across society -They also added that illegitimate opportunities are also unevenly distributed across society -Just because some people are blocked from achieving their goals through legitimate means does not mean that they have the ability to use illegitimate means to achieve their goals -A person's environment will dictate how they respond: through crime (general), violence, or retreat (drug use, communes)

Youth Gangs

-Special problems with youth gangs: -Undercover agent have more success infiltrating adult gangs compared to youth gangs - those in youth gangs know those who are in the gang -Youths in general are dealt with in a more lenient fashion compare to adults -LE has difficulty identifying a hard core members vs. a part-time member -LE have difficulty knowing if a crime was committed by someone who happens to be a gang member or by a gang members committing a crime to further the gang's objectives

Drug Smuggling

-States most directly affected - Texas, California, Arizona, and New Mexico -United States Customs and Boarder Protection officers are in charge of stopping illegal drugs from entering the US -Drugs are smuggled over land, underground, in cars, in airplanes, and over and under the the water -According to the DEA, there are over 2000 secret airstrips in Mexico used for this purpose

Consequences

-Stigma associated with drug use -People think that all people who use drugs are weak or bad -People who need help don't seek it out because of guilt and shame -Politicians create laws that don't actually help drug users - punishment -Law enforcement enforce these strict laws rather than devote time to other areas -Even with all of these policies and media and law enforcement efforts, there is no decline in use among the public

Colombian Cartel History

-The Medellin Cartel - Leader: Pablo Escobar -Significant players in Columbian drug trade: Cali Cartel and the Medellin Cartel -The Medellin Cartel - at one point they controlled 80% of the world's cocaine supply and about 90% of the cocaine smuggled into America

What did The Anti- Drug Abuse Act, created by President Ronald Reagan in 1988 create?

-The Office of National Drug Control Policy (O.N.D.C.P). -The Office of National Drug Control Policy is a panel of officials that advises the President on drug-control issues. They also coordinate federal drug control activities and funding as well as producing and annual report entitled National Drug Control Strategy.

U.S. Policy is World Policy

-The U.S. has our own moralistic and highly punitive approach to drug policies—Creates a stigma that drug abuse is negative and should be punished -The idea of harm reduction rather than demand reduction has dominated the United Nations and other international organizations and has shown to bring positive outcomes. (Ex: Syringe exchange programs) -Rarely one nation has successfully promoted its own failed policies to the rest of the world -Today drug policy formulation is based on political expediency—Is this perspective effective when establishing a drug policy?

Upper Level Drug Trafficking

-There is not one agreed-upon definition for this term -The text defines the participants as: --Importers --Growers --Manufacturers --Wholesalers -This is a system of people who grow/make/import large quantities of drugs and sell them to dealers

Drugs In Neighborhoods

-There is similar dealing and using on college campuses and low-income communities -Differences: rates of arrest, crime, and complaints to the police -Drug use and dealing in low-income communities tend to be more public - why? -In low-income communities, individuals tend to purchase small amounts at a time - dealers must make a larger amount of sales - draws police

What is the primary objective for Local Drug Enforcement agencies?

-They are primarily responsible for enforcing drug policies at the street level. -While the Federal agencies have their hands full on the US boarders and major crime syndicates Local and State law enforcement agencies are charged with fighting the war on drugs at the street level.

Zero Tolerance Policies

-They deter some people -However, for many they dramatically increase the harms and costs for those who do not resist. -Drugs become more forceful and dominant, drug use becomes more hazardous, and people who use drugs are marginalized in ways that serve no one.

Doctor Shopping

-This can be for legitimate reasons and illegitimate reasons -Some elderly patients doctor shop to sell the drugs to supplement their incomes

Alcohol

-When women use alcohol during pregnancy, change that their child will develop Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, currently the leading cause of developmental and intellectual disabilities -Alcohol passes relatively easy through the placenta -This leads to children with behavior issues, especially those related to irritability -Most likely drug to lead to violence

Heroin

-While Asia and the Middle East remain the biggest producers of heroin, Mexican black-tar and brown heroin is rising in production. Increasing amounts are being seized every year at the boarder. Mexican traffickers already control many Western heroin markets and are now expanding operations in to the eastern US. --According to the 2014 NDTS, Heroin seizers increased 81 percent over five years from 2,763 kilos in 2010 to 5,014 in 2014.

Policy Today

-Policies today seem harmless and that they are designed to reduce drug use and its detrimental effects on society—any action to reduce drug use is viewed as "good" but there are some negative consequences that go along with these new policies. -The dominant, conventional approach has seen the media as a key force in the demonization and marginalization of drug users—which provides platforms from which politicians and other moral entrepreneurs can wage drug "wars". -The Media is thus seen to misrepresent drugs, their effects, typical users and sellers and the whole nature of the drug market and the enforcement response to it.

High Risk

-Populations at high risk for prescription medication addiction: --Physicians --Elderly - people over 65 make up 13% of the population but receive 1/3 of all prescriptions - more likely to be prescribed potentially addictive medications than any other age group --Military personnel - non-medical pain medication use increased from 2% in 2002 to 17% in 2008

What are "precursor" chemicals?

-Precursor chemicals are chemicals that are used in synthetic drug production. -EX: Range from Iodine crystals which may be harder to find and buy to items you can find around your house like cold tablets, matches and batteries. -Controlling "precursor" chemicals -The idea was that if you could control the selling and purchasing of precursor chemicals then you could control the creation and flow of meth, but it's proven to be difficult.

Pharmaceutical Diversion

-Prescription drug abuse is one of the driving forces behind increased crime, increased ER visits, and rising health care costs, increase incidence of child abuse and neglect, increased incidents of neo-natal withdrawal syndrome (most significant costs for treatment of women with addiction issues and their newborn children - takes newborns between 3 weeks and 2 months to recover)

What are the primary objectives for federal agencies involved with drug enforcement?

-Primary focus is on drug syndicates and middle/upper level drug smugglers and distributers. -Federal law enforcement agencies attempt to seal our boarders and coordinate extensive investigations throughout the US. Federal agencies focus is on upper level smugglers and distributers.

Problems with Current Policies

-Prison populations have exploded - In CA, the state spends approximately $8,000 per pupil per year for education and $50,000 per year to house an inmate -Drug enforcement affects what police priorities are and what they do on a daily basis -Courts are overburdened -Erosion of our civil rights - approximately 30% of police searches were unconstitutional and violated laws of search and seizure -Some groups are targeted more than others - people of color are over-represented in drug arrests in comparison with the population of people who actually use

What are the two types of Drug Enforcement strategies at the local level?

-Proactive and reactive -Proactive policing focuses more on preventing future drug related crimes and to stop drug trafficking, while reactive policing focuses on fixing drug related issues after they occur.

A type of dealer not associated with a group or a gang

Lonewolf

Consequences of Our Own Policies

Prison populations have exploded straining prison and jail budgets * -Incarceration isn't cheap -California spends$50,000 year to house one inmate Drug enforcement has effected police priorities and activities * -Police are too busy enforcing drug laws and could be preventing more serious crime from happening Courts have been overburdened by the War on Drugs * -Minor drug cases often consume large amounts of court resources -Drug courts now used to help with problem There has been an erosion of our Civil Rights * -30% of search and seizures violated laws and were found unconstitutional (Gould and Mastrofski 2004). The war on drugs has resulted in some groups being targeted more than others*

First lady responsible for "just say no to drugs"

Reagan

Model that focuses on educating students to make better decisions

Social influence

Using peer learning as a way of engaging students interactively in the drug learning process is a ______________ program

Structured

Maxon discovered that majority of the cities with the highest number of gang homicides is in

California

The most widely used drug program in US schools

DARE

Legal Pressure

Does legal pressure improve or reduce success in substance abuse treatment?

The best predictor of adolescent crime is

Drug abuse

Plaintiff in the Supreme Court case that deemed drug testing legal in schools

Earls

True/False" There is no evidence that drug enforcement is racially biased

False -A study conducted in 2006 showed that drug markets in Seattle were overrepresented by African Americans in arrests relative in street-corner sales.

The average age of a juvenile murderer according to McLaughlin, Daniel, and Joost was

Fifteen

Types of Clinical Care Programs

• Capstone Character Class • Random Drug Testing (weekly, color code) • Recovery Night meeting • Mandatory Study Hall • Life Skill Improvement • Alcohol/Drug Awareness Programs

Completion of MPACT

• Each student will attend a Graduation Ceremony upon completing all phases. • Office of Student Conduct will send notification to deferring court of completion of program. • In support of the students continued recovery and success, an after care program has been established along with the Collegiate Recovery for follow-up and mentoring.

Three Phase Approach

• Phase 1 - Getting Clean and Sober • Phase 2 - Intrapersonal Skills and Reflection • Phase 3 - Relapse Prevention and Interpersonal Skills

Drug Use Consequences

-Health consequences -Social consequences -Economic consequences

Theory #3

-Drug use and crime and mutually reinforcing -This is true for many users and offenders -More research needs to be done in this area

Street Based Sales

-Drugs sold on the street -Sometimes Medicaid or Medicare is involved -Someone on Medicaid or Medicare buys a drug legitimately from a pharmacy then sell them for higher prices on the street or back to the pharmacy

Systemic

-The violence that arises out of a drug use/trafficking lifestyle -Give some examples

Drug Pharmacology

-Why is it important to understand how drugs work and how the body reacts to drugs?

Why do you think drug abuse is the largest predictor of adolescent crime?

...

True or False: College-bound juveniles were more likely to use illicit drugs

Fasle

Youth survey that publishes data for the age group 12-17

NSDUH

True/False: Drug enforcement does not have a desired impact on crime according to research indications?

True

Majority of gang violence is over

Turf

Asset Forfeiture

What do we know about it?

Kleinmann and __________ identified the factors necessary for a drug market information

Young

What is the best policy or strategy to implement to help people refrain from drug use?

zero tolerance policies, or harm reduction policies

Cost

-60mg Oxycodone - $8 -7mg of Valium - $7 -15mg of amphetamine - $4.50 -Vicodin - $5 -1 gram of heroin - $110 -1 gram of cocaine - $45 -Sometimes street prescription medications are higher - all depends on the market

Effects on fetuses and newborns

-About 1% of pregnant women have used meth -This can cause fetal distress -Pregnant women who use meth gain an average of 10 pounds less than non users. -This causes a negative impact on growth of the fetus -Infants exposed to meth during the pregnancy suffer growth problems and malnourishment, brain lesions, respiratory problems, hypersensitivity to touch, extreme muscle tension, and difficulty swallowing or sucking. -At ages 3 to 5, children are more likely to be anxious, depressed, and moody.

Mylan

-EpiPen -Self-injected epinephrine syringe system prescribed as a potentially life-saving tool for people with allergies -Prices have increased 250% since 2007 -2006 - retail price for two pens - $100 -Currently, over $600

Vertical Integration

-Having control of both the manufacture and distribution of drugs -What might this look like? -What are the benefits?

Seizure

-Implies a temporary action -Ownership is not relinquished

The Media

-Media makes it seem like meth use has reached epidemic proportions -Similar to the reporting of crack in the 1980s -Described as a "plague" and "epidemic" -Some are more aptly names "drug scares" - many times reinforced by gender, race, and class stereotypes

Obtaining Drugs

-Medication sharing -Doctor shopping -Internet sale -Drug theft -Improper prescribing -Street-based prescription medication sale -Drug tourism

Drugs From Mexico

-Mexican meth - gaining considerable momentum, especially after the US government tightened controls on ephedrine - Mexican ephedrine started appearing on US streets and in US meth labs -Mexican heroin - brown heroin (65-85% purity) compare to white heroin from the Middle East (85-99% purity)

Opioid Pain Killers

-Most opioid pain killers are effective for only 4 hours -Many physicians argue that it would be more effective to have these pain medications last longer and not have the same abuse potential

Economic- Compulsive

-Need for money to buy drugs -Drugs are only one factor that drives violence and crime -What are some others?

Civil Asset Forfeiture Reform Act of 2000

-Seven year effort by Henry Hyde to reform the nation's civil asset forfeiture laws -Only refers to federal forfeitures

Usage Patterns

-This is another way to better understand the drug-crime relationship -Time pattern of use - frequency and regularity of use -Amount of drugs consumed -Type of drug used -Method of drug administration - heroin users who inject have more problems than those who snort or smoke -Attitudes regarding the location of drug use in the user's life

Categories of Drug Crime

-Violent personal crime - homicide, assault -Violent property crime - robbery -Violent sex crimes - rape -Property crimes - theft -Income-producing crimes - prostitution -Drug offenses - trafficking and possession -Public disorder crimes - loitering, vagrancy

The most commonly used drug among juveniles

Alcohol

How many local law enforcement agencies are there in the United States today?

-14,633 -There are a total of 14,633 law enforcement agencies in the US at the state, county, and city levels. These agencies are considered to be the "backbone" of drug enforcement in our nation.

Strain Theories

-Anomie Theory - Robert Merton (1938) -Differential Opportunity Theory - Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin (1960) -General Strain Theory - Robert Agnew (1992)

Theory #2

-Crime causes drug use -Multiple studies show that drug users were involved in crime prior to using drugs -As criminal behavior increases, so does drug use -Still not enough research to back this up

What are the two primary strategies that our government has deployed to enforce drug policies at the international level?

-Crop eradication and drug seizures -These strategies fall under the purview of federal law enforcement agencies and the military.

Drug Prevention

-Drug prevention primarily targets adolescents -It is delivered through four primary mechanisms --Education --Public service announcements --Drug testing --Protective measures via criminal justice policies and activities -Programs should result in recipients desisting from drugs or at least moderating their drug consumption -Determining the efficacy of a program can be subjective

Theory #1

-Drug use causes criminality - common myth -This is difficult to prove because there is no determinate link between drug use and crime -Drug use doesn't always lead to crime

Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act (CMEA) of 2005

-Goal: To limit the sale of over-the-counter drugs containing ephedrine, pseudoephedrine and phenyl-propanolamine -Products that fall into this category are cold remedies and allergy relief medicines -The act includes daily and monthly purchase limits -Distributors must keep a logbook of sales with customer IDs and must keep the drugs locked behind the counter where they can't be directly accessed by customers

Opiates

-Induce sleep and relieve pain -Examples: morphine, opium, heroin, OxyContin/oxycodone -Now constitute the country's most deadly drug

Drug Networks

-Members chosen from trusted known associates -Employees are closely monitored -Organization is difficult to penetrate by law enforcement

Mexico v. United States

-Most of the illicit drugs in the United States come from Mexico. -Mexico and the United States have different issues when it comes to the binational drug situation. --The United States is the reason why Mexico has drug problem. --Mexico is just one of a several countries that supplies the United States with illicit drugs. -80% of revenue for Mexican drug dealers is hard drugs -Among heavy users of hard drugs, about 75% have at least one felony. -Half a million drug dealers in the U.S. prisons.

Where is the Problem?

-Most people who use drugs do not come in contact with law enforcement and do not have significant problems associated with their drug use -About 10% of users are the people who have problems associated with their drug use -They are the folks everyone focuses on - they are the face of drug use -What are the consequences of this?

What did the research conducted by Weatherman and Lind demonstrate about drug use patterns, deaths, rates, crimes, and arrests?

-Nothing -The studies conducted by Weatherman and Lind examined heroin seizures and found that the drug seizures had no impact, especially on street prices.

Drug Related Offenses

-Offenses defined by drug possession or sales -Offenses directly related to drug use/abuse -Offenses related to a lifestyle that influences a drug abuser's activities

Sinaloa Cartel

-Often described as the largest and most powerful drug trafficking organization in the Western Hemisphere -The state of Sinaloa has long been a center for contraband in Mexico, as well as a home for marijuana and poppy cultivation. -Joaquin El Chapo Loera was a well know leader of this cartel -Sinaloa's are noted for the Mexican black tar heroin production -The cartel is primarily involved in the smuggling and distribution of drugs into the US -Including Colombian Cocaine, Mexican marijuana, methamphetamine, and Mexican and Southeast Asian Heroin

Model that focuses on providing drug related knowledge to students

Information

Life Course Theorist that believed early antisocial tendencies are linked to adult criminal behavior

Sampson

Protocol for Admission

• Student Conduct office receives report of alleged violation either through court system or through UA misconduct citation. • Student will receive a letter for initial meeting with Student Conduct. • Initial Student Conduct hearing will be held in which student can or cannot accept responsibility for violation. • If student accepts responsibility for violation... student will be suspended for 1 year (deferred) • Criminal Courts will be notified and pending case will be deferred until completion of the MPACT program. • If you fail to complete or are suspended from program for not meeting requirements, your suspension from UA will be upheld and the prosecuting courts will be notified and the criminal case will proceed.

Student Referrals to the Program

• UAPD • Other local law enforcement • Residential Community • Office of Student Conduct • Parent, Self or other referrals

Facts

- MPACT serves approximately 250 students a year. -There is a waiting list

Prevalence Percentage rates for Narcotics, Sedatives and Amphetamines

- Narcotics, Sedatives and Amphetamines are typically available as prescription medication. OxyContin, Vicodin and morphine are strong pain medications that have a higher potential for dependence. Sedatives such as valium work as depressents; often prescribed to treat anxiety and sleep disorders -Amphetamines such as Adderall are prescribed to treat attention hyperactivity disorder, as it increases study time, ability to stay awake and be alert. Non medical use and abuse of these drugs have substantially increased over the past decade. -Narcotics have the highest prevalence rates, followed by amphetamines and sedatives. Whites are most likely to use narcotics followed by hispanics and african americans.

What are two things police crackdowns are designed to accomplish?

- To arrest and deter drug dealers and buyers. -Police crackdowns encompass a massive infusion of officers who attempt to make large numbers of arrests in an area. They are also designed to disrupt the locations of drug markets.

What Does Policy Mean?

-"Broad, general guides to action that constrain or direct objective attainment" (p 150 Rue and Byers 2000). -Policies establish direction and boundaries -Government uses policies to stimulate movement to a desired goal or objective -Federal, State, and local governments set drug policies -They establish priorities and provide resources to those areas -Most of the time these policies provide a perspective that drugs are a social issue--Historically U.S. policy consisted of incarceration and enforcement tactics being implemented.

"Meth Mouth"

-"Meth mouth" is a common effect for most users, teeth are blackened, stained, rotting, or crumbling. -Users often experience dry mouth, crave carbonated beverages, and grind or clench teeth. -41.3% of meth users had abnormal dental or oral findings. -Injection drug users had higher rates of dental or oral disease compared to those who smoke or inhale meth. -Highly addicted users are less likely to pay attention to their oral health.

Harm Reduction

-"Policies, programs, and practices that aim primarily to reduce the adverse health, social and economic consequences of the use of legal and illegal psychoactive drugs without necessarily reducing drug consumption." -Harm reduction is needed to reduce the harms associated with drug use even if folks don't want to quit

What Happens if all drugs are legalized?

-$10 billion or more in annual illicit revenue -Cannabis legalization would probably lead to a smaller increase in consumption than would be the case for hard drugs, simply because the current cannabis prohibition is less successfully enforced than the prohibitions against cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamines. -10% of the drug-related incarceration in the U.S. might well outweigh the damage from increase abuse.

What is an average bust for a Federal Agency?

-11,600lbs of drugs and $274,065,000 -In 2012 US Customs and Border Protection confiscated 11,600lbs of narcotics and $274,065,000 in undeclared dollars from a crime organization based out of Mexico. And that was a "typical day".

In what decade did local law enforcement agencies start playing a major role in enforcing drug policies?

-1960's -In the 1960's local and state agencies started cracking down on drugs because many antiwar and civil activists began to publicly advocate the use of marijuana and LSD.

HIV/AIDS

-1981 - Center for Disease Control and Prevention published its first paper on a new disease among a group of gay men in Los Angeles that destroyed their immune systems - they died before the report was published - informally called the "gay cancer" -1981 - by years end, 270 reported cases, 121 are dead -1982 - Gay Men's Health Crisis - non-profit in NYC is created -1982 - term "AIDS" was first used by the CDC -1983 - CDC ruled out casual modes of transmission -1985 - President Reagan says AIDS for the first time publically -1988 - one of many protests the slow process of federal drug approvals - outside the Federal Drug Administration organized by ACT-UP - five days later FDA announces more streamlined processes -1987 - AZT - the first AIDS drugs was approved -1992 - AIDS becomes the number one cause of death for US men 25-44 years of age

Source of Funds

-2012 - marked the 7th straight year that civil forfeiture deposits exceeded one billion dollars per year -2012 - $4.2 billion -2011 - $1.7 billion

What is the percentage of police searches that were found to be unconstitutional?

-30% -Gould and Mastrofski conducted a study in 2004 and found that few cases were illegal searches. When reviewed by the courts, there was no evidence to support an arrest.

Data Collections

-5 main data collections in US --Examine drug use prevalence and patterns -National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) --Self-report survey data from a representative sample- households and citizens aged 12+ --Advantage: collects data from the entire US --Disadvantages: does not include hidden populations- population groups that don't have a steady residence (i.e. homeless persons, drug addicts, criminal populations) and persons who are institutionalized (i.e. jails, prisons and mental hospitals)- doesn't capture drug use of high rate drug users and abuse, collects drug use stats of people who are less likely to use drugs; does not verify the truthfulness of the survey responses -Monitoring the Future (MTF) --Long term study of adolescents, college students, and adults through age 50 --Surveys drug usage and patterns among 8th, 10th and 12th graders in the US -Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program (ADAM) --Funded by the ONDCP --Collects info about the drug use prevalence and patterns among arrestees --Surveys the population group that is at high risk for drug use --Advantage: validates self reported drug use --Disadvantage: data is only collected at 10 urban sites- not representative of the US; only collects data on male arrestees -Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) --Data from drug related emergency room visits and deaths caused by drug using behaviors --Advantages: data is representative of the US; uses toxicological analyses --Disadvantage: cannot measure prevalence of drug use -Bureau of Justice Statistics --Info about drug use among state and federal prisoners- super important because prisoner's have a higher drug use rate --Show new drug patterns before they become visible for the general population --Uses Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) to identify drug addiction --Disadvantage: data is only collected every few years

8-/20 Rule

-80% of drug users are not involved in crime, except in regards to possession and purchasing illicit drugs -Likely that less than 20% of drug users are involved in crime -Drug users who are polydrug users or who use large amounts of drugs are the most problematic

Who is Prescribing?

-80% of the prescriptions written are written by 20% of those who can write such prescriptions -Most prescriptions are written by primary care physicians, internal medicine physicians, and dentists -Dentists prescribe 1/3 of all opiate pain medications - many are not trained in pain management and prescribe too much or too little

The Global War on Drugs Can Be Won

-A "drug free world" which the United Nations describes as a realistic goal, is no more attainable than an "alcohol free world" -Demand for particular illicit drugs goes and comes, depending not just on availability but also on fads, fashion, culture, and competition from alternative means of stimulation and distraction. -The relative harshness of drug laws and the intensity of enforcement matter surprisingly little, except in totalitarian states (gov't. That subordinates the individual to the state and strictly controls all aspects of life by coercive measures). -Rates of illegal drug use in the United States are the same as, or higher than in Europe, despite America's much more punitive policies.

Surgical Strike

-A coordinated government action to eliminate a hostile threat -Can be a joint strike -2 or more government working together -Designed to eliminate as much collateral damage as possible -Success depends on the amount of knowledge collected before striking -Can be carried out by military or law enforcement personnel

Washington D.C. Study

-A recent study shows disparities between race and mental health needs. -Of 2,874 arrestees, 89% were African-American, 7% were white and 4% were Hispanic. About 23% of offenders with mental health needs were arrested for drug crimes. 955 offenders were in need of mental health treatment. -Of these, 915 (86%) were African American. Black females had the highest rates of drug offenses and mental health needs. -Hispanics had the lowest rate of mental health needs (2%). This may be a reflection of the lack of access to mental health assessment, rather than a lack of mental health needs. -Department of Mental Health (DMH) implies a great need for mental health services. -15% of the DMH's clients are Hispanic. Nearly half (45%) of Hispanic arrestees, however, have not had contact with a mental health screening agency. -The lack of treatment available is also true for juveniles. Compared to white youth, minorities have fewer behavioral health service options.

Drug Testing

-A strategy for preventing juvenile drug use is drug testing --Most drug testing for juveniles takes place as a requirement for extracurricular programs, such as sports --The Supreme Court allows for students in extracurricular programs to be tested because of the court case, Board of Education of Tecumseh Public School District V. Earls (2002) --However, the number of schools that actually drug test is relatively low -Criticism for drug testing --It is expensive ---1,473 students in Ohio were drug tested, which cost the school $35,000 and only 11 students tested positive -It discourages students from participating in extracurricular programs -It sometimes results in false positives -Drug testing has not been proven to stop juvenile drug use

What do drug dealers do with all their dirty money?

-A successful drug dealer makes for an even better business person. -Criminals simply cannot deposit their immense profits in the bank without being reported, so they must think of creative methods to make their drug money appear "clean" this is what is called Money Laundering. -Smaller amounts of money (thousands) can be invested into legitimate businesses such as laundry mats, hair salons, car washes, restaurants. -Larger amounts of money (millions) often are deposited in off shore companies that only require a passport and credit card number to set up an bank account.(totally legal) -Feds flag any wire transfer over 10,000

Drugs Used at Time of Arrest

-About 32% of all state and 26% of all federal prisoners committed their offense under the influence of drugs -About 53% of state and 45% of federal prisoners met the DSM IV criteria for the drug dependency or abuse

Harm Reduction Methods

-Drug use reduction - reduce the amount of drugs in a particular area -Needle exchange programs - since 1989, there has been a ban on federal monies for needle exchange programs - monies tend to come from local programs -Methadone and Suboxone treatment -Make treatment more available -Invest in research that identifies effective prevention programming -Treat drug addiction as a medical condition - there is treatment models for chronic medical conditions -Redirect police drug priorities - increase positive relationships between the community and police

Mexico

-Drug-trafficking is connected to extreme violence -1,300 beheadings, public hangings of corpses, killing of innocent bystanders, car bombs, torture, and assassination of numerous journalists and government officials -It is difficult to know exactly how many people have been killed due to the drug trade - sometimes drug cartels advertise their violence and sometimes they don't

Location

-Due to threats from law enforcement, drug dealers are limited to where they can sell drugs. 0Dealers look to sell near locations such as schools, concerts, and movie theaters where there are a large quantity of people resulting in increased profits. -When a dealer establishes a location that is highly profitable, it likely will attract competition, which could possibly result in violence in effort to mark territory or what they call "turf". -The more dealers in one area, the more sales will be negatively affected.Many move locations if threat poses. -Mentality that the strongest will survive -In order to compete with other drug dealers, many must reduce prices to regain market share. -Rengret (1996) determined two primary criteria that determines drug market location 1. Threshold: the volume of drugs a drug dealer must sell in order to be profitable. Dealers have an idea of the how much they must sell to reach threshold. 2. Range: refers to the distance that customers will travel in order to purchase drugs from a particular dealer. Word of mouth can cause your range to increases. Also if sell in a safe environment that may attract more people to you. Where there is a large customer base in small geographic area ensure a consistent clientele.

Treatment Programs

-Effective treatment for meth dependence should be comprehensive and include behavioral therapies which can include cognitive therapies and contingency management. -Some use punishment and rewards to promote adherence to the program -An example of behavioral therapy for meth is a 16-week comprehensive individualized outpatient treatment program called the Matrix Model. -Medicating --Medication therapy is not currently available to treat life-threatening overdoses --There is no medication to treat meth induced psychosis or paranoia --Instead, medication is useful to help re-establish brain function that was impaired due to meth us

President Calderon

-Elected in 2008 -Made aggressive campaign against drug trafficking organizations the centerpiece of his administration -Under Calderon, 25 out of the 37 most wanted cartel leaders were killed under his Presidency - "kingpin strategy" -Expanded police from 6,500 to 37,000 -Many drug leaders were captured - none were effectively prosecuted -Throughout his efforts, violence increased due to grabs for power - so did human rights abuses by law enforcement -Drugs continued to be smuggled into the US at greater amounts

President Nieto

-Elected in 2012 -Coordinating with the second term Obama administration - Merida Initiative - bilateral and anti-crime assistance package that began in 2008, under President Calderon -Merida Imperative - nearly $2 billion in funds initially focused on providing Mexico with hardware such as planes, scanners, and other equipment drug trafficking organization, shifting in later years to focus on police and judicial reform, including training at the local and state level -Focusing less on drug "kingpins" and more on violence that affects regular Mexicans

Youth's and Risk Factors

-Environmental stressors for my minorites include racism pressure to prove that prejudice held by others are incorrect and the pressure to uphold their own cultural values and still fit into the mainstream culture -Poverty is one of the most important factors with regards to substance use in crime -Like African-Americans Hispanics face several other social problems as well -Two factors leading to negative health consequences from substance abuse or lack of healthcare and limited access to drug use prevention programs. -African Americans are twice as likely to be uninsured as whites hispanics are 2 1/2 times as likely be uninsured. The lack of health insurance. Is linked to substance abuse not being discovered or treated.

A New Policy

-Finding a balance between harms associated with the war on drugs as well as punitive measures with drug violations would make a better drug policy. -Mass drug arrest lead to many of the problems associated with the war on drugs, while little arrest may lead to an increase of drug abuse. -A balance of the two could be established to reduce the overall harm and formulate a more useful policy. -There are many different types of "harms" and it is important to distinguish which area needs more consideration. -Many states forbid needle exchange programs—result in higher rates of HIV

Harm Reduction Through Drug Reduction

-Focus on light drug users rather than hardcore --Hardcore users must hit rock bottom first --Light users have best opportunity for change -Drug prevention Programs (DARE) --Kids less likely to do drugs if involved in program -Money—target those involved in more expensive drugs (prices influence production) -Substitution of a less dangerous drug for more dangerous drug (Ex: smoke marijuana rather than meth--Focus on more dangerous drugs while marginally focusing on others.)

Marijuana, Cocaine and Heroin

-For lifetime users of Marijuana; Hispanic students have the highest marijuana rates for all three grades. African Americans have the second highest rates in grades 8 and 10, while Whites have the second highest rates in grade 12. -For lifetime use of Powder cocaine/crack; prevalence rates are significantly lower than for marijuana, but somewhat higher than for heroin. Powder cocaine is used most often among Hispanics and least common among African americans in all three grades. -Overall heroin use is lower than marijuana and cocaine use. Heroin use is highest among Hispanic 8th graders followed by white 12th grades. Heroin use is lowest among African Africans for all age groups.

Violence

-For many of youth involved in gangs, violence is a part of everyday life in their neighborhoods and families -Conflict differentiates gangs from other delinquent groups -Violence is an important part of their status -Pattern: perceived threat from another gang, instigated by a precipitating event, followed by escalation of activity, a violent event, rapid de-escalation, and ultimately, retaliation -Gangs recruit or attract potentially or already violent individuals -Involvement in violent activities increases during periods of gang membership -Violence is expected as part of their involvement in a gang

What is the United States Government doing to combat drug trafficking?

-Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act (Kingpin Act) --Law enforcement enacted in 1999 under the DEA to pursue transnational drug organizations; they believe this will enhance the ability to disrupt and dismantle TOC networks and prosecute persons involved in illegal activities linked to drug trafficking, such as arms trafficking, bulk cash smuggling, or gang activity. -International Drug Enforcement Conference --For the past 28 years the DEA has hosted the International Drug Enforcement Conference (IDEC), which brings the top drug law enforcement leaders and senior investigators from over 100 nations to a single venue where yearly agendas are set for cooperation, intelligence sharing, and case prioritization; nation personnel and U.S. law enforcement exchange information on priority investigatory targets. IDEC has produced concrete every year. During the conferences, DEA and partner nations jointly develop plans to build greater law enforcement strategies. -Specific Actions --Work with international partners to reduce the global supply of and demand for illegal drugs and thereby deny funding to TOC networks. --Disrupt links between the international illicit drug and arms trades, especially in strategic regions that are at risk of being destabilized by these interconnected threats. --Sustain pressure to disrupt Consolidated Priority Organization Targets, as they often have a particularly corrupting influence or provide support to terrorism. --Maximize use of the Kingpin Act to pursue transnational drug organizations. --Develop a comprehensive approach to dismantle DTOs with connections to terrorist organizations. --Work with international partners to shut down emerging drug transit routes and associated corruption in West Africa. --Coordinate with international partners to prevent synthetic drug production, trafficking, and pre- cursor chemical diversion.

Four Main Control Acts

-From 1989 - 2010 the federal government implemented four methamphetamine control acts in hopes of being able to control precursor chemicals and, ultimately, control the production of meth -These 4 control acts included: --Comprehensive Methamphetamine Control Act (MCA) of 1996 --Methamphetamine Anti-Proliferation Act (MAPA) of 1999 --Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act (CMEA) of 2005 --Combat Methamphetamine Enhancement Act of 2010

Predictors of Meth Addiction

-Age of onset is an important predictor of Meth dependence and chronic long term health problems. -Individuals who begin using meth at an early age tend to experience chronic meth psychosis even after going long periods without using. -Youth that use meth before the age of 17 are more likely to develop mental health problems and dependence on meth and other drugs. -Environmental and societal factors also are associated with meth dependence. Some of these include: living in the west or south, poverty, unemployment, cigarette smoking, novelty seeking, and incarceration.

How are drug crops located? What is the most commonly targeted drug?

-Aircraft/investigation and marijuana -Once located, the drug crops are sprayed with herbicides or destroyed altogether.

Internal Drug Smuggles

-Aka "Mules" or "Body Packers" -People who swallow condoms, balloons, or plastic bags stuffed with drugs, or conceal it in their body cavities, to try to smuggle drugs across borders are known as "Mules" or "body packers" -They are often desperate for money and are recruited by drug dealers who pay them a fraction of the value of the drugs -There are enormous medical risks associated with being an internal smuggler

Internet Sale

-Allows for medication sales across borders -You never know what you are going to get - meds can be mislabeled or doses may be incorrect -Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act - 2009 - this law severely hampered the ability of domestic pharmaceutical drug dealers to sell over the Internet

How Much?

-Americans use 80% of the world's opioid drugs even though we make up 4.6% of the world's population -Most commonly abused drugs are OxyContin, Vicodin, Xanax, and Soma -Fentanyl, a painkiller that comes in patches is 100x more powerful than morphine - becoming more and more of a problem -These drugs cause more death than heroin and cocaine combine

What were the 2 major parts of the 'Weed and Seed' program?

-Antidrug and crime measures (weeding) and community building efforts (seeding) -In the 1990's the "Weed and Seed" Program was created to strengthen communities' defenses against drugs and crime. The first step was antidrug and crime measures from law enforcement to "weed out the issues" and it was followed up by community building efforts to "plant new seeds". Dunworth and Mills (1999) found these programs were generally effective in combating drug problems.

Risks

-Avoiding the police -Disputes between other drug dealers, cartel members, and/or customers -Drug dealers must be careful of who they hire? Why is that?

Process of Hope

-Begins with a warning notification hearing in front of a judge, who makes expectations of compliance clear to the probationer. -If selected for the program, the offender is assigned a color group that corresponds with to a required frequency of drug testing. -The probationers of this program are required to call an automated drug testing hotline each morning. -If their color is selected for that day, they are required to visit the courthouse for a drug test before 2 p.m. -If they probationer fails the drug test or fails to show up a drug test, they are arrested and put back in jail. -To begin with, most participants are tested about 6 times a month. Over time, this number decreases and the probationer can be assigned to another color group.

Women

-Between 2000 and 2008, number of men in prisons grew by 5% and the number of women grew by 15% -Women are more likely to have more severe substance abuse histories -More likely to have mental health issues -Women have higher rates of treatment for both -Women have more physical health issues -Women are more likely to be survivors of trauma (physical and sexual abuse) -Child care issues -Parenting -Women need gender-specific treatments - and women need to be in treatment with other women, not men - why is this important?

History

-Bible, Exodus 21:28 - "When an ox gores a man or woman to death the ox must be stoned; the flesh may not be eaten. The owner of the ox, however, shall go unpunished." -Medieval law - "deodand" - was forfeited to the crown - if an inanimate object was responsible in some way for someone's death, the belief was that the victim's soul could not rest until the object was accused and atoned -"Outlawry" - if someone killed a fleeing felon, they could take possession of the felon's property -The first Congress adopted a number of forfeiture laws in an attempt to impose sanctions against ship owners who did not pay customs duties -During Prohibition, Congress extended civil forfeiture laws to include violations of the Volstead Act -Forfeiture laws have become extremely popular since the 1970's

Youth Violence

-Blumstien (1995) found that youth violence increased dramatically beginning in 1985, and continued to increase for almost a decade -Within a seven year period the number of homicides, gun-related homicides, and arrests for non-white juveniles for drug offenses doubled, this increase was larger for juveniles than it was for adults. -Blumstien attributed this increase to the crack cocaine epidemic. -Crack was much cheaper than powder cocaine, creating a larger market and stimulus for the emergence of entrepreneurial gangs.

Bureau of Justice

-Bureau of Justice Statistics estimates that about half of prisoners meet criteria for drug abuse or dependence -Fewer than 20% actually receive treatment -14.8% incarcerated in state prisons have received treatment since admission -17.4% incarcerated in federal prisons have received treatment since admission

What are the two types of busts that law enforcement agencies use?

-Buy-busts and reverse stings -Buy-busts are where undercover officers buy drugs from dealers and then arrest them. A reverse sting is where officers pose as drug dealers and offer drugs for sale. They arrest those who attempt to buy drugs from them thus reducing drug dealers' customer bases.

What is a cartel?

-Cartel - an association of manufacturers or suppliers with the purpose of maintaining prices levels and restricting competition -Lots of cartels are bonded by family ties both blood and marriage

Design

-Cartels are large, highly sophisticated organizations -Consisting of different cells with specific assignments -Some examples being drug transportation, security/enforcement, and money laundering --Purpose of promoting and controlling drug trafficking operations

Location

-Cartels location is a huge factor in how powerful they may become -Those that control the boarder control the smuggling routes

Physical Health Effects of Meth

-Chronic users suffer from health issues having to do with their skin, lungs, and kidneys. -Meth users have higher rates of heart disease. -Young users have had severe health problems including circulatory disease, bone damage, muscle damage, and genitourinary diseases. -Undernourishment, because meth acts as an appetite suppressant. -Users who inject meth are at a higher risk due to needle sharing and the re-use of contaminated syringes. -Lowers inhibitions and negatively affects judgment -Users were four times more likely to engage in sexual intercourse before the age of 13, having sex with multiple partners, and having gotten pregnant. -Users of meth have a 3 times higher chance of contracting HIV

Colombia

-Colombia has seen perhaps the most substantial change in law and points to the variety of rationales for removing criminal sanctions -The Colombian law is relatively long-standing but the lack of regular data on drug use and problems in Colombia has meant there is no meaningful evaluation of the consequences -In 1994, the Constitutional Court issued a ruling stating the state lacked a basis for interfering when there was clear harm to others. The court did not allow for any penalties, even treatment for possession of small quantities intended for personal possession -In 2002 President Alvaro Uribe opposed this measure and overturned in on four occasions -Congress passed an amendment to the Constitution that prohibited these drugs and allowed the state to impose educational or therapeutic sanctions on those who were arrested with small quantities -While Colombia would still be classified as having decriminalized, the change is seen as a step back toward criminalization since it reestablishes penalties

What are the two primary components of community policing?

-Community partnerships and problem solving -Community partnerships are between police and the people they protect. Police must work at the neighborhood level to engage citizens and encourage them to become involved in anti-crime actives and inform police about neighborhood priorities. Problem solving dictates that the police must become proactive in analyzing problems and tailoring solutions as dictated by the nature of the problem.

Types of Businesses

-Conspiracy/bureaucratic model - assumes that criminal enterprises grow over time, often dominate illicit markets through corruption and intimidation -Enterprise model - assumes that a small number of small, independent criminal groups loosely networked with other independent groups

What are 3 major types of civil remedies for third party policing?

-Controlled leases, no trespassing ordnances, public parking restrictions, and nuisance ordnances. -Any resident living in a house that is arrested for a drug related charge can be evicted. No trespassing ordnances and parking regulations help control the distribution in certain areas. Nuisance ordnances include noise violations, loitering regulations, and disorderly conduct laws.

Law Enforcement

-Covert operations are expensive and time-consuming -Law enforcement focuses its time on the larger organizations -In counties with competent and uncorrupted police, networks stay small - try to fly under the radar of police -There is little evidence of wide-spread corruption among police in the West -Drug network prefer to operate in the shadows

1980's

-Crack was the drug of the inner-cities -There was an increase in adult and youth gangs -Research conducted in the 1980's and 1990's has documented youth and adult gang involvement in drug use in higher levels than non-gang members

Why were drug free zones created?

-Created as a deterrent and to protect classes of citizens or to reduce drugs, crime, and disorder. -Drug free zones are generally located around schools, playgrounds, libraries, and other places where children are; however, there is no evidence that drug free zones are effective.

Crew Selling

-Crew selling is a drug-selling operation where large quantities of drugs are sold with a profit motive. -More sophisticated in that it involves a semi-organized group of sellers headed by young adults who use juveniles as part of their trafficking operation. --Juveniles will serve as hawkers who attempt to attract buyers, lookouts who watch for police officers, and runners who bring the drugs to the buyers or take the money to a designated hidden point. -The crew system is used because juveniles are not likely to receive harsh court penalties, and so that no one person is in possession of drugs and money or involved in the drug selling transactions. -Many juveniles involved in successful crew selling at a young age will learn the drug business and eventually become independent or manage their own crew.

Meth and Criminal Behavior

-Crimes typically associated with meth users include: burglary and robbery to obtain money for drugs, violent crimes committed due to the pharmacological effect of methamphetamine, and drug crimes such as producing and/or selling methamphetamine. -Violent crimes in the drug market occur when the individual or group are trying to defend their turf. This is especially true for trafficking organizations such as the Mexican Cartel. -Meth consumption is known to cause Violence. Pre examples of this violence include:: domestic violence, drug-related violence, gang-related violence, and other types of violence such as assault. -Some studies link meth use to homicide. Studies show that meth users are 9 times as likely to commit a homicide than non users of meth.

Alternate Sources of Supply

-Criminal groups are able to obtain their product from multiple sources -Why is this a good thing for these groups?

Exploitation of Political and Social Conditions

-Criminal groups are adaptable to changing political and economic climates -Why is this a good thing?

Minority Drug Offenders and Net Widening

-Critics of the drug court movement contend that net widening is especially a problem for minority offenders & offenders from impoverished neighborhoods because they are most likely to be drawn into the system -Poor minority offenders do not commit more drug offenses than white offenders, rather they are more likely to be arrested, prosecuted, & convicted -Even though whites commit twice as many offenses, blacks are greatly overrepresented in the CJ system -Race effects are apparent across the CJ system & net widening contributes to the increase in these race effects -The net widening effect could be reduced if the CJ system concentrates on serious offenders & increases non-criminal justice treatment & rehabilitation programs for low level offenders: reintegrate into society

Perception

-Current perception is related to a California study of adult gang members conducted by Skolnick and colleagues (1998) -Described two gangs: Crips and Bloods -These gangs were becoming entrepreneurial and were expanding their drug-trafficking operations to markets in other cities; where drug markets appeared, so did violent crime -Youth gangs are still characterized by this study -Most of the studies are conducted with males

Drug Policy and Tactics

-Decreasing violence would be more effective. -Instead of trying to reduce casual drug users, focus on the reduction of heavy criminal drug abusers.(marijuana vs cocaine.) -High dose users, or hard drug users, that are criminally active and found in the criminal justice system are the ones that make up a majority of the drug market's revenue. -The ones on probation/parole, because revocation is expensive; most of their violations go unpunished.

Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE)

-Developed by the Los Angeles Police Department in 1983 -The most widely used anti-drug program in U.S. schools -Presented by police officers to 5th and 6th graders -9-week program that aimed to reduce the use of tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana --Found to be ineffective and was revised in 2003 -Started incorporating more active learning --Objectives included improved decision-making skills when drugs are offered, enhanced coping mechanisms, and an understanding of the low prevalence of peers' use of drugs -The revised program was still found to be ineffective

Treatment Options

-Drug Courts -Community-based treatment after release -We need cross-agency coordination and collaboration between criminal justice professionals, substance abuse professionals, and other social service professionals -What other services do offenders need besides substance abuse treatment?

Principles of Treatment

-Drug addiction is a brain disease -Recovery from addiction requires effective effort, followed by management over time - there are no quick fixes -Treatment must last long enough to make an impact -Assessment is the first step in treatment - what do we want to know? -Treatment needs to be individualized - How? -Drug use during treatment should be carefully monitored - look out for triggers -Treatment should focus on factors that are associated with criminal behavior - criminal thinking -Criminal justice supervision should incorporate treatment planning and everyone should be aware of what is expected of the offender -Continuity of care is essential for drug abusers leaving prison and re-entering the community -Balance of sanctions and rewards should be used and should be progressive - don't just throw people in jail when they mess up - are there other alternatives? -Offenders with drug abuse and mental health issues should receive integrated treatment -Medications should be used when necessary and when they might be helpful -Treatment planning should include strategies to prevent and treat serious, chronic medical conditions

Minority drug Offenders and Drug Courts

-Drug courts are an increasingly popular diversion program for drug offenders -Research generally supports the motion that drug courts are effective in reducing drug use & recidivism --Flaw: most studies only assess court graduates rather than all offenders admitted to the program ---The graduates show very good outcomes, but there are also offenders who drop out of the program & are either sent to jail or receive a different sentence -Drug courts can be effective for certain offenders, but minorities are disadvantaged due to cultural issues & life stressors -Due to the positive overall evaluation of drug courts, more & more offenders are diverted into drug courts, including offenders who otherwise would not have been arrested, prosecuted, or convicted

Widening the Net

-Drug laws tend to widen the net to arrest as many people as possible -Even if women don't have power in a drug network, they still get arrested for their minor involvement -Conspiracy - every participant is held accountable for the actions of the others -Accomplice Liability - by providing any aid, a woman can be labeled an accomplice (renting a car, allowing a partner to keep belongings at her house) -Constructive Possession - possession of contraband is related to proximity to it and degree of control over the area -Asset Forfeiture - government can seize property even if a woman is not charged with a crime

Most Research

-Drug networks consist of small groups of shifting coalitions of dealers and a complete lack of monopolistic-style control by any large durable and hierarchical organization -Drug markets consist of small and medium size groups that are independent, autonomous, decentralized, informal, coalitional, and situational -Drug networks are loosely structured organizations

How drug trafficking is similar and different to other businesses

-Drug trafficking like other businesses or work is a capitalist enterprise. Limitations in drug dealing and trafficking result in a society not governed by the laws of the state but by the laws of the streets or criminals. Must ensure a constant profit allowing them to procure more product while achieving a profit margin that affords them a desired lifestyle --Similarities ---many drug cartels have a boss, assistant managers, upper level field workers, and lower level field workers ---There is organizational structure ---the money the dealers receive for their drugs must be higher than the costs to make a profit ---drug dealers essentially want to sell the highest volume of drugs at the highest price the market will tolerate ---must identify locations that afford them the opportunity to sell a sufficient quantity of their products to be profitable ---figuring out if a particular location will result in an adequate and profitable customer base --Differences ---drug dealers must constantly be wary of the police ---Don't document profits to government ---limits where dealers can market their drugs ---when there are disputes between drug dealers and other drug dealers or customers, they cannot call the police to settle the dispute. ---it often comes down to survival of the fittest ---drug dealers must be judicious in selecting the people who work for them ---must employ people who will not give information to the police, work with other drug dealers, or steal the drugs

Federal Government Response

-In 1963, the President's Advisory Commission on Narcotics and Drug Abuse (Prettyman Commission) recommended a larger role by the federal government in the treatment of people addicted to drugs -1963- Community Mental Health Centers Act became law - provided federal assistance to local treatment providers -1965 - Drug Abuse Control Amendments were passed - brought the manufacture and distribution of amphetamines and barbiturates under federal control and imposed criminal penalties for its manufacture -1968 - FBN was transferred to the Justice Department and merged with the Bureau of Drug Abuse Control to form

United Kingdom

-In 2003 cannabis was shifted from a Schedule B to Schedule C drug, which lessened the maximum penalties that could be imposed on offenders -Possession of a Schedule C drug was not an arrestable offense at that point -The government however created a non-legislative change which created an exemption for cannabis possession; along amongst Schedule C drugs, possession of small amounts of cannabis could still lead to an arrest

Mexico

-In 2009, Mexico passed a law removing all penalties for drug possession -Recently, police other than federal agents had the ability to give the authority to make drug possession arrests and the penalties for selling were made more stringent -The government sets the limits for legal possession so low that in fact it worsens the situation for users. -The concern is not that they will be in fact incarcerated but that they will be subject to extortion by the corrupt local police into drug enforcement

Parts of The Brain

-Hypothalamus - controls chemicals that affect the cells and organs of the body - governs sleep, thirst, hunger, mood, sex drive, metabolism, growth, etc... - its job is the keep the body operating in homeostasis -Thalamus - takes information from certain areas of the brain and relays them to the cerebral cortex, where the higher level brain functions take place -Hippocampus - turns short term memory into long term memory -Amygdalia - emotions center of the brain - how we feel emotions and how we interpret the emotions of others -Prefrontal Cortex - where we make decisions - cognitive center of the brain, impulse control

Juveniles

-IN 2008, about 10% of juvenile arrests were for drug abuse or underage drinking (out of 2.1 million arrests) -Females tend to have higher rates of substance use disorders compared to males

Goals of MPACT Program

-Identify high risk abuse behaviors and determine level of care to ensure student development and success. • Use education and treatment alternatives to aid in life and coping skill development for students to maximize their potential. • Individualize treatment plans to address the distinctive needs of each participate.

Legalization of these Drugs

-If legalized, these illicit drug markets in Mexico would no longer exist and would decrease drug violence if not eliminating it. -This would end arrest(for drug possession) and increase amount of drugs consumed. (Do you think this would compensate for the damage of increased drug abuse?) -Reduce incarceration of users. -Today, Alcohol is the only one that is made "commercially available." -Out of the 2.4 million locked up, half were "drunk", or intoxicated while committing the crime they were charged with.(more than all illicit drugs combined.)

General Deterrence

-If the punishment is certain enough, swift enough, and severe enough, it will serve as a deterrent to the general public to not commit these crimes -Criminal justice system needs to work quickly and effectively to carry out punishments to those who commit crimes -Limitations: it takes time to catch offenders, it takes time to prosecute, some crimes are victimless (there is no complaining party)

Drug Abuse is Costly

-Illicit drug use in 2007 accounted for an estimated $193 billion in crime, health and lost productivity -Nearly every person in the U.S. is either directly or indirectly impacted by the drug problem -How? --Indirectly, directly, personally --Relative using, you using, robbed or mugged by someone feeding addiction, living in a community, tax payer money- money to fund law enforcement, programs, hospitals, media

How have things changed since the legalization of Marijuana in Colorado?

-According to Fortune Magazine, Colorado saw 996.2 million dollars in legal sales of medical and recreational marijuana in the year 2015. -Governor John Hickenloopper previously openly opposed the legalization. -After the legalization of marijuana in 2014 up until the end of the fiscal year in 2015, the state vendors made700 million of the states near billion dollar enterprise. -Crime rate seems to be unaffected by the legalization, neither encouraging nor deterring criminal activity. -According to Colorado state the biggest fluctuation in the crime was a decrease in property crime by 5% between 2012-2015. -Colorado Department of Transportation released a report that was contrary to the popular thought that legalization would increase traffic accidents saying that the states traffic fatalities have decreased 3% since the legalization of marijuana.

Drugs and Violence

-According to Goldstein (1985), there are three types of drug violence patterns: 1. Psychopharmacological 2. Economic-Compulsive 3. Systemic

Background

-According to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Drug Trafficking is defined as: "a global illicit trade involving the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of substances which are subject to drug prohibition laws." -The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) is a United States federal law enforcement agency under the U.S. Department of Justice created by President Nixon in 1928. The DEA is specifically assigned to combat drug smuggling and drug use within the United States. They share parallel jurisdiction with the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), Homeland Security, and the US Border Patrol. -Nixon was the first president to declare a war on drugs in 1971. He made the statement "America's public enemy number one in the United States is drug abuse. In order to fight and defeat this enemy, it is necessary to wage a new, all-out offensive" -According to the FBI's annual Uniform Crime Reports, of the 1,561,231 arrests for drug law violations in 2014, 16.9% (263,848) were for the sale or manufacturing of a drug. -According to the DEA, Mexican drug cartels are the biggest threat to the United States

Youth Gang Selling

-According to the 2011 National Gang Threat Association, law enforcement in 51 major cities reported moderate to significant levels of gang-related drug dealing. -They contain both crew selling and lone wolfs- social cliques will sell together on behalf of the gang, or one individual member will sell on their own for the gang. -Research consistently shows that gang members tend to commit more crimes compared to non-gang juvenile delinquents (Huff, 2002). -Gangs tend to create a crime subculture, where gang members often look for any opportunity to obtain anything of monetary value- increasing crime rates across the board in the areas where they reside.

Narco Submarines

-According to the US Foreign Military Studies Office, 80% of drugs smuggled into the USA in 2012 came from maritime routes --30% of the drugs that arrived by sea came via narco-sub

Introduction

-Actions to prevent juveniles from becoming involved in crimes and drugs is imperative. --For if a juvenile ends up down this path of drugs and crimes, it may mean that they will have an extended criminal or deviant career. -Life Course Theorists --Sampson and Laub (1993)- found that early antisocial tendencies are linked to adult criminal offending --Moffitt (1995)- advances a developmental taxonomy of juvenile delinquency ---1st (Adolescence- Limited offenders) ----Offend largely as a result of peer relationships and desist from offending fairly early ---2nd (Life-Course Persistent Offenders) ----Compose about 8% of the juvenile offending pop. and continue to commit crimes later in life. -When juveniles become involved in drugs, they tend to associate with the wrong peers, earn low grades in school, get multiple suspensions, and may be expelled.

What are the negative consequences of using prescription drugs non-medically?

-Addiction -Withdrawal symptoms: Insomnia, Anxiety, Pain -Loss of jobs, family, relationships, home -Criminal justice involvement, healthcare costs, loss of productivity --Many think non-medical use of prescription drugs is not as bad as use of illegal drugs - they are wrong -Prescription medication is considered the new gateway drug

Name three other countries the United States has worked with to eradicate drug crops?

-Afghanistan Colombia, Peru, Central America, and South America -The US worked with Afghanistan to eradicate opium poppies, Colombia and Peru with the coca plant, and marijuana in Central and South America.

African American Women

-African-American women are effected by racism as well sexism and abuse, this is often physical and psychological. -Females that abuse drugs have substantially higher rates of domestic violence, homelessness, and other events such as sexual abuse and rape. -Research shows that drug using African-American females are much more likely to be poor and unemployed, separated, and single mothers. The result may be anxiety low self-esteem and depression which is also linked to drug use.

Health Disparities Related to Illicit Drugs

-African-Americans and Hispanics are more likely to develop marijuana and cocaine dependence and to die from a drug overdose. (Galea & Rudenstien 2005) -This may be explained in part by a more stressful living environment and lack of social support. -Risky behavior due to illicit drug use includes sexual behavior that increases the probability of sexually transmitted diseases and chronic health problems.

Alcohol Related Health Disparities and Social Problems

-African-Americans and Hispanics have significantly higher alcohol use and more severe health problems due to alcohol abuse. (Schmidt, Ye, Greenfield and Bond 2007). -More likely to develop cirrhosis (chronic liver damage) and higher rates of death caused by alcohol than whites. (Greenfield 2001, Caetano, 2003) -The more socially disadvantaged the racial group, the more likely to die due to alcohol related illnesses. -African-Americans have higher rates of alcohol dependency. This is interesting because studies show they start drinking later in life. -Alcohol use during pregnancy can lead to severe health problems for children. -Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is a lasting health impact on children. -What are some symptoms of FAS? -Learning and behavioral problems, deformities and heart defects. These continue into adulthood and require lifelong psychiatric and medical treatment.

Youth Gang

-Again, lack of consensus on what a youth gang is -Group of young people who join together to defend a particular territory -Age 15 - 25 years of age, but many be younger -Engage in illegal activities in efforts to increase the power of the gang

Organized Crime

-Again, no agreed upon definition -Criminal conspiracy of several persons motivated for the purpose of economic enrichment

Germany

-Germany's Constitutional Court in 1994 ruled that the state, once it allowed the production and consumption of alcohol and tobacco, could not criminally sanction cannabis use -The implementation of the decision was complicated by the fact that the law itself is a federal statute, but the administration of criminal justice is the responsibility of the "Lander" (states) -The police in principle have no discretion but must anyone detected violating a criminal statute, however lander prosecutors do have discretion -Thus implementation has taken the form of guidelines for prosecutors restricting penalties for those arrested with small amounts of marijuana -Prosecution decisions have been found to most strongly influenced by the offender's criminal record, the number of previous offenses, substance amounts involved, and other circumstances of the offense

Harm Reduction Policy in Other Countries

-Germany, Canada, Britain, Switzerland, and the Netherlands, have all embraced harm reduction policies. -From these countries and their experience, we can see that there would be no question that these strategies decrease drug related harms without increasing drug use. -Harm reduction strategies are not costly, they usually save taxpayers' money that would otherwise go to the criminal justice system and healthcare. -The book states what the roadblocks are within the United States and harm reduction policies are abstinence only idealogues and a cruel indifference to the lives and well being of people who use drugs.

Comprehensive Methamphetamine Control Act (MCA) of 1996

-Goal: To regulate the chemicals used to make meth and to increase criminal and civil sanctions for drug traffickers and producers of meth. -What did MCA do? 1) Expanded the control of precursor drugs to include ephedrine, pseudoephedrine and phenyl-propanolamine (PPA). --These are all used as either decongestants, allergy relievers or to treat asthma or shortness of breath (Common brand names include Sudafed which is a pseudoephedrine) 2) It increased the punishment for those who provided equipment for meth production and for those who created meth. --Civil penalties for companies who supplied the laboratory equipment increased to $250,000 --The maximum prison terms for the manufacturing of meth increased to 10 years for the first offense and 20 years for subsequent offenses.

Drug Tourism

-Going to another country to buy drugs - legitimate and illegitimate drugs can be cheaper -Customs allows the transportation of drugs from other countries as long as there is a legitimate prescription

Low Income Neighborhoods

-Have trouble attracting mainstream business, i.e. grocery stores, banks -Have more check-cashing businesses and pawn shops that charge high interest for their services -Have more massage parlors, adult bookstores, convenience stores, and liquor stores -Many of these neighborhoods lack collective efficacy - they don't know one another, are renters, move around a lot, don't have stake in the community - perfect place for drug dealers to work

Limited Research

-Highly covert and secretive group -Relatively small number of dealers at this level -Covert, secretive, and often uncooperative nature of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to share information -Differences in regional, national, and global variations in drug dealing -Ever-changing nature in drug dealing -Complexity of tasks involved in moving drugs from upper level dealers to street dealers

Police patrols as a deterrent began to be questioned by what study?

-Kansas City Patrol Study -The Kansas City Patrol Study used more officers to deter crime in high population crime areas and crime rates didn't decrease.

Italy, Portugal and Spain

-In Portugal cannabis possession is still an arrestable offense; the arrestee meets with a three-person commission, which decides whether the appropriate response is a fine or treatment -As for Spain, there is no administrative sanction for use or possession in a public place; there is no fine for use in private settings. -In Italy a first offense produces just a warning, but a second offense will lead to an administrative sanction (i.e. suspension of driver's license). There may also be differences in how an arrest shows in terms of an individual's criminal record -The implementation of these laws in Italy and Spain has been characterized by a struggle about what constitutes a "small quantity" consistent with the law's intent to distinguish between dealers and users

Fall of Medellin Cartel

-In the 1990's the resistance group, Los Pepes, controlled by the Cali Cartel, and the Colombian government, in collaboration with right-wing paramilitary groups, and the United States government, had successfully dismantled the Medellin Cartel by imprisoning or assassinating its members -Escobar himself was killed by government forces in 1993 -Escobar has since become a criminal icon, as he was one of the richest men in the world during his reign

Violence

-Intracartel violence - among and between members of the same criminal organization -Intercartel violence - between rival groups -Cartel vs. government violence -Spillover violence - deliberate, planned attacks by drug cartels on US assets, including civilian, military, or law enforcement officials; innocent American citizens -Younger generation traffickers have more spillover violence since their approach to drug trafficking is less rational and profit-minded than their elders

Afghan Opium Production Must be Curbed

-It is estimated that as much as 90% of the opium production in the world comes from Afghanistan, which has increased dramatically from the 50% it was 10 years ago. -The suspected idea is that stopping production would solve the major issues of heroin abuse in Europe and Asia, as well as curb the Taliban. -However, even if the United States, Nato, and the Afghanistan government were able to agree on a course of action to effectively cut the legal production of opium, it is believed that the Taliban, warlords, and other black-market affiliates would simply be able to market their stockpiles of the drug at a higher price. This would be more money invested in terrorism.

Violence and Drugs

-It is important to note that much of this violence was not due to drug trafficking. Howell (2012) studied gang violence and asserts that there has been more violence attributes to turf battles, defending the gangs honor, revenge, and disputes than due to drug trafficking. -Honor and respect has been more of a factor than selling drugs. --"Gang members carry guns to protect themselves and their turf from rival gangs, who in turn, must arm." (Lizotte, Krohn, Howell, Tobin, & Howard, 2000 p.830). -Gang violence, to a large extent, an be attributed to gain members self identity that is rooted in self-concepts of masculinity and is reinforced through gang membership (Stretsky & Pogrebin, 2007). -Although drugs are not seen as the primary cause of gang violence, drugs were a precursor to the development of conditions that led to the increase in violence.

Mexico

-It is likely that more Mexican police officers have died in attempting to enforce US drug war policies than US police -Better relationships between the countries would help reduce the movement of drugs between Mexico and US -For example, Mexican cops cannot cross the US boarder when following a drug smuggler and US chasing planes into Mexico cannot cross the border

What is the 'pulling lever' strategy?

-It is multipronged approached for deterring crime -It is a strategy rooted in community policing and problem solving. It increases sanctions, or pulling levers, to stop offenders from continuing in violent crimes. The pulling lever strategy also forces law enforcement officials to communicate with offenders more frequently

El Chapo

-Joaquin "Chapo" Guzman Loera(1949-present) also known as "Shorty "was a kingpin in the Mexican Sinaloa cartel He reign began around the 1990s up until 2014. -His operation began in Columbia where he exported cocaine into American cities as far as New York. He had currency changing houses across the boarder to readily convert money into pesos and deposited into accounts for amounts less than 10,000.He usually distributed his drugs by commercial trucks but sometimes by air. -He has masterminded several prison escapes --He slipped through a hole under the shower in his cell and escaped through a mile-long tunnel that led to a construction site on the outside. --He escaped in laundry basket in 1999 from a Mexican prison- this plot allegedly cost 2.5 million dollars in bribes. -He was featured in Forbes 2014 list of "Worlds Most Powerful People." -With an estimated 1 billion dollars net worth Forbes also featured him on their list of the "World's Richest People" in the No. 701 ranking. -It is estimated that the cartel is responsible for 25% of all illegal drugs that enter the U.S. from Mexico. Drug enforcement experts estimate the cartel's profits may exceed $3 billion. -Allegedly responsible for 80% of the drugs in Chicago, Chicago has since labeled him the first "Public Enemy No. 1" since the infamous kingpin Al Capone.

Factors for a Juvenile Drug Market

-Kleinman and Young (1995) identify several factors necessary for a drug market to form: --Venue: a place that is conducive to selling drugs --Accessibility: buyers must have ready access to the menu --Desire: there must be an actual want for the drugs, or no market will form --Income: the market must provide the seller with the income that is required to maintain profits, or desired --Supply: seller must have enough drugs to sell and the ability to retain enough money to continually purchase drugs for resale --Discretion: the seller must have a measure of impunity or protection from law enforcement and other drug dealers usually through secretive or hidden sales

Culturally Relevant Substance Abuse Treatment Services for Minorities

-Lack of appropriate treatment services for African-American & Hispanic drug offenders is a serious problem -Successful treatment: development of new strategies to cope with stress, family support, a new lifestyle free of drugs, & the threat of relapse -Conventional treatments were developed for whites and do not fit well with the Hispanic Culture or African Americans -African Americans have significantly lower treatment completion rates than whites

Prohibition

-Lasted from 1920 - 1933 -Provided the necessary environment for the Mafia to flourish -By making so much money selling illegal alcohol, the Mafia was able to infiltrated legitimate businesses, making their profits more difficult to detect -During the 1930's, the major heads of influential Mafia families formed a commission, where they would meet to discuss territory, disputes, approve new members, and decide which crimes to become involved in

French Connection

-Late 1960's - early 1970's, France was well known as the main distribution point for 80% of the world's heroin -Marseilles became the center of heroin labs processing raw opium from Turkey -Heroin was then smuggled into the US by French Corsicans and Sicilian Mafia members - known as the French Connection

Pros

-Law enforcement departments are under more and more financial restraints -Forfeiture is one way that departments can boost their bottom line -It isn't enough to take criminals off of the streets, we also need to go after their profits -Deters criminal activity, saves taxpayers' money, and boosts the morale of officers

Insulation of Leaders

-Layers exist between the leaders of these organizations and the buyers of drugs -Usually these leaders, and those close to them, are the only ones who see and understand the entire operation and organization -Why is this a good thing? How does this help the organization

Other Forms of Smuggling

-Liquid Cocaine - mixed with solvents and later separated out when the cocaine reaches its final destination, can be sprayed on clothing or disguised as alcohol -Catapults and Canons - fired from catapults and cannons across the border -Drones and Ultra-light Planes - using ultra-light planes and drones to carry drugs over the border - hard to detect over radar - will likely be used more and more as the technology improves

Why Do Youth Join?

-Live in areas with high poverty rates -Racial strife in the community -Come from broken families/homes -Limited job and educational opportunities -To feel a part of something -To feel as if they have some power

Hope Program (Part of probation and parole)

-Located in Hawaii. -The program gets 80% of their meth users clean and out after one year. -Program helps save them money by decreasing incarceration rate. -Fewer than ten percent come back. -Required to quit and stop using the illicit drug. -Offers drug treatment, not required unless you fail multiple times. -The program is now spreading to other states -If successful, it can reduce drug use, reduce the market, and will lead to reducing drug trafficking organizations in Mexico by 40%.

All Illicit Markets are Not Created Equal

-Lower Level --Small organizations --Linked to more violent crimes --Smaller amounts of product and money --More stranger to stranger sales -Higher Level --More sophisticated --More organized --Designed to keep organization leaders out of harms way or off law enforcement radar. --More product and more money --More international sales. Buyers and Sellers can come together through the internet.

College Campuses

-Males are more likely to use illicit substances compared to women (41% vs. 33%) -Binge drinking - 7% of college women and 24% of college men

Improper Prescribing

-Malpractice due to a lack of knowledge -Malpractice in order to make a profit -Only 56% of all medical residents receive any substance abuse training, usually 3-12 hours total

Effects of these Laws

-Many states experienced a decline in meth incidents following the enactment of the laws while others had lower and slower decreases -About 40 states have enacted additional laws, which regulate the sale of these chemicals. -Oregon and Mississippi have the strictest laws in the nation. Both require a prescription for any product containing ephedrine or pseudoephedrine. Oregon's law has been effect since 2006 and has one of the lowest numbers of incidents in the nation. -Have caused the creation of "one pot labs" which are labs where the production of meth is by a plastic bottle and precursor chemicals. **From 2004-2012 the lab incidents in Alabama decreased from 797 labs to 192 labs.**

Drugs and Crime

-McLaughlin, Daniel, and Joost (2000) studied 25 juvenile murderers who were in custody to determine the relationship of their offense to drugs. -The average age of the murderer at the time of the offense was 15 years old. -They found that 52% of the homicides were committed by juveniles who were involved in drug trafficking, and 28% were otherwise drug related. -About 75% of the perpetrators were heavy drug users. Thus, drug selling was in a majority of these juvenile murders' backgrounds. This further explains the relationship between drugs and violence. -Drugs not only contribute to violence, but they are also associated with more significant levels of crime in general. -As adolescents consume more drugs, they likely will become involved in more crime. -Huizinga, Loeber, and Thornberry (1994) conducted longitudinal studies of drugs and crime in Denver, Pittsburgh, and Rochester and found that drug abuse rather than other social factors were better predictors of adolescent crime. -Drug use appears to "contribute to continuity in serious crime, and serious crime attributes to community in serious illicit drug use (Menard, Mihalic, & Huizinga, 2001, p.294).

Differences

-Men are more likely to use drugs for socializing and adventure - they also tend to externalize their problems -Women are more likely to use to self-medicate, more likely to use to cope with negative emotions, more likely to have attempted suicide, more likely to internalize their problems -Text, p. 449, bottom of the page -Men tend to start using with male peers -Women tend to start using with intimate partners (usually male) -Men's entry into treatment is often because of social institutions, such as employment, the criminal justice system, and their family -Women tend to be referred by social workers

Meth Lab Incidents

-Meth lab incidents include the seizures of meth labs by local and state law enforcement. -These incidents are reported to the Clandestine Laboratory Seizure System, which is a central database that is maintained by the DEA. -Since 2004 the number of meth lab incidents has significantly decreased from 23,829 in 2004 to 11,210 in 2012. -The majority of meth in the United States is smuggled into the U.S via private or commercial vehicles from the superlabs in Mexico.

Other Options for Reduction

-Methadone Treatment for Heroin Addicts --Many addicts are hardcore and need help --Methadone has shown to control impulses and criminal behavior *Emphasize Treatment: Some view treatment as a reward for drug abusers and some question why we should help someone who should be punished. --Treatment programs permanently take a number of drug users off the streets and they are generally more effective than punishment (Rajkumar and French 1997).

What is Methamphetamine?

-Methamphetamine is a stimulant that releases norepinephrine and dopamine, while simultaneously blocking the reuptake of these chemicals. -Some street names for meth are, "speed", "ice", "crystal", "chalk", and "glass" (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2012). -There are three different types of methamphetamines: --Dextro-meth (d-meth) --Levo-meth (l-meth) --Dextro-levo meth (dl-meth) -Meth makes the user feel extremely alert, energized, and feelings of complete euphoria, which is why it is so addictive. -However , it can also cause hallucinations and even psychosis.

Effects of Meth on the Brain

-Methamphetamine negatively impacts the levels of dopamine and serotonin released by the brain. -This chemical change makes everyday activities, such as hanging out with friends or going bowling, far less enjoyable. -Volume of the front and temporal lobes are impacted. -This impact causes weakened cognition skills, emotional problems, and memory loss. -Even after years of sobriety from meth, damage to the brain cells may only be partially reversible. -Meth increases activated microglia (growth of cells) which promotes degeneration of brain cells.

The history of Methamphetamine

-Methamphetamine was developed in Germany in 1887 as well as Japan in 1893 (Suwaki, 1997). -People began to study the effects and found it would be helpful during wartimes as a way to compensate for fatigue in World War II. -Hitler put it in chocolates and used it to increase alertness and counteract depression. -In the 50s and 60s Americans prescribed it for depression and obesity. -In 1971 it was classified as a Schedule II drug and the production then went underground, then exploded as an illicit drug. - In one year, from 1993 to 1994 meth related deaths increased by 130% (Anglin et al., 2000). -Today most of the production is in Mexico and bought in America.

Cocaine

-Mexico does not produce cocaine, but Mexican cartels move Columbian cocaine through South and Central America and into the United States. Its estimated 93 percent of cocaine headed to the US from South America moves through Mexico. --According to the 2014 NDTS ,considers to be at normal levels in 2014 when compared to past seven years.

Marijuana

-Mexico is the number one foreign supplier of marijuana to the United States, and thought to be the top revenue generator for Mexican drug cartels. --According to the 2014 NDTS ,DEA names most widely available illicit drug.

Methamphetamine

-Mexico remains the biggest foreign supplier of methamphetamine to the United States, and Mexican drug cartels set up labs to manufacture meth on both sides of the border, controlling labs in Southern California as well as domestically. --According to the 2014 NDTS, western state agencies are reporting meth to be the greatest drug threat in their areas.

Types of Drug and Crime

-Narcotics and synthetic narcotics (heroin) - linked to property crimes and "victimless" crimes such as prostitution - heroin is a depressant physically and mentally -Marijuana or ecstasy - not linked to violent crime or crime in general -PCP - linked to violence, but is consumed infrequently so this may not be as big of a problem as past researchers suggest -Meth - linked to violence and crime -Alcohol - linked to violence and crime -Polydrug use - skews the results of all research

Barriers for Treatment

-Minorities less likely to receive treatment than whites, also treatment that fits their specific needs -On average, African Americans have to wait the longest before beginning treatment -Disadvantaged due to inadequate health insurance, not seen as drug users, less likely to be referred to treatment -Culture in minorities that they have to deal with problems on their own

Minorities and Drug Crimes

-Minority youth are more likely to join gangs then white youth. Despite the higher involvement in gangs. -Research suggests that minorities do not engage in more drug selling and drug dealing than whites. -White youth account for 75% of juvenile drug offense cases compared to 22% of black youth. Minorities are more likely to be arrested, prosecuted, and sentenced. -African-American males are admitted to prison 13 times higher on drug charges then white men. -Research has found great racial disparities in arrests and sentencing, but not an actual drug use or drug dealing.

Demographics of Juvenile Drug Consumption

-Monitoring the future looks at drug usage rates of high school students who are college bound and those that are not. --College-bound students were less likely to be at risk for using illicit drugs --Most likely a result of stronger family bonds and greater adherence to mainstream norms -Age is another factor. --Marijuana- MTF reported 22.6% of 12th graders had used marijuana in the last 30 days --Alcohol- young adults ranked the highest at 68.8% -Gender --Fewer girls than boys use illicit drugs. --Boys often try to prove their masculinity within peer groups and are involved in more risky behaviors. -Race --Monitoring the future suggest that black students have the lowest levels for illicit and licit drugs --Asian students seemed to be in the middle of the African Americans and the Whites --Whites tend to have the highest percentages for most drugs.

How do increased patrols differ from 'police crackdowns'?

-More as an act of deterrence and less to increase arrest numbers -With increased patrols, there are more officers patrolling the streets. The goal is to have more officers visible on patrol to deter potential crime.

Administrative Forfeiture

-More controversial of the two -One reason: some jurisdictions use forfeiture as a plea bargaining mechanism - in exchange for cash, some prosecutors will reduce charges -Nearly 80% of property whose property is forfeited are never prosecuted -Most property owners are not versed in the nuance of property forfeiture -Attorneys can be expensive -Corporations are more successful in appealing forfeitures when compared to ordinary citizens

Violence and Drug Dealers

-Most drug networks in US, Canada, and Europe do their best to be intimidating but not use violence unless they have to -Why do you think this is?

Is Drug Use a Social Problem?

-Most people would say yes knowing the negative aspects associated with drug use. -Doesn't provide a baseline for informed judgment -How do drugs rank socially? There is a disagreement in terms of the magnitude of the drug problem when compared to other social problems "-A lack of priorities results in a hodgepodge of inefficient policies" -"Drug policies cannot be based on the utopian belief that nonmedical drug use will be eliminated" (Des Jarlais 1995). U.S ranks first in the world per capita incarceration-with less than 5% of the world's population, but almost 25% of the world's prisoners. -The number of people locked up in the U.S. today for drug law violations has increased roughly 50,000 in 1980 & almost 500,000 today. (That's almost all of Western Europe total arrest) -Drugs have been demonized by numerous sources (Ex: War on drugs and drugs cost to society on individuals, media, false rhetoric) "They are seen as a scourge on society by many people, and there is no question that drugs have exacted a substantial price on humanity" (Muriji 1998). -Media misrepresentations of drugs can affect policy*

Types of Retail Drug Dealing

-Mutual Societies --known as a friendship network --it is essentially where drug dealers seek drugs to people they know --a number of drugs are sold in this fashion, including marijuana, ecstasy, heroin, methamphetamine, and prescription drugs --also known as private networks, or socially bonded businesses --fairly safe in terms of being resistant to police intervention as long as the dealers only sell drugs within their social network --the operations are small, and there is little violence associated with them -Periodic Markets --drug markets limited by time and location --some may be highly profitable during certain periods, and drug dealers will travel to these locations in order to sell to a large number of customers (sell before and after school) --range of customers is reduced because of the concentration in one location --problem for drug dealers when selling drugs at periodic markets is that they sell mostly to strangers which increase the apprehension by the undercover police officers --unlikely to result in repeat customers -Fixed Neighborhood Sales --optimal for dealers to achieve their threshold at a specific location --customers are located in one concentrated geographical area, or a sufficient number of buyers are familiar with the location and are willing to travel to the location --in the past the main fixed site neighborhood location was crack houses --the dealers working fixed site locations often are freelance or individuals working with small crews --many dealers use lookouts to reduce the possibility of the police being able to arrest them --4 geographical features common to this type of drug market: likely to be located in economically depressed neighborhoods; dealers will sell from static sites so customers know where to find them; the market will probably be located around a transport hub or along a main area that allows buyers easy access; markets that have a reputation for selling drugs can grow large in size, and the concentration of activity in a small area will be hard to hide ---people involved in fixed site locations will contribute to a variety of detrimental conditions to the neighborhood like: disorderly conduct, robbery, vandalism, traffic congestion, assaults and homicides, weapons offenses, and more traffic congestion, assaults and homicides, weapons offenses, and more -Drug Marts --areas that are out of control as a result of crime, disorder and drug dealing --dealers attempt to sell drugs with many of the dealers able to achieve their threshold as a result of large numbers of customers -there are very few drug marts today -the police have developed strategies to effectively shut down these types of sales

Minorities and Substance Abuse Treatment

-Need for substance abuse treatment has increased in past 10 years -A study in Illinois suggests African Americans entering treatment for the 1st time rose from 7% in 2000 to 9.5% in 2009 -Hispanics and African Americans generally had lower education -Hispanics were most likely to be admitted for alcohol, African Americans for marijuana abuse, Meth was highest among whites

Minority Drinkers

-Often experience greater social consequences than white drinkers. Marital problems, educational issues, job loss and limited social integration. They are at risk for losing their children, who may be placed in foster care. -Social isolation often leads to depression and continued drug use. If they are ashamed of their behavior, they will cut ties to nondrug users and spend time with only drug users. -Is this a problem for recovery? -Yes. It is very harmful to treatment and recovery. They will return to the same community surrounded by drugs and will continue a dangerous pattern. -Hispanic drinkers experienced social consequences almost twice as often as whites. -African-Americans were also more likely than whites to report social consequences. Some researchers attribute this to social disadvantages of minorities, especially social and racial stigma. -Herd 1994 study suggests that low socioeconomic income was the determining factor for social and criminal consequences. The study stated that people of low economic income are more likely to drink on the street corners or other public places. When easily visible to others, arrests for public drinking and loitering are more likely.

Reasons for Using

-On average, women and men have different reasons for using -What are they?

Potential Solution

-One idea that has been suggested is to purchase all of the opium in the country, which arguably costs less than the current efforts to remove the drug from the market. -This does create the perpetual problem that as long as there is a demand for heroin, the farmers will continue to produce it. -Ultimately, continuing to work with the government of Afghanistan to create new policies for dealing with controlling the distribution seems to be the best option for now.

Los Zetas

-Originally an enforcer wing of Cartel del Golfo created my Osiel Cardenas Guile -Predominantly made up of former Special Forces operatives -Cardenas was considered the country's most powerful under world leader -Unlike other cartels, the Zetas did not buy their alliances so much as they terrorized their enemies

Medication Sharing

-Out of 700 prescription consumers, 22.9% had shared their meds with family or friends -26.9% said that they had received medication from a friend without seeing a doctor -16% had done both -Whites = 23%, Hispanics = 26%, Blacks = 13.5% -Females = 24%, Males = 12% -"Pham parties" and "recipies"

Continued with Latin American Countries

-Over the last few years there have been broad decriminalization moves in Latin American countries, but the situation is so unclear that the data becomes unreliable due to the constant changing of their drug penalty descriptions -Argentina's Supreme Court ruled in 2009 that criminal sanctions for drug possession were unconstitutional -Brazil also recently adopted this same measure but it is unknown where they stand on drug courts. Ecuador has also moved to decriminalization -Overall where the reductions in penalties for possession are done through legislation, they are often accompanied by increasing severity of sanctions for dealing; governments are apparently uneasy about the possibility of the charge being soft on drugs

Business of Drug Dealing

-Participants must procure a quality product -Reasonable prices -Compete for clients -Market their drugs -Collect payments -Pay bills and fees -Pay their workers -Operate in a high risk environment

What parts of local law enforcement were focusing on drug policy enforcement?

-Patrol, Detectives, and Traffic officers. -In the 1970's, with the growth of cocaine, local law enforcement was forced to task more department to enforce drug policy. Patrol, Detectives, and Traffic officers all made combating drug trafficking a priority.

Penalties

-Penalties for drug trafficking in Alabama -Specific penalties vary widely depending on the quantity of drugs involved, whether such charges occurred near a school, and if children under 18 years old were involved. -Drug trafficking of marijuana (more than 2.2 pounds, less than 100 pounds) - Class A Felony, minimum 3 years in prison, $25,000 fine -Drug trafficking of cocaine (more than 28 grams, less than 500 grams) - Class A Felony, minimum 3 years in prison, $50,000 fine -Drug trafficking in Methamphetamine (More than 28 grams, less than 500 grams) - Class A Felony, minimum 3 years in prison, $50,000 fine -Drug trafficking in heroin (More than 4 grams, less than 14 grams) - Class A Felony, minimum 3 years in prison, $50,000 fine

Ricky Ross

-Ricky Ross(1960-present) also known as "Freeway" dominated the Los Angeles cocaine markets in the 1980s. -He had thousands and of employees and trafficked cocaine across the US. -Its reported he made about 2 to 3 million dollars a week and overall accumulated over 600 millions dollars in profit. -He was eventually caught by the DEA and was sentenced to life in 1996. His case was later repeal shortening his sentence to 20 years, he served 13 years and eventually was released for good behavior in 2009. -He lost his immense fortune, but he gained his freedom. His story was later reenacted by Hollywood in the movie American Gangster, starring Denzel Washington. -Ricky filed a law suit against rapper Rick Ross for $10 million, claiming the rapper stole his name and his image. -It was dismissed on the grounds of the first amendment of the US Constitution which regards freedom of expression.

Popularity of Methamphetamines

-Roughly about 290 tons, estimated $28 billion, is made every year (Kilmer, Lundberg, & Chiesa, 2009). -Almost 13 million Americans, 12 years or older, have used meth at least one (NIDA, 2011). -Meth labs are small and portable enough to exist in apartments, motel rooms, garages, etc.

Drug Education

-Schools are an important component of social control and contribute to instilling conformity within society -The U.S. Department of Education has been the largest funding source for drug education -These programs tend to focus on licit drugs such as alcohol and tobacco rather than illicit drugs, because they have a higher rate of abuse among youth -Soole, Mazeroole, and Rombouts (2008) developed a taxonomy of drug education programs: --Structured programs: use peer learning as a way of engaging students interactively in the learning process --Focus on resilience skills: provide students with the ability to abstain from drugs or be resistant to peer pressure --Inform: provide students with information on drugs and drug-related behavior -Increased interaction leads students to be more resistant

Mental Health Effects of Meth

-Short term mental health problems are insomnia, anxiety, confusion, psychotic symptoms, paranoid hallucinations, agitation, and depression. -Long term mental health problems are panic attacks, hallucinations, anxiety, confusion, mood disorders, and aggressive behavior. -27% of users suffer from depression, 14% suffer from anxiety. -Users report feeling delusions, such as bugs crawling under their skin. -Crystal meth users are more likely to become addicted than users of other forms of meth. -61% of crystal meth users were addicted -Meth users have high rates of suicide

Fines

-Similar to criminal forfeiture -Require a person to pay a certain amount of money because of a crime or violation

Decriminalizing Drug Possession

-Since 1973 three European nations have removed penalties for small possession of any psychoactive substances. All three for a different reason -The Italian government (1973) adopted a change to ensure there be no legal barrier to prevent heroin users from seeking treatment due their early heroin epidemic -Spain adopted the same measure due to the France regime becoming a highly intrusive state. This decision was not based off a drug policy decision -Portugal decriminalized due to the concern of over-criminalization of drugs, marijuana being their most important target of this effort

Drug Tunnels

-Since 2001, US law enforcement has discovered more than 100 tunnels along the border with Mexico. -Busy, loud areas are popular because the over-ground traffic distracts from what is going on below ground. -Even with slave labor, tunnels can cost $1 million to $2 million to build, but they can make up that cost with a single shipment. -The Sinaloa Cartel is especially well-know for their use of drug-tunnels.

Forfeiture Proceeds

-Some states allow for the law -Some states allow for the law enforcement agency to keep 100% of what they seize in a forfeiture -Other states expressly forbid such distributions -The federal government allows for agencies to keep 80% - this is one reason why a local agency might team up with a federal agency - this allows them to split the 80% of the proceeds -Alabama allows for law enforcement to keep 100%

Criticisms of Drug Prevention Programs

-Some suggest that programs are more likely to increase interest in drugs, leading to experimentation, rather than prevent use. -Believed to be a waste of money because they are largely ineffective and are not evidence based -There is a need for identifying and implementing research-based drug education programs that are effective. This should be a national priority

Gilead Science

-Sovaldi - Hepatitis C drug -Needed for 12 - 24 weeks -$84,000 for a round of treatment, $1,000 per pill

Birth Weight Problems

-Stress and illicit drug use among African-American women can also lead to premature birth, low birth weight and associated health problems. -Surprisingly, studies about the effects of illicit drug use on fetuses suggest that there are no direct birth defects associated with illicit drug use by the mother. -Smoking has adverse effects on the fetus. Research consistently shows that children of women who smoke during their pregnancy have a substantially lower birth weight. -Why is birth weight important? -Birth Weight is a determining factor of child development and physical and mental health later in life. -Low birth weight is associated with significant medical costs. Treatment focusing on illicit drugs only is problematic. -Treatment should include stopping smoking and drinking alcohol.

Needle Exchange Programs

-Studied needle exchange programs (Laurie and Drucker 1997). -Impact of not having one: --Between 1987 and 1995 conservatively, 4,394 cases (15% incidence reduction) to 9, 666 cases (33% incidence reduction) of HIV could have been prevented with an effective needle exchange program -If these programs were implemented substantial harm could have been reduced

Juvenile Drug Trafficking

-Studies show that during the 1990's that up to seventeen percent of inner-city male adolescents in Baltimore and Washington D.C were involved in selling drugs. -During the 1970's urban manufacturers eliminated one million jobs, so many inner-city youths turned to drug trafficking to supplement the income that they had lost --Juveniles trafficked drugs for the same reason that adults did: to provide them with a surplus of income to purchase the trappings of success- jewlery, clothes, cars, etc. -Adolescent criminal activities are directly linked to developmental contexts such as family, schools, and neighborhood peer associations. --Think: Social Bond Theory, Social Learning Theory. A juvenile's social bonds, location, and background provide both limitations and opportunities when attempting to sell drugs.

Considerations

-Substance abuse treatment -Employment -Relationships and social support -Family difficulties -Social skills -Health and mental health issues -Stress -Use evidence-based treatments and strategies

Types of Forfeitures

-Summary forfeiture - law enforcement officials seize property on the spot - property was seized when no one claimed ownership - no legal proceeding is necessary -Administrative forfeiture - requires a formal court proceeding - property is seized, the property owner is given a certain amount of time during which to challenge the seizure, court date is set if the property owner wishes to contest the seizure -Civil Judicial Proceeding - prosecutor will bring a civil case against a piece of property and give the owner a reasonable amount of time to prepare a defense --Less adversarial

Criminal Forfeiture

-Target persons -Implemented in conjunction with a criminal prosecution of an offender -Needs proof beyond a reasonable doubt -Prosecution bears the burden of proving guilt

Sentencing

-The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 created distinctions in minimum sentencing between offenders who possessed powder cocaine and those who possessed crack cocaine. -The 100 to 1 ratio for powder cocaine and crack cocaine received significant criticism because of the disparate racial impact in sentencing. -From 1994 to 2010, black and Hispanics represented roughly 70% of all defendants sentenced for illicit drugs.

What two agencies are involved in seizing interdicted drugs in the Caribbean Basin?

-The DEA and the US Coast Guard -The DEA and US Coast Guard have seized drugs a long time in the war on drugs. They are involved extensively in interdicted drugs in the Caribbean Basin. Drug smugglers now find new interdiction methods to get around the DEA and Coast Guard interference.

Physicians

-The Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) tracks the distribution patterns of prescription medications -Between 2003 and 2013, 268 physicians were convicted of illegal distribution of prescription medication -Punishments ranged from prison sentences to probation sentences to home confinement to house arrest to community service to fines -Longest sentence - doctor in Georgia convicted of felony murder for prescribing multiple controlled substances for a patient who died

Children Under 11

-The Federal Drug Administration recently approved OxyContin for use by children under 11

What Amendment is violated most often by drug enforcement agencies?

-The Fourth Amendment -The Fourth Amendment protects against unlawful searches and seizures. This is the main problem with drug enforcement agencies' actions. Many of their searches have violated people's Fourth Amendment rights.

Lone Wolf Selling

-The Lone Wolf dealer is one who is not associated with a group or gang. -They usually work independently, selling small quantities of drugs to a limited number of customers. --They have a supply of drugs that may be constant or intermittent depending on their connections with suppliers. -Mutual Societies: Rengert (1996) identifies mutual societies as a form of lone wolf drug selling. --They can be found in schools or adolescent peer groupings where the adolescent sells recreational drugs such as marijuana, prescription medications, ecstasy, and other drugs to friends o acquaintances. -Lone wolfs are not always motivated by profit- they may sell drugs for the notoriety or social esteem within their peer groups to add to their popularity (which is an extremely important factor in adolescent cultures).

Pharmaceuticals

-What is the difference between the behavior of those who abuse pharmaceutical drugs vs. pharmaceutical companies that abuse their power? -Are the treated differently in society? -How?

Harm Reduction Strategy

-The better approach is not demand reduction but harm reduction. -Reducing drug use is fine, but it's not nearly as important as reducing the death, disease, crime and suffering associated with both drug misuse and failed prohibitionist policies. -With legal drugs such as cigarettes and alcohol harm reduction means persuading people to switch to nicotine patches, chewing gum, and smokeless tobacco or promoting responsible drinking and designated drivers. -With illegal drugs harm reduction means reducing the transmission of infectious disease through syringe exchange programs, reducing overdose fatalities by making antidotes readily available, and allowing people addicted to heroin and other illegal opiates to obtain methadone from doctors.

How Are Drugs Sold?

-The book identifies three modes of trafficking. -Street-Level Sales: These dealers are typically independent and sell two different drugs in small qualities at one or multiple locations. Because their sales are conducted in public, they are most vulnerable to police. -Indoor Sales: these transactions often take place in homes, apartments, abandoned buildings, storefronts, nightclubs ect. These dealers have established clientele and rely on word of mouth to expand. Because their deals are more discrete they tend to sell larger qualities of drugs. -Delivery Service Sales: This mode of dealing occurs when the seller is contacted to meet the buyer at a specific location. It is commonly used amongst youth. -Via Internet: Once drugs are purchased online, the funds are deposited in one country and shipped to the buyer from another. The origin of the drug comes from another country, therefore making it hard for law enforcement to investigate.

There are 5 Different Federal agencies that work together to enforce drug policies, name three of them

-The five federal agencies are the DEA, ATF, FBI, Coast Guard, and CBP (US Customs and Border Protection). -The DEA (Drug Enforcement Agency), which is part of the US department of justice, has the primary jurisdiction over all drug enforcement. Their four major tasks are; investigation and preparation for prosecution of major drug policy violators, investigation of drug gangs, management and condition of drug related intelligence between federal, state, and local levels, and be a liaison with foreign drug enforcement agencies. The ATF (Alcohol Tobacco and Firearms) is a part of Department of Justice. They are primarily responsible for the investigation of firearms and explosives. The FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigations) has jurisdiction over more than 200 categories of federal law; including, terrorism, cybercrime, organized crime, white collar crime, violent crime, and major thief. The US Coast Guard, the only military organization under the department of Homeland Security. They share responsibility for air interdiction with US Customs. They also deny smugglers use of maritime routes. Customs and Border Protection are responsible for preventing terrorists, weapons, and drugs from entering the United States. They also are responsible for securing and facilitating trade and travel while enforcing US immigration and drug regulations.

Australia

-The four same Australian jurisdictions that have removed criminal penalties for home production of small quantities did the same with respect to possession -Though the South Australian system is called the Cannabis Expiation Notice, it is very similar the United States decriminalization -A police officer issues a notice that a fine must be paid in return for non prosecution; the offender offers a guilty plea. If the fine is paid, no criminal record will be generated

Incarceration Pattern

-The large percentage of blacks and Hispanics entering prison for drugs is not indicative of high offending rates, but rather of discriminatory practices. -Racial minorities comprise almost three-fourths of all new admissions into state prison for a drug-related offense from 1993 to 2009. -Whites comprise almost 8% of the new admissions for drug possession and 11% of new admissions for trafficking. -Black average almost 11% of new admissions for possession and 19% for trafficking. -Hispanics average 8% for new admissions for possession, and 21% for trafficking.

Drug Abuse Warning Network

-The most often used drugs are Cocaine, Marijuana, heroin and amphetamines. Whites have the highest rates of admissions to the hospital (50.67%) for each drug except cocaine. Hispanics have the least admissions in all categories except for amphetamines; where they have the second largest.

Gangs

-The new gangs and conflicts over territories contributed to the increase in violence. -Many gangs, especially in large cities, residing in areas that were adjacent to or overlapping with other gangs, most notably the Bloods and Crips in California. -Maxon (2004) studied the cities with the highest number of gang homicides and found that 8 of the 12 top cities were in California. -Gangs recruited new members; in a number of cases, entry depended on the new member having a firearm. -As the violence escalated, many juveniles, gang members, and non-gang members, began to carry weapons for protection, again increasing the violence. -Juveniles carrying weapons were less likely to back down in confrontation, increasing the probability of physical violence.

Hierarchy in the Drug World

-The object of drug trafficking is to MAKE MONEY! and a lot of it. Therefore acting as an capitalist enterprise. It operates like most other businesses in that there are bosses, managers, upper field workers and lower field workers. -At the top of the hierarchy are the 1.Growers and Manufacturers. They provide the drugs from its point of origin. These people are usually located outside of the U.S. --Most drugs come into the U.S from South America by speed boats. --80% of drugs that make their way to Puerto Rico eventually route to the U.S by shipping containers or commercial airlines. -Next are 2. Distributors who transport the drugs from its original location to market locations. 3.Transfer this can be conducted by the distributor or another middle man until the drugs make its way into wholesalers or individual sellers. This depends on shipment size. From there the drugs may pass through several hands. Some hierarchies have several levels while some have only a few. -The upper levels of distribution pose the greatest and most dangerous threat to law enforcement. However, official have discovered prosecuting the organizations kingpin has little impact to the circulation of drugs. If the boss is removed, someone quickly fills their spot.

Further Consequences

-The poorer people would turn to crowding into the cities, none of whom have marketable skills. -Others would become part of an effort to plant illegal harvests and use guerrilla farming techniques to escape eradication efforts, and they would be competing with poor farmers on a global scale. -Outside of the country, the inflated price of heroin would inevitably lead to higher rates of crime. More people would begin injecting due to the cost and scarcity, which would lead to higher rates of blood-borne illnesses such as HIV and hepatitis-C.

Cost of Meth Abuse for Society

-The societal cost of methamphetamine abuse are between $16.2 and $48.3 billion annually. (2009) -The most expensive cost incurred due to methamphetamine is incurred in the criminal justice system. Some examples of these include policing, prosecution, case processing, and facility housing. -Other cost include child endangerment cost, lost productivity, drug treatment cost, injuries and cleanup from fires and explosions, and other intangible cost.

History

-The word mafia first appeared in a newspaper in November 1860, when it was acknowledged that a -Camorra group had established itself in the general area of Palermo, Sicily -In 1878, Guiseppe Esposito, a Sicilian Mafioso, was credited as being the first Sicilian Mafia member to relocate, along with six others, to the US -Esposito moved to New Orleans where he organized and heading the flourishing Sicilian Mafia -1881 - Esposito was arrested on an outstanding Italian fugitive warrant, transported to New York, and deported to Italy -Joseph Macheca, an American born member of the organization, succeeded Esposito as crime boss of New Orleans -1890 - Police Chief David Hennessey, the officer who arrested Esposito, was assassinated - 10 members of the Macheca crime family were charged with his murder -After a lengthy trial, all 10 were acquitted -An angry mob stormed Parish Prison, were 19 Sicilian prisoners were being housed - 16 of them were murdered, resulting in the largest documented lynching in the US -This mob failed to stop the rise of the Mafia in New Orleans -In fact, as the 20th Century approached, other Sicilian Mafia families formed around the US, in cities such as San Francisco, St. Louis, Chicago, New York, and Boston

Domestic Production of Meth

-There are two main ways to "cook" meth: the amalgam method(P2P method) and the ephedrine method. -The most common way to produce meth is the ephedrine method. -In smaller scale productions, meth can be produced over a burner or by using what is commonly known as the "shake and bake" method. -This method of cooking meth is very commonly used due to how easy it is to access the needed ingredients. -People often use the strategy of "smurfing" to obtain ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. -Superlabs are typically operated by large drug trafficking organizations such as the Mexican Cartel. These larger "superlabs" are known to be located in California and Mexico. -The majority of the meth in the United States comes from the super labs located in California and Mexico. -A superlab can produce 10 or more pounds of meth in a 24 hour period.

We Can Reduce the Demand for Drugs

-There has never been a drug free society, and more drugs are discovered and devised each year. -Demand reduction effects that rely on honest education and positive alternatives to drug use are helpful, but not when they devolve into unrealistic "zero tolerance" policies. -Staying away from drugs is the best option, but one always needs a fallback strategy for those who can not refrain from using drugs.

Theory #4

-There is a third causal factor for both drug use and crime -Environmental factors are really the cause of drug use and criminal activity - additive effects of multiple factors -What do you think those factors are? -Social disorganization, presence of gangs, drugs in the neighborhood, and barriers to social capital -Family disorganization, abuse, drug and alcohol in the home, family violence, lack of parental control, and low SES -Academic failure, low educational aspirations, and anti-social behavior in school -Commitment to delinquent peers, street socialization, and friends who are gang members or use drugs -Prior delinquency or deviant attitudes, street smartness, proclivity for excitement and trouble, early sexual activity, and problem or risky behavior

Drugs and Violence

-There is no direct or clear association between drug trafficking and violence -The connection between gang-related homicides and drug trafficking is not strong -Drug trafficking and violence have different origins and must be treated differently yet at the same time -Most youth gangs that are involved in drug trafficking are only involved in street-level distribution -Presence of firearms significantly increases the likelihood that a murder will take place -Strong association is found between illegal gun use and gang membership -Strong association is found between illicit drug sales and illegal gun use -Connections between drug trafficking and violence that is usually related to turf conflicts

How many Meth Labs Do You Think Tuscaloosa Has?

-This is according to the Drug Enforcement Administration's National Clandestine Laboratory Register of 2004-2012 -However, it's important to remember that this information is from 2012, so it may be a little outdated. -The DEA's meth lab register lists locations that were reported to be clandestine drug laboratories based on reports by local law enforcement agencies. The labs stay on the site until local authorities contact the DEA and inform them it has been decontaminated or demolished. -Finally, it's important to remember that these are the only known meth labs. There could be unknown meth labs or labs not documented here.

Shake and Bake Method

-This method is more common amongst lower level distributors and "cooks" -This method uses products that are common in most households. -20 oz bottle, pseudoephedrine pills grinded into a powder, one cold pack, ½ bottle of solvent, one lithium strip from a lithium battery, one 20 oz cap full of red lye, half a bottle cap of water.

Juvenile Drug Usage

-Three primary concerns about youths and drugs: 1. Can effective drug prevention programs be developed? 2. What types of drugs do juveniles do? 3. How many drugs are used? -Several sources are used to survey youths, two of them are: -Monitoring the Future (MTF) --Survey for illicit drug use in the previous 30 days for years 2002 through 2012. --Surveys 8th, 10th, and 12th; as well as older populations -The National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) --Publishes data for the age group 12-17; as well as those 12 and older -In 2012, the most commonly used drugs among juveniles was alcohol. With over a quarter of the population consuming some form of alcohol in the previous 30 days. -The most commonly used illicit drug among juveniles was marijuana. --In 2012, 15.1% used the drug in the last 30 days. --National Survey on Drug Use and Health also found that marijuana was the most used illicit drug among juveniles in 2011. -Ecstasy and cocaine were the second highest percentage at .8. --Showing that hard drugs have less of an impact on America's youth, and the prevention efforts should focus on marijuana and alcohol -Prescription drugs are also important --In 2011, 2.3% of youths aged 12-17 had used a nonmedical pain reliever --Oxycontin- 1.6% 8th graders; 3% 10th graders; 4.3% 12th graders --Vicodin- 1.3% 8th graders; 4.4% 10th graders; 7.5% 12th graders --The use of adderall among juveniles has been increasing -Overall the two drugs that pose the biggest threat among juveniles is alcohol and marijuana.

The Trial

-Took one full year to try the case -Was the most lengthy and costly trial in the US up to that time -Those convicted received lengthy sentences -As a result of the information gained at trial, it was discovered that the US was not doing nearly enough to keep drugs off of the streets -According to some, more drugs were available after the dissolution of the Pizza Connection than before

Modified Treatments to Accommodate Cultural Differences

-Treatment Programs must: 1. Develop cultural competence & tailor the treatment to the cultural experiences of the clients 2. Therapists must develop cultural competence to better understand the client's' attitudes, beliefs, support system, and actions (overcome overt prejudicial feelings) 3. Should be based on research & best practices (includes development of model programs & their assessment) 4. Therapists must understand the prejudices held by their clients because the client's perceptions of the therapist impact their attitudes toward the treatment program --Therapists who understand these prejudices are better able to react to their clients' behaviors & to communicate with them --Treatment must be individualized because even clients with the same ethnic background hold different values & beliefs based on their upbringing & life circumstances

Adverse Health and Societal Consequences

-True or False? -The negative impact of legal and illegal drug use has been felt especially hard in African-American and Hispanic communities? -TRUE:Among minorities, women are often affected more dramatically than males. -We will discuss negative consequences of drug use. For this, we will include alcohol, even though it is legal. -Alcohol is used substantially more often than illegal drugs and it has great social and health consequences.

Pablo Escobar

-Under Escobar's reign, large amounts of coca paste were purchased in Bolivia and Peru, processed, and shipped to America. By the mid-1980s, Escobar controlled more than 80 percent of the cocaine smuggled into the United States. More than 15 tons of cocaine were reportedly smuggled each day, earning the Cartel as much as $420 million a week. -He had an estimated net worth of $30 billion -Had personal jet and air strip to deliver money and drugs -Popular public figure in Columbia. -Used his wealth to help the poor as a strategy to gain power and control. -Escobar was featured on Forbes first billionare list. -In June 1991, Escobar finally surrendered to the Colombian government under the command of President Cesar Gaviria. In return, Escobar lifted any threat of extradition if he was allowed to build his own luxury prison which was called "La Catedral," It was prison operated entirely by his command, the guards were men he picked. It had a spa, nightclub, food service.....It pretty much was a gated resort! -In June 1992, however, Escobar escaped when authorities attempted to move him to a more standard holding facility. A manhunt for the drug lord was launched that lasted 16 months. -Escobar executed extreme acts of domestic terrorism such as the assassination of candidates for office, judges, police officers, and reporters. He planted a bomb on an airplane to kill a candidate for president; the candidate was not on the plane, but 110 innocent people were. Ultimately, Escobar would be responsible for the deaths of over 4,000 people. -After so many near misses, Colombian law enforcement finally caught up to Escobar on December 2, 1993 ,one day after his birthday, in Medellin. He tried to escape across a series of rooftops, but was shot down along with his body guard.

What are the three types of reactive strategies law enforcement agencies in drug enforcement?

-Undercover operations, police crackdowns, and searches and seizures

Why should we bother treating offenders?

-Untreated offenders are more likely to relapse and then reoffend -Treatment is a good way to interrupt this cycle -Treatment is cheaper than incarceration

Focus for Today

-Upper level drug dealers in US, Canada, and Europe

Dealing With Risks

-Used by upper-level drug dealers -Work within a small network of trusted associates -Rely in kinship, friendship, and ethnic bonds -Maintain secrecy and operate on a need-to-know basis -Staying aware of what is happening in the drug scene -Operating with multiple couriers, transportation routes, safe houses - so that if one is compromised, the entire operation isn't destroyed -Paying associates and employees well; treating people with respect -If that doesn't work, create fear and terror

Characteristics of Drug Trafficking Organizations

-Vertical integration -Alternate sources of supply -Exploitation of social and political conditions -Insulation of leaders

Civil Forfeiture

-Very controversial -Targets property - property has no right -Does not require a criminal proceeding -Can be pursued independently of a criminal trial -Because no formal proceeding is needed, the property owner's guilt is basically irrelevant

Cons

-Violates due process -Threatens a conflict of interest between law enforcement and fiscal management -Shifts the burden of proof to the owners -Police should never be viewed as trying to departmentally profit off of their efforts -Some studies have shown that police are selective in their efforts - seizing as much money and property has taken priority over getting drugs off of the street -Departments come to depend on their seized properties for their yearly budgets

Psychopharmacological

-Violence that results (or doesn't result) from the ingestion of a drug -This can occur after one time use or extended use -Multiple drug use also has an effect -What drugs are more likely to cause violence? What drugs are least likely to cause violence?

Characteristics

-What do high-level drug traffickers look like? -Male, represent a wide variety of ethnic groups, have ties with producers/exporters in third world source countries, likely to be middle-aged, come from working or middle class backgrounds, typically non-users -Live relatively conformist lifestyles apart from being drug traffickers -Little is known about the wealth and lifestyle of these high-level dealers, proportion who are arrested and proportion who retire successfully

Co-Occuring Disorders and Racial Disparities

-What is a Co-Occurring Disorder? -People with co-occurring disorders suffer from substance abuse and mental health disorders. Often, they live in poverty, have a low education level, low vocational skills and lack social support. -Minorities are significantly overrepresented among offenders with co-occurring disorders.

Drugs and Crime

-What is the connection between drugs and crime? -How does the media link drugs and crime? -What about social media? -Do you have specific examples?

Drug Arrests

-Whites and African Americans use illicit drugs at roughly the same rates, but African Americans are disproportionately arrested at higher rates. -The war on drugs shifted the focus on interdiction to enforcement at the local level causing arrest to increase drastically. -The percentage of African-American arrestees among all drug arrestees increased during the 1980s, while the percentage of white arrestees decreased. -African Americans accounted for one-third of all drug arrests during this period, although they comprised only 13% of the total population. -Most states display a similar pattern of black arrests being about 3.5 times higher than white arrests for drug offenses. -However, there was a disparity in the arrests for sales, with African-American drug arrests significantly higher than those for whites. The national average for African Americans was 25% versus 15% for whites.

Increased Involvement

-Why has youth gang involvement in drug trafficking increased in the past decade? -Expansion of cocaine markets in the 1980's, accompanied by sharp price reductions -Socioeconomic changes in American society that disrupted traditional social controls -Traditional pathways from gang life (marriage, jobs, starting a family) are constricted by the changing economies

Who Uses Methamphetamines?

-Within the population of young adults, meth use was 0.5% -Of this sample, the age group, gender, location of country, and population density were: --Ages 23-24 --Males --In the Western part of the US --Rural farm country ---(Johnston, O'Malley, Bachman & Schulenberg, 2012). -A group of high schoolers (grades 9 to 12) were even surveyed to find out that roughly 3.8% had used meth within the last 12 months (Johnston, O'Malley, Bachman & Schulenberg, 2012). -The Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program (ADAM) reported that methamphetamine was the second most frequently detected drug in for those arrested in Portland (43%) and San Francisco (23%) in 2011. -Asian/Pacific Islanders (28.6%) were the highest admitted for drug treatment who used methamphetamines. -Meth has become a "party drug" for teenagers so according to, Durell, Kroutil, Crits-Christophy, Barchha, & Van Brunt in 2008, the average age for meth users is around 18.8 years old. -Another group where meth has become quite popular is truck drivers in order to try and stay awake on long drives.

Community Treatment

-Women are older than men -Women have slightly less education -Women are more likely to be unemployed prior to treatment -Women are more likely to be sexually abused as an adult and a child -Women are more likely to have a co-occurring mental health issue -Women are more likely the primary caregivers of their children

Historically

-Women have been treated differently than men -Women are given medications to help with anxiety, depression, running and household, raise children more often than men -Thinking was that women need special protection from psychic discomfort and women's diseases

Intersectionality

-Women of color -Poor women -Women with disabilities

High Price

-Written by Dr. Carl Hart -Excerpts from book -Always be critical of the information you read/hear -How drug hysteria pushed scientists

Types of Drug Education Programs

-Zilney (2011) influenced the development of three types of drug education programs 1. Information Model -Focus on providing drug-related information to students because it is believed that they will resist using if they know the risks involved. -This model is largely based on scare tactics using: --Lectures --Videos --Former addicts --Police officers -Found to be ineffective --The effects of drug use are dramatized to frighten the students, who often view authority figures with suspicion 2) Affective Education -Provides education or information to students about aspects of drug abuse -Works on interpersonal development -Often focuses on strengthening personal skills --Self-esteem --Coping mechanisms --Stress management -Rooted in social-control theory -Attempt to build stronger bonds with mainstream society and instill pro-social norms -Overall objective is to teach students to avoid their peers who are using drugs -Found to be ineffective --Tend to be lecture based with little to no interactive element 3) Social Influence Model -Also referred to as the drug resistance education model -Focuses on educating students on how to make better decisions, knowing they are susceptible to peer pressure -Found to be more effective than other forms of drug education programs --Tended to have an immediate effect on reducing marijuana initiation --More effective with girls than boys

Getting Into Drug Dealing

-many drug dealers began their careers as drug users. As users, they have access to sellers and wholesalers who can provide them with drugs, people often get into drug dealing as a way of paying for their drug habits. Their financial stability will dictate when they sell drugs and when they stop. -According to the studies of Murphy Waldor and Reinarman(1990) there are four perquisites for becoming a drug dealer. 1.important for a dealer to have more than one supplier, since supplies would be cutoff if the supplier was arrested or just stopped providing drugs 2. the dealer has to make larger purchases which result in discounted prices and increased profits 3. a dealer must have a regular supply of drugs to sell 4. a seller must have a network of customers who purchase drugs on a regular basis. -Waldor and Reinarman also identified five modes by which people begin selling drugs for themselves. 1. A go between: induvial makes purchase for friends from a dealer and then ultimately begin selling drugs for themselves. 2. Stash dealer: selling drugs from own stash in order to pay for drug habit. 3. Connoisseur: someone who covets high quality drugs and sells to obtain those kind. 4. Apprentices: shadow someone who sells drugs, then begin selling themselves. 5. Lastly, some people look to sell other drugs to expand their inventory and increase profits.

why are minorities over represented among drug offenders?

-they are over represented because of risk factors and systematic factors -Two of the most permit risk factors are socialization and substance abuse and the family and environmental stressors -Research suggests that personal and racial identity affect attitudes about drugs and drug use patterns. Attitudes towards drugs are predictors for future drug use

Knowing adolescent drug use has a strong social component, can effective drug prevention programs be developed?

...

Why might we be particularly concerned with juvenile drug usage?

...

Does juvenile drug selling and buying differ from adults?

....

Why Is It So Difficult To Stop The Production of Meth?

1) Most national and international strategies have only focused on supply control --They've had limited impact because restrictions in one country or state lead to increased production in another state or country - meaning that production does not stop but just shifts to different locations 2) Drug cartels used other routes and labs in alternative locations. This is very prevalent in Mexico. **Research suggests that long-term success depends on lowering the demand for meth**

8 Changes to The Law

1. 1. Burden of proof switched from the owner to the state - state had to prove that the property was subject to forfeiture 2. The government had to show that there was indeed a connection between the property and the commission of a crime 3. Property can be release by a federal court pending the final decision if holding the property caused undue hardship on the owner 4. If the owners prevail in the court case, they would be awarded attorney's fees 5. Law eliminated the bond requirement - owners used to have to post 10% of the worth of their property for the right to contest the forfeiture in court 6. Created a uniform innocent owner defense for all federal forfeiture statutes 7. Allowed owners to sue the government for compensation for damage to their property if they prevail in court 8. Provided a uniform definition of the forfeiture proceeds of criminal acts -One item that this law did not mention was equitable sharing among law enforcement agencies

Drug program that focuses on the education of students on aspects of drug use

Affective

_______ was deemed responsible for the seven year period of homicides, gun-related homicides, and arrests for non-white juveniles for drug offenses doubling

Crack

A drug selling operation where large quantities of drugs are sold with a profit movie is __________ selling

Crew

When a juvenile may bring drugs to a buyer or take money to a designated hidden point is called

Runner

MPACT Program

• Phase 1 - student will attend weekly individual counseling sessions and case management sessions • Phase2-studentwillattendbi-weeklyindividual counseling sessions and group case management sessions twice a week • Phase 3 - student will have a monthly check in session with counselor and either become a mentor to students in phase 1 or attend one group session per week. • Students are responsible for attending weekly Recovery Support meetings (AA) on or off campus along with Family counseling sessions. • All program cost are the responsibility of the student and bill on the students account. • Relapses during the program are a reality that exist and are used as learning opportunities initially. • Ultimately the decision to overcome any relapse is the students and their willingness to succeed or not. • Before the completion of the program, students are required to develop a group community service project • After all requirements are completed, the MPACT treatment team will interview the student to determine if they are ready to graduate from the program

Management of MPACT

• Program is ran by and overseen by Office of Student Conduct. • MPACT has 3 full time Substance Abuse Counselors who provide day to day services to students. • Other departments and agencies within and outside the university provide a support role for the program. Departmentsoroutsideagencieswhoprovide supporting role: • Office of Student Conduct • Housing and Residential Communities • University Police Dept. • Student Affairs • Dean of Students Office • Tuscaloosa City/County Criminal Court judges • Every Friday during a semester, supporting departments of the program meet for a case by case review to determine if a student has been compliant in the program (i.e. drug testing, study hall, community service hours, etc). • If the student is non-compliant, the group will discuss additional sanctions (outside treatment) up to suspension from the program and from UA. • MPACT is overseen by Judge Pete Johnson. • Judge Johnson is a graduate of the UA Law School. • Judge Johnson served from 1984 to 2006 as a district court judge in Jefferson County and formed the Jefferson County Drug Court in 1996. • That program got widespread attention and in 2007 was appointed to serve as Chairman of the Alabama Drug Court Task Force to help set up drug courts in all the state's counties. • There are drug courts in 66 of the state's 67 counties

Suboxone

-Buprenorphine plus Naloxone -Pills or film prescribed a doctor to ease addiction symptoms -Unlike Methadone, can be taken at home under a doctors supervision -Initially developed as a pain reliever that would not have the same addictive qualities as other opiates

Anabolic Steroids

-In 1991, Congress classified 27 anabolic steroids as Schedule III substances -Legitimate use for humans is as a replacement therapy for hormones -When used in combination with exercise and a high protein diet, anabolic steroids increase muscle size, improve endurance, and decrease recovery time between workouts -Causes cardiovascular damage, kidney cancer, liver cysts and cancer, several acne, and reduce sexual function -Feelings of hostility, aggression, and violent behavior are also possible effects

1980's

-Increase in the use of cocaine among the wealthy -Introduction of crack -High level of gang activity around drug dealing -Skyrocketing of drug arrests, leading to today's high number of people who are incarcerated -More and more fear talk around drug use and addiction -President Reagan increased law enforcement response to drugs

1970's and 1980's

-Increased use of PCP (originally developed as an anesthetic during surgery) -Cocaine use was on the rise, especially among the upper classes -Methamphetamine and LSD and PCP were produced in local hidden labs -Some stated legalized marijuana and it looked like marijuana might be legalized

1960's

-Increased use of all drugs, especially by young users -Illegal drugs use was greeting with increased intolerance -US soldiers coming home from Vietnam, addicted to heroin- easy to get, pain killer, physical, emotional, mental pain -Youth drugs of choice shifted to LSD, heroin, and marijuana

What is addiction?

-Involuntarily needing something -Money, sex, drug, gambling

Naloxone

-Naloxone reverses the effects of opiates -By itself, it is injected into the muscle or into a vein through an IV -After injection due to an overdose, emergency medical care is needed -Injections may need to be given every 2-3 minutes until the person received advanced medical care -Brand names: Eviso and Narcan

PCP

-Phencyclidine -Commonly used by veterinarians as an anesthetic -Discontinued with humans because it causes schizophrenic-type hallucinations and delusions -Increases dopamine (feel good chemical) and inhibits glutamate activity (inhibits excitable activity) -Perfect storm - feelings of euphoria without a recognition of long-term consequences - highly correlated with violence and criminal activity

Anomie Theory

-Robert Merton (1938) -All cultures have goals -Main goal in the US - acquire wealth - the same emphasis is not placed on education and hard work -Plus, education and work may not be available -This places a strain on individuals within the culture

Neurons

-The brain communicates signals through neurons -Neurons communicate by sending electrical signals down their axons -The signal is then passed through a chemical (neurotransmitter) across the gap between neurons called the synapse -Reuptake of the chemical through the receptor sites of the second neuron

Metabolites

-The chemical products that result when a drug reactions with human tissue -The body metabolizes certain drugs differently -Some are absorbed quickly and eliminated quickly - others stay in one's system longer -Urine screens are used to determined past use -Amphetamines: can be detected up to 3 days, less than one day for cocaine, 3 days for opiates, 10 days for long-acting benzodiazepines, and between 3 and 30 days for marijuana

Polydrug Use

-Using more than one drug at a time -Alcohol and marijuana are the two drugs that are most commonly used with other drugs -Make it difficult to completely understand drug use patterns

Barbiturates

-Xanax and Valium -Reduce anxiety, increase social interaction and talkativeness, and can be quite effective in reducing anxiety related to pain -Increase GABA and reduce glutamate activity -One example: Rohypnol (roofie, date rape drug) - makes the victim not able to fight back and affects memory

Opiates

-1860's - Civil War triggered a drug epidemic -Hundreds of thousands of morphine addicts - 400,000 in the Union Army alone -Opium - linked to the Chinese, many of whom came to the US to build the railroads -1875 - San Francisco - considered first anti-drug law - banned opium smoking in opium dens -After this, states started to regulate the use of drugs within their own borders -Opiate use rose between 1840 and 1915 -Bayer Company introduced a pharmaceutical version of opiates in 1898 - heroin -"Aspirin for joint pains. Heroin for coughs." -1906 - The Pure Food and Drug Act - required that makers of patent medicines state on the label the amount of any narcotic ingredient that they contained **Harrison Narcotic Act was passed in 1914 - affected pharmacists and doctors and patients -This Act did not stop people from smoking opium -This was regulated by the Opium Exclusion Act of 1909 - sometimes more successfully than others -Opiates continued and continue to be available

1970's

-1970 - Controlled Substance Act passed - created a common standard of dangerousness to rank all drugs - It allowed the scheduling of drugs to be done administratively --Created mechanisms for reducing the availability of dangerous drugs --Created procedures for bringing substance use under control --Complied with international treaty arrangements --Developed criteria for determining control requirements -1970 - Racketeer-Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO) and Continuing Criminal Enterprise (CCE) laws - designed to focus on the leaders of large criminal organizations

Medical Uses of Marijuana

-1996 - California becomes the first state to legalize medical marijuana through a state initiative -1998 - Alaska, Oregon, and Washington legalize the use of medical marijuana -1999 - Maine legalizes the use of medical marijuana -2000 - Hawaii, Colorado, Nevada legalizes medical marijuana -2004 - Montana and Vermont legalize medical marijuana -2000's + - more and more Americans are in favor of allowing medicinal marijuana

Depressants

-Alcohol -Barbiturates -Increase the production of GABA (inhibitory neurotransmitter) while reducing the production of glutamate (excitatory neurotransmitter) -Produces a feeling of sedation, relaxation, relaxation of muscles, reduction of anxiety, inhibited cognition -Dull the rational decision-making portions of the brain

Medications

-Alcohol - Anabuse (makes people sick if they drink) -Cocaine - Neurontin (anticonvulsant and reduction of nerve pain), Baclofen (muscle relaxant) -Opiates - Methadone, Buprenorphine, Naloxone, Suboxone -Most recommend that medications alone do not cure addictions - talk therapy is also important

Post War- 1940's and 1950's

-Amphetamines -first used in 1930's - used for weight loss and treatment of depression and by fighter pilots -LSD - Popularized in the 1940's and 1950's - used in the psychiatric community for treatment and recreation (also tested by the CIA to be used as a truth serum) -Tranquilizers - began to be used at this time as "downers"

MDMA- Ecstasy

-At low doses, it acts as a stimulant, increasing energy and sociability -At high doses, it can act as a hallucinogen -Increases levels of dopamine and an even higher release of serotonin by reducing the reuptake of these neurotransmitters -Sparks a release of oxytocin - same hormone released when a mother gives birth to a child - What does this cause?

Social Bond Elements

-Attachment - extent to which a person has close ties with others -Commitment - a person's stake in conformity, i.e. education, family, career -Involvement - the more one is involved in prosocial activities, the less time they have to be involved in criminal activities -Belief - belief in a normative social order, belief in conventional values (looking out for one another, paying bills, following through on commitments) - biggest predictor in drug use

Theory

-Attempts to explain the underlying factors that caused an event or activity -Criminological theory attempts to explain crime, criminals, and the environment to explain criminal behavior -As we go through these criminological theories think about how the might apply or not apply to drug use and drug-related crimes

Brain Stimulation Reward

-Brain Stimulation Reward phenomenon -Process by which different areas of the brain are stimulated -Either increases the feelings of reward and excitement or shuts down functions of the brain related to inhibition -Drugs make us feel better

First Prohibition Laws

-By 1855, 1/3 of the US and all of New England were under prohibition laws -Abraham Lincoln gave a temperance speech in Springfield, IL in 1842, discussing the negative impacts of alcohol

Drug Trends

-Cigarette consumption has declined substantially since 1960 -Hard liquor consumption increased in the 60s and 70s, but has declined since then -Use of licit drugs considerably exceeds the use of illicit drugs -Marijuana use peaked around 1979-1980, declined through the 80s, increased in the 90s, and has fluctuated since -Cocaine (including crack) use increased in the 80s and has since declined over time -In the US adult population, meth use has increased from 2% in 1994 to just over 5% in 2003 -First associated with motorcycle gangs and gay men who wanted to have marathon sex parties -Also associated with night shift workers and truck drivers -In 2003 (NIDA), alcohol accounted for 42% of people admitted to drug treatment, heroin accounted for 18%, marijuana accounted for 15%, cocaine accounted for 14%, and meth and other stimulants accounted for 7%

Social Disorganization Theory

-Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay (1942) -Theory used to explain juvenile criminality -All cities have five concentric zones: Zone 1 (commercial district), Zone 2 (usually occupied by the poorest individuals and families), Zone 3 (contains modest homes and apartments, those who have escaped the Zone 2), Zone 4 (occupied by the middle class, professionals, small business owners), Zone 5 (suburbs and other areas beyond city limits) -Zone 2 - poverty forces people to live in housing that is deteriorating, people try to improve their status but are unable to do so -Social disorganization permits criminal values to be transmitted from one generation to another -Increases in social disorganization increases drug activity

President Obama

-Commuted the sentences of 562 individuals with federal drug crime convictions - Obama has commuted more men and women than the past seven presidents combined -Obama explains commutations - July 2015 -CNN story - most recent - August 2016

Schedules of Drugs

-Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act - passed in 1970 -Established five schedules of drugs -Schedule I is considered the most dangerous, has the most potential for abuse, and has no medical use -Schedule I - heroin, ecstasy, LSD, and marijuana -Text, p. 138

People's Response

-Conformists - accept the goal of wealth and believe that to attain it, one must get an education and work hard - they are more likely to be content with their station in life -Innovators - accept the goal of wealth but cannot achieve it through traditional means - turn to crime -Ritualists - show little interest in wealth, but believe in the legitimacy of education and hard work - find contentment in their lives of honest work -Rebellion - reject the goal of wealth and the institutionalized means of achieving wealth - they want power and control and may use violence to get it

Federal Bureau of Narcotics

-Created within the Department of the Treasury in 1930's - under the direction of Commissioner Harry Anslinger -Separated the enforcement of alcohol laws and drug laws -FBN - charged with enforcing the Harrison Narcotics Act -Interdiction of drugs - remained with the Bureau of Customs -Anslinger regularly wrote reports, articles, and books for the public, claiming that under the influence of marijuana, individuals would rape, rob, and chop up victims in a drug-induced frenzy

Abuse vs. Dependence

-Dependence- synonyms with addiction -Abuse- relate to repeated use that causes harmful consequences but does not include compulsive use

Rational Choice Theory

-Derek Cornish and Ronald Clarke (1986) -Offenders seek to benefit themselves by engaging in criminal behavior -This involves making rational choices and decisions -This is difference from deterrence in that this theory takes into account the opportunity structure of society, i.e. social and demographic factors -An offenders criminal decisions are also based on their ability and personality

Perceptual Deterrence

-Deterrence is based on their subjective perception of the severity of punishment, the likelihood of arrest, and the likelihood of conviction T-hose who think punishment will be severe and have a high likelihood of arrest and conviction will not commit crimes -Those who think punishment will be low in severity and have a low likelihood of arrest and conviction are more likely to commit crime -Overall, research shows that perceptions related to certainty of apprehension and certainty of punishment have more of an effect than severity of punishment

Adolescence

-Drug use typically starts in adolescence -Why do you think that is? -Mental illness symptoms usually start to present now as well -Early drug use is a risk factor for future use and future mental health problems

Buprenorphine

-Drug used to treat the effects of opiate abuse and addiction -Binds to the receptors in the brain that opiates bind to - Buprenorphine binds to these receptors without a perfect fit, not inducing the same euphoric feelings resulting from opiates -Binding blocks opiates from binding to these receptors, stopping the individual from feeling the effects of the opiates for approximately one to three days after use

Comorbidity

-Drugs of abuse can cause symptoms related to mental illness -People can self medicate their mental illness with drug use -Drug use and mental illness may have similar underlying brain factors, i.e. genetics, deficits, the production of dopamine -Brain changes from one may affect the other - drug use affect mental illness and vice versa

Alcohol

-Early in the history of the US, much alcohol was consumed -1830's - estimated that 7 gallons of alcohol per adult was consumed -1850's - first temperance movement - led to reduction in use -This came about because of a change in how alcohol was viewed - what was this change *Prohibition= second attempt

Differential Association

-Edwin Sutherland (1939) -We are all born a "blank slate" -As we grow, up we learn criminal behavior from those who commit crimes -Most learning occurs in close proximity - intimate friendships, family -We not only learn "how to" - we also learn values motivations, attitudes -These interactions vary in terms of priority, frequency, duration, and intensity (these are difficult to measure)

Crime Triangle

-Examples: --Motivated offender --Suitable target --Absence of a capable guardian

Continuum of Drug use/Abuse

-Experimentation -Culturally endorsed use -Recreational -Compulsive use

Social Structure Crimes

-Explain crime in relationship to socio-economic conditions -Certain crimes are higher in working-class areas than in middle-class areas -Some crimes are more common among the wealthy than working class and poor communities

Great Fears In The US

-Fear of being owned - including fears of independence and of being controlled and shaped by others -Fear of falling apart - a fear of anarchy and isolation -Fear of winding down- losing energy dynamism, forward motion -Fear of falling away from a past virtue and promise - nostalgia for the "Good Old Days"

Cocaine

-First separated from the cocoa plant in 1860's 1880's - first time substantial quantities of cocaine were available -Initially offered as a cure for opiate addiction, asthma, and toothaches -Later used in combat the energize soldiers and as an aid in depression therapy -Also promoted "for public speakers, singers, athletes." -Later, prescribed by doctors, sold by pharmacies -1900's - cocaine use linked with African Americans in the South -Blacks were accused of heavy cocaine use which led to violence -This era was also the peak of lynchings and the disenfranchisement of Blacks -1902 - the state of Georgia made it illegal to provide cocaine to anyone without a doctors prescription -Cocaine was also included in the Harrison Narcotics Act, passed in ?

Deterrence

-Formal sanctions - perceptions of the likelihood of arrest and the severity of punishment -Informal sanctions - consequences that will result from arrest related to community, family, employment (stigma, loss of respect)

Deterrence

-Foundations found in the ideas of Cesare Baccaria (1738-1794) and Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) -Behavior is based on free will -Criminals can be deterred from committing crimes by the threat of punishment -Effective punishment must meet three conditions: certainty, celerity (swift), and severity

1930's

-Great Depression 1929-1939 -Birth of Alcoholics Anonymous -1935 -Born out of a need to help alcoholics that wanted to stop - hospitals and state psychiatric hospitals were overcrowded and turned away alcoholics -AA was born amidst an inability for the state and other institutions to adequately address the overuse of alcohol

Techniques of Neutralization

-Gresham Sykes and David Matza (1957) -Justifications for criminal behavior that are learned from society -Denial of responsibility - I didn't mean to -Denial of harm or injury - no harm, no foul -Denial of a victim or victim blaming - they deserved it -Condemnation of the condemners - you have done worse things than me (parents, teachers) -Appeal to higher loyalties - I did it to protect me friend

History

-History of alcohol and drug use -History of how the general population, doctors, pharmacists, government officials, and law enforcement responded to alcohol and drug use -Back and forth- times people are relax and other times people are restrictive -Sometimes, people have been more lenient and other times, people have been more regulatory and punitive

Alcoholics Anonymous

-In 1935, Bill Wilson met Dr. Robert Smith in Akron, OH -When they talked, they realized how much they had in common as alcoholics and how much talking with one another could help -The "Big Book" - written primarily by Bill Wilson in 1939 - in this book, they develop the 12 Steps -Developed the term "sponsorship" -Used today as the primary foundation in many alcohol/drug treatment programs

Harm Reduction

-Initially identified as a viable option to abstinence-only focused interventions in the 1980's -Idea: there are inherent risks with most behaviors -If people are still going to engage in these behaviors, they should have options that make the behavior less risky -Examples: bike helmets, life jackets, seat belts, clean needle exchange programs -Some of these harm reduction strategies can be controversial

Marijuana

-Initially, marijuana was not included in the Harrison Narcotics Act -1932 - Federal Bureau of Narcotics issues a report urging states to adopt a Uniform State Narcotics Law -1937 - FBN changes its position on marijuana, partly in a effort to increase its size, scope, and budget - what was the public thinking? -1937 - FBN supported federal Marijuana Tax Act - any transfer of marijuana (hemp included) had to pay a tax

Diagnosis and Treatment

-It is important to assess individuals who enter mental health treatment for substance abuse issues and vice versa -For those in drug treatment, it may take time for to distinguish the effect of the substance and symptoms related to a mental illness diagnosis -Medications are effective -Behavioral and talk therapies are effective

Felicific Calculus

-Jeremy Bentham -Motivated offenders will offend when a situation offers them the opportunity to commit a crime that benefits them in some way, with little fear or apprehension

Routine Activities Theory

-Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson (1979) -This theory does not seek to explain individual offending -It explains the occurrence of crime or victimization -Crime triangle: motivated offender, suitable target, and absence of a capable guardian -The idea here is that relatively ordinary people may commit crime simply because they are presented with the opportunity

LSD

-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide -Developed by Albert Hofmann, a Swiss scientist in the 1930's -Causes perceptual distortions, disturbances in thinking, and illusions -Many scientists and governments have tried to find ways to use LSD to their advantage, but have not succeeded because of its unpredictable results

Stress

-Many people use medications for stress - legally -So, why wouldn't it be logical to use prescription medications for stress or pain even when they are not prescribed for someone -Many people do believe that prescription medication use is no big deal - doctors prescribe medication sometimes because they can't figure out the cause of the problem -People don't understand about adverse reactions, addiction, drug interaction - this included physicians

Women and Children

-Media reported about the crisis of crack babies -Research in the 1990s showed that the perceived impact of crack disappeared when controlling for alcohol use, other drug use, and lifestyle factors -Women who used crack were incarcerated for extended periods of time - leaving children to grow up without their primary caregivers, their mothers -Victims of civil asset forfeiture -Those convicted of drug charges are ineligible for public housing, welfare benefits, financial aid, and many civil service jobs.

Gender

-Men are more likely to have higher rates of abuse and dependence of most drugs compared to women -Men are more likely to be diagnosed with anti-social personality disorder -Women are more likely to be diagnosed with mood and anxiety disorders -Both of these diagnoses put men and women at greater risk for drug abuse and dependence

General Theory of Crime

-Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi (1990) -People who commit crimes tend to have low self control - characterized by impulsiveness, focus on simplicity and lack of interest in activities that require planning, emphasis on physical instead of mental ability, short-sightedness, risk takers, and a temper that easily flares when frustrated -Crime is a product of low self control and criminal opportunity -Research on this theory show that volatile temper is the main predictor of drug use -Other research found that low self-control was a factor in drug use, but so was sexual/physical abuse, delinquent peers, and caregiver monitoring

Abuses of Prescription Medications

-Non-medical use - use without a prescription of one's own or simply for the feeling that the drug causes -Use in a manner that is contrary to directions, regardless of a harmful outcome occurs -Most include: pain relievers, tranquilizers, stimulants, and sedatives -1 in 6 youths, younger than 20, have tried prescription medication to get high -Big challenge: Prescription medications have helped many people, especially people in pain - physicians have become more aggressive in treating pain but this has led to addiction in some cases

What are some of the negative consequences of calling something an epidemic?

-Panic and panic is substituted for reasoned action -May lead to reactive and punitive measures meant to stem the advance of the "deadly menace" of drug use -In the 1980's, Congress enacted mandatory minimum drug sentencing laws that mandated long prison sentences convicted of non-violent drug offenses -Mandatory minimums created a 100:1 differences in the sentences between crack and cocaine offenses -A person convicted of possessing of 5 grams of crack would serve 5 years in prison while it would take 500 grams of powder cocaine to trigger the same sentence

Harrison Narcotics Act

-Passed in 1914!! -Became the hallmark federal drug control policy for the next 65 years -Viewed as a rational way to limit addiction and drug abuse through taxation and regulation -Also thought of as a public awareness tool -It required people who prescribed or distributed certain drugs register with the government or by tax stamps -Also, stipulate that possession by a drug by someone who did not receive it from a proper source was illegal -Enforcement rested with the Treasury Department -Initial enforcement of the Act resulted in mass arrests of physicians (30,000 arrested, 3,000 served prison terms), pharmacists, and unregistered users -Treasury Department insisted that the medical maintenance of opiate addicts (treatment through declining usage) was illegal - doctors disagreed -Read section from p. 7 -Ultimately, the Supreme Court decided that maintaining addicts on narcotics was illegal -1919 - Supreme Court interpreted the Harrison Narcotics Act as a policy that could restrict a physician for providing addicting drugs to a patient -As a consequence, many doctors all but abandoned the treatment of addicts for about 50 years and many treatment clinics closed -Result: 1920 - approximately 500,000 people addicted and in 1945 - approximately 40,000 - 50,000 people addicted

Lyman Beecher

-Popular preacher in pre-Civil War America -A decade after Rush's death, Beecher demanded total abstinence from ALL alcohol, including beer and wine

War on Drugs

-President Nixon declared War on Drugs in 1971 -"America's public enemy number one in the United States is drug abuse. In order to fight and defeat this enemy, it is necessary to wage a new, all-out offensive"

Holistic Approaches to Use

-Prior to the 1990's, treatment programs focused only on the addiction -In the 1990's and beyond, professionals realized that people could not get clean if they only talked about their addiction -People needed services for mental health, job training, parenting, trauma, etc... -These were integrated into treatment programming around 2000 and beyond

Methamphetamine

-Produces euphoria and can produce hallucinations and delusion of persecution (paranoia) - violence connection -Meth-violence connection -Increases the levels of dopamine by reducing reuptake -Increases the production of norepinephrine -This production of norepinephrine makes meth more addictive than cocaine and ecstasy because the body doesn't know how to produce the needed amount of norepinephrine -Nicotine use during recovery can increase feelings of withdrawal by inducing a craving for other stimulants

Oxycontin/Oxycodone

-Produces euphoria like other opiates -Multiple variations of this prescription drug: Percocet, Percodan, Vicodin, etc... -Purdue Frederick Co. began selling OxyCotin in 1996, advertising it as being less addictive than other opiates -This turned out to be untrue -Individuals start out on prescriptions and, if they become addicted, they may "doctor shop" or by opiates on the street

General Strain Theory

-Robert Agnew (1992) -Expanded the goals related to success - what might be some other goals that people have related to success? -If people cannot achieve these goals, they feel "negative emotions," i.e. anger, frustration, depression, disappointment, fear -Fuel corrective action - some are legal, others are illegal actions -Strain is likely to lead to crime if the strain is perceived as unjust and high in magnitude, associated with low control, and likely to create an incentive to crime

Social Learning Theory

-Robert Burgess and Ronald Akers (1966) -Criminal behavior is learned when it is reinforced, either by the behavior or by your peers or family -Criminal behavior needs to be more reinforced than non-criminal behavior for it to be learned -Imitation and modeling are important - why are these particularly important?

Benjamin Rush

-Signer of the Declaration of Independence -Surgeon during the Revolutionary War -Professor of one of the nation's first medical school in Pennsylvania -Fought for the education of African Americans, abolition of slavery, education of women, prison reform, end to capital punishment - and abstinence from distilled spirits -He blamed distilled spirits for causing illness, moral degeneration, poverty, and crime -Approved of beer and wine in moderation -Distilled spirits were dangerous -He likened alcohol dependence to a disease - some say he was the first to do this -His influence lasted long after his death in 1813

Routes of Administration

-Snorting -Inhaling -Smoking -Injection -Consumption

Third Temperance Movement?

-Some say this started in the 1980's -The War on Drugs is said to be a part of this

Pharmaceuticals

-Spent 24.4 % of sales monies on advertising and promoting their drugs (2010) -They spent 13.4% for research -Each year, pharmacists fill 3.8 billion prescriptions -The US spends over $227 billion a year on pharmaceuticals -74% of doctor visits result in a prescription -There are more deaths as a result of pharmaceutical drugs than from illegal drugs -These pharmaceuticals are also found in our drinking water (EPA and World Health Organization)

Prohibition

-Temperance Movement started in the early 19th Century - to promote the total abstinence from alcohol -American Temperance Society - founded in 1826, began gathering pledges of abstinence -Many made the connection between drinking and immigrants supposedly deviant lifestyles -Temperance Movement efforts were halted by the Civil War -1910 - 2.8 gallons per adult was consumed -Second temperance movement was led by Anti-Saloon League and Women's Christian Temperance Union - believed that alcohol was the cause of all of society's ills -This time, the temperance movement impacted the US constitution 18th Amendment - passed in 1920- illegal to manufacture or distribute alcohol -Only states not to ratify the 18th Amendment were Connecticut and Rhode Island - why was that?- Had a lot of catholics and immigrants- thought it was a shot at them -National Prohibition Act - also known as the Volstead Act -"The Noble Experiment" -FDR won the Presidency with the promise the end Prohibition -21st Amendment repealed the 18th Amendment and the Volstead Act - 1933!! By 1966, all states allowed the manufacture and consumption of alcohol

Inhalants

-The chemical vapors of more than a thousand household and commercial products can be inhaled for an intoxicating effect - huffing -Mostly used by youth - because of their accessibility and availability and the belief that they are not harmful -Initial effects are like those felt from alcohol - user feels uninhibited, excited, and lightheaded -After a few minutes, the user feels lethargic and drowsy as the body attempts to restabilize

Specific Deterrence

-The experience of punishment will deter the offender from committing the crime again -Thinking about the future pain of punishment will outweigh the pleasure of committing the crime, and individuals will make the decision not to commit the crime -How might this not work with those who use drugs?

Addiction

-The individual who uses cocaine needs more and more of the cocaine to produce the neurotransmitters to feel "normal" -Also, if this individual does not use cocaine, they feel depressed and have low energy -Her body does not respond naturally to life's pleasurable activities, i.e. runner's high, roller coasters, falling in love, being in nature, etc...

Epidemic

-There is no epidemiological universally applicable minimal number of cases that constitutes an epidemic -An epidemic is said to exist when the number of cases of a disease or illness exceeds that which is considered normal or expected -Those who declare something an epidemic usually use it as a start of a reasoned approach to protect the user and others who are at risk

Trauma Theory

-Those who have been exposed to trauma are more likely to become dependent on drugs and/or alcohol -Trauma - an event that makes someone feel powerless in the moment and makes someone feel as if their life is in eminent danger - causes a skip in their brain -These include veterans who see active combat, children who are physically or sexually abused, chronic illness, poverty, etc... -Estimated 20% of those who experience trauma will develop posttraumatic stress disorder

Strategies to Address Use

-Threat of severe punishment -Well-intentioned exaggeration -Silence - Motion Picture Association of America - 1934 - adopted the policy of never showing narcotic use - slight loosening of this policy in 1946 to only show anti-drug activities -Teaching about the dangers of narcotics in school - starting in the 1920's - integral part of health education -This caused drug use to reduce - schools no longer included drug education in schools -Enter 1960 - people had no formal protective education about drugs and started using heavily

Social Bond Theory

-Travis Hirschi (1969) -Developed this theory to understand juvenile crime -Juveniles conform or adhere to conventional norms because they have internalized prosocial norms and maintain a social bond with society -When juveniles do not conform or adhere to conventional norms or don't have prosocial bonds with society, this provides and atmosphere where they commit crime

Measuring Drug Use

-US Department of Health and Human Services directs the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration - they gather data through face-to-face interviews - started in 1971 -They estimated that 8.7% of those 12 and older used drugs in the last month in 2011 -National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) - also under the US Health and Human Services - talk with students in 8th, 10th, and 12th grades annually to assess drug use -8.5% of 8th graders used illicit drugs in past 30 days, 19.2% of 10th graders and 25.2% of 12th graders in 2011 -Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) - collects data on ER visits using a sample of hospitals across the country -There were more than 5 million drug-related visits in 2011 - about half were for drug misuse and half were for adverse drug reaction -Cocaine accounted for the most frequent drug -Office of National Drug Control Policy runs the Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program -This program identifies the levels of drug use among booked arrestees, tracks patterns in drug use, and alerts officials to trends in drug use -More than 60% of all arrestees tested positive for at least one drug in all 10 sites -Marijuana was the most commonly used drug -Federal Bureau of Investigation - publishes information on the number of arrests for drug abuse violations -In 2011, there were 1.5 million drug arrests reported to the FBI

Marijuana

-Use reduces the activity in the frontal lobe - reducing inhibitions of the user -Disrupts the functioning of the hippocampus (memory center of the brain) -It is classified as a hallucinogen because it causes users to to experience enhanced or distorted perceptions of events or experiences -Research has shown that marijuana use is rarely linked to criminal activity - in fact, it is more related to reduced aggression

Crime Bill

-Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 -Passed under President Bill Clinton -Provided funding for tens of thousands of community police officers and drug courts, banned certain assault weapons, and mandated life sentences for criminal convicted of a violent felony after two or more prior conviction, including drug crimes -Caused an tremendous rise in the incarcerated population, primarily among drug users

What's The Connection?

-What is the connection between drug use/abuse and criminal justice involvement? -Drugs provide motivation to steal -Drugs are expensive, need money to buy drugs -Trafficking is illegal -Drug selling and buying is illegal -Drug possession is illegal -People need money to buy drugs - some need to commit crime to get money - this involves stealing and hurting people -Drugs affect the brain in ways that make people more susceptible to committing crimes - lowered inhibitions, poor decision-making, distorted thoughts, delusions, hallucinations - drug interactions cause different effects (p. 43)

Heroin

-When injected, it gives the user an almost orgasmic-like sensation followed by a period of euphoria and relaxation -Many people also throw-up and after heavy use become constipated -Heroin is more soluble than other forms of opiates - it crosses the blood/brain barrier more easily -This makes it highly addictive

Comorbidity

-When two disorders or illnesses occur in the same person, simultaneously or sequentially -These illnesses or disorders usually interact with one another and affect the course and prognosis of each other -Data show that persons diagnosed with mood or anxiety disorders are about twice as likely to suffer from a drug use disorder -Comorbidity Explained

Cocaine

-Works as a local anesthetic -Constricts blood vessels, raising blood pressure -Is a psychostimulant - produces a temporary increase in body motor activity and alertness -Blocks the reuptake of dopamine (increased feelings of euphoria) and serotonin (well-being) -Increases the relative level of norepinephrine (heightened alertness and productivity) (minor effect compared to reduced reuptake of dopamine and serotonin) -Blocks production of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) - this neurotransmitter helps the receiving neuron from being overstimulated -Over time, the person who uses cocaine stops producing dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and GABA at pre-drug abuse levels

Recurring Themes

-Writings on the American Character that have affected - and continue to affect - how we think about things -For this class, we will look at these fears in regards to drug use -Rupert Wilkinson - American Studies scholar, born in 1936, died in 2014 - wrote about four American fears