CL History Benchmark I

Columbian Exchange effects, population growth

Columbian Exchange of plants and animals fuels large surge in world population; due to increased nutritional value in diets 1500- 425 mil 1600-545 mil 1700-610 mil 1750-720 mil 1800- 900 (almost 50% growth during previous century)

1460

500 slaves per year are sold to work as miners, porters, domestic servants in Spain and Portugal

Islamic Slave Trade

-10 million slaves have been shipped out of Africa by this slave trade between the 8th and 18th centuries. -Europeans used these existing networks and expanded the slave trade -Well established throughout Africa

Columbian Exchange effects, disease

-Early 16th century, infectious and contagious diseases bring sharp demographic losses to indigenous peoples of Americas and Pacific Islands -Worst scourge was smallpox, but measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, and influenza also take heavy tolls -None of these disease pathogens previously reach western hemisphere or Oceania, thus people have no acquired/inherited immunity to these diseases -Smallpox destroys Aztec empire/indigenous Mexico population -Worst demographic calamity in history -1500-1800 more than 100 million die from diseases imported into the americas and pacific islands

Bartolome de Las Casas

-Early Spanish historian and Dominican missionary, first to expose oppression of indigenous peoples by Europeans in the Americans and called for abolition of slavery there -Wrote "A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies" and eventually testifies with the king, -Had little effect on native's treatment by the Spaniards, King Charles issues the "New Laws of the Indies" in 1542, opposed and ignored by most colonial officials in Spanish America

Portuguese early exploration

-Exploration begins for fishing/arable land in Atlantic ocean due to measly resources in Portugal; 13th century -14th century discover Azores,Madeiras,Canary Islands -15th century Italian investors and Port. establish sugarcane plantations on Atlantic Islands, spreads to Cape Verde, Sao Tome, Pricipe, Fernando Po -1415 Prince Henry of Portugal conquers Moroccan port of Ceuta; supports west African exploration; other strategic locations established by Port. including Sao Jorge Da Mina -1488- Bartolomeu Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope, enters Indian Ocean, first route to India -1497 Vasco De Gama reaches India, establishes Calicut Trading Post 1500

Incas

-Incas imposed rule from modern Ecuador in north to modern Chile in south; largest state South America had ever seen Brothers Atahualpa and Huascar, conflicts exploited by Pizarro "Conference" where all ruling elites are killed; Atahualpa decapitated after getting P. gold 1533 Incan Capital Cuzco is taken -Gold and silver looted by P+crew after fall of the empire; smallpox spread from Mexico before P's arrival, already took toll on Andean populations

Columbian Exchange effects, migration

-Involves spread of human populations through transoceanic migration, voluntary and forced -1500-1800 largest contingent of migrants is enslaved Africans transported involuntarily to South American, North American, and Caribbean destinations -Europeans who migrated to lands wiped out of native populations due to infectious diseases -19th century- European peoples travel in massive numbers to western hemisphere mostly, but also South Africa, Australia, Pacific islands where diseases diminish native populations -Asian peoples migrate to tropical and subtropical destinations

Columbian Exchange vs. Triangular Trade

-Like the Columbian Exchange, the New World and Old World were both connected through this route. The Triangular Trade focused more on slave labor and its fruits. -The Columbian Exchange was more of a globalization rather than a collection of trade routes. It was a transfer/diffusion of plants, animals, people, crops, and diseases; some of which were unintended. -The Triangular Trade focused more on mercantilism and trade of raw materials, manufactured goods, and slaves.

Aztecs

-Mexica people and their allies found the Aztec that expanded to embrace most of Mesoamerica -Capital is Tenochtitlan, located in Lake Texcoco -Motecuzoma II, Cuauhtemoc last emperor Indigenous people of Mexico resent Aztec rule, Dona Marina and others help conquistadors w logical support, secure bases, thousands of veteran warriors -Aztec Empire crumbles due to smallpox spreading during Tenochtitlan siege, 90% mortality, pop decreases from 17 million to 1.3 million

Atlantic Slave Trade/Triangle Trade

-Most momentous process linking Africa to larger Atlantic world 15-19th century European peoples look to Africa as source of labor for increasing plantations in western hemi. Demand stimulates profitable commerce known as traingular trade, Eur. ships take voyages of three legs

Martin Luther

-Obscure German monk who prompts the Protestant Reformation in 1517 -Disagrees with the Roman Catholic Church's sale of indulgences; sees as symbol of church's greed and moral rot -Denounces sale in October 1517, Ninety Five Theses document which spreads rapidly through Europe due to the printing press -Translates Bible into German, increases churchgoers' self awareness -Actions lead to excommunication from RCC By Pope Leo X in 1520 -Still considers himself Christian, holds religious services, based on Protestantism core "justification in faith itself"

Columbian Exchange effects, food crops and animals

-Over the long term, Columbian Exchange increases rather than diminished human population bc of the global spread of food crops and animals that it sponsored; better-nourished world and growth of population from the 18th century to present Europe to America- dairy and meat-yielding animals; horses, cattles, pigs, sheep, goats, chickens largely increase food supply and energy -(native) American crops play large role in Columbian exchange; take root in Africa, Asia and Europe -Maize, potatoes, beans, tomatoes, peppers, peanuts, manioc, papayas, guava, avocados, pineapples and cacao, eventually tobacco -Maize and potato responsible for increased calories in Eurasian diets in 18th century -Maize important to China, grows in eco niches unsuitable for rice/ millet production -Potato conquers most of northern Europe, Ireland-Russia, bc of impressive nutritional qualities -American beans add protein, peppers and tomato add flavor in western Europe to China -Syphilis from Europe to Americas -Quinine first effective malaria treatment

Taino (Arawaks)

-Peoples most prominent in region when Spanish arrive to Caribbean; first Eur. and American interaction During late centuries BCE, ancestors of Taino sailed in canoes from Orinoco river valley in South America to Caribbean Islands, by 900 CE settle in Caribb.; show interest in trade goods and little resistance to Spanish -Cultivate manioc/crops, live in small villages -Columbus makes Hispaniola base of Spanish operations, establish Fort of Santo Domingo; first attempt to support society unsuccessful; must mine gold -Mining comes through ranks of Taino through encomienda system; they face brutal conditions , organize unsuccessful rebellions, and social disruption/ abuse decline pop. on Spanish favored Caribb. islands -Smallpox causes decline after 1518, raids make worse -Society plummets from 4 million in 1492 to few thousand in 1540s -Taino society disappears by the 16th century

Queen Nzinga

-Portuguese explorers develop brisk slave trade in kingdom of Ndongo, referred to Port. as Angola -Ndongo grew from small chiefdom of kings due to regional kingdom due to wealth from trading directly with Portuguese merchants rather than intermediaries -Port. merchants found small colony 1575, expand inland influence in 1611 with neighbors who supply war captives for slave trade; want to establish colony that supported large scale slave trading -Queen Nzinga leads spirited resistance against Portuguese forces; comes from warrior kings; dresses as male warrior in battle and has male concubines -Mobilizes Central Africans against Port. adversaries, allies with Dutch mariners, wants to drive away P&D and create African empire embracing entire lower congo basin

Portugal and Brazil

-Portuguese forces establish imperial presence in Brazil -!494 Treaty of Tordesillas divides world; Portuguese claims land to east not under Christian rule; Brazil -Portuguese mariner Pedro Alvares de Cabral stops briefly in 1500 while going to India through Atl. Ocean; doesn't display interest -Port. king consolidates land claim when French and Dutch begin to visit; king makes land grants in hopes of colonization and employs governors to implement policy and oversee affairs Portuguese interest in Brazil rises dramatically after mid century when entrepreneurs establish profitable sugar plantations; exploit B for these plantaions

Portuguese Profit over Colonial Possessions

-Portuguese mariners establish first trading post empire; wanted to control trade route w duties rather than conquering territories -Mid 16th cent., Port merchants build 50+ trading posts -Heavy artillery helps overpower other crafts -Afonso d'Alboquerque naval commander establish harsh policy, safe conduct passes from Hormuz, Goa and Melaka which he seized; wants to control Indian Ocean trade; violators' hands cut off -Afonso boasts are exaggeration, not enough vessels to enforce his orders, other merchants play large roles in trade and ignore safe conduct passes, Arabs control Red Sea -By 16th century, Portuguese influence weakens, small country w small pop. unable to sustain empire -Investors of other lands begin expeditions to Asian markets

Origins of African Slavery

-Slavery appears in antiquity, common after Bantu migrations spread agriculture throughout continent ^slaves war captives, criminals, individuals expelled from clans -Different than other countries, slaves are seen as wealth and power, not the land itself Large number of slaves=more crops=more wealth Slave often assimilated into kinship groups; often bought to enlarge families

Ptolemaic Universe Challengers

-Theory does not mesh with erratic movements of planets, resulted in adjustments known as epicycles 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus' treatise, On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres, breaks Ptolemaic theory, sparks new Eur. scientific direction -Copernicus argues that the sun is the center of the universe and that planets incl. earth revolve around the sun -C's theory challenged by previous sciene theories, religious beliefs, difficult to reconcile w Christian teachings -Evidence accumulates, becomes clear p-theory isn't reality, gradually favor c-model after increase of data and mathematical reasoning -Johannes Kepler of Germany- demonstrates planetary orbits are elliptical, not circular like P-theory Galileo Galilei uses telescope to see spots in sun and moon; proves planets are not perfect; sees Jupiters moon and implies universe is larger than suspected Isaac Newton depends on mathematics to argue law of the motions of bodies through the universe

Plantations/Forms of African Slavery

-Vast majority provide agricultural labor on plantations in Caribbean or Americas; cash crops that made their way into commercial routes by linking lands throughout Atlantic Ocean basin -First plantation established in Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic), grows to Mexico and Brazil, Caribbean and Americas -Cash crops: sugar, tobacco, indigo, rice, cotton and coffee -100+ slaves on plantations, helps keep agricultural products competitive -Racial separation; large numbers of African laborers, small amount of white administrators -High death rates in Caribbean and Brazil; continuation of importation

Columbus' voyages and perceptions

-Wants to sail to markets of Asia by western route; believes Earth is small -Sponsored by Spain and Italian bankers; October 2 1492 reaches Bahamas/San Salvador/Watling Island; encounters Taino -Believes he has reached the Indies/Spice Islands; reports to royal supporters he reached islands just off the coast of Asia -Never actually reaches the riches of Asia despite three additional voyages across Atl. Ocean, acquires little gold in the Caribbean -C makes Hispaniola base of Spanish operations, establishes Fort of Santo Domingo as capital of Spanish Caribbean; originally plans to build forts and trading posts; realizes this is unsalvageable and mines gold/starts encomienda system -C's voyages inspire other mariners, voyages have unintended but momentous consquences; establish links between eastern and western hemispheres, pave way for exploitation of Americas by European peoples

Columbus' Relationship to the Spanish Throne

-While Portuguese navigators sail to India, Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus proposes sailing to the markets of Asia by a western route -Columbus believes Earth was a small sphere; suggests sailing west from Europe to Asian markets would be profitable -Portuguese court declines proposal; don't want to waste money -Instead, Fernando and Isabel of Spain agree to sponsor; Italian bankers finance Departs from Spain in 1492, reaches Bahamas, returns to tell supporters he reached islands off coast of Asia; they fund three more voyages across Atlantic Ocean -Spain believes they will benefit from these voyages; wanted to participate in trade after reconquista -Spanish don't have the same wealth of Portugal/Portugal's trade; hope to profit from Columbus' voyage

Three legs of the Triangular Trade

1. Carry horses and manufactured goods (cloth,metalware,FIREARMS) they exchanged in Sub-saharan Africa for slaves 2. Took enslaved Africans to Caribbean and American destinations (slaves sold for 2-3x profit, usually bartered for sugar/molasses) 3. Fill vessels with American products and return to Europe

First slave raid / Portuguese timeline

1441 Portuguese raid West African coast, take 12 men, met with stiff resistance but eventually Portuguese buy slaves instead 1530s Portuguese import slaves directly from Kongo and Angola to Brazil, wealthy sugar producing land

When do English colonists introduce slaves to the North American mainland

17th century

1520

2,000 slaves sold per year to work in sugarcane plantations in the Americas

Hernan Cortes

Along with 450 men he brought down the Aztec empire in Mexico (1519-21), in 1519 makes way from Vera Cruz to Tenochtitlan, conquest begins w search for gold -Seize Motecuzoma II, dies in skirmish w forces and residents of Teno.; forces push Cortes away for 12 years, Cuauhtemoc emerges as last Aztec emperor -Cortes places Teno under siege w small ship fleet, in 1521 starves city into surrender; Cuauhtemoc executed 1525 -Smallpox ravages city during siege, spreads beyond capital into Mexico and destroys Aztec empire -Aid from Dona Marina, technology, indigenous allies support army w warriors, bases, logistics

Francisco Pizarro

Along with 600 men he topples the Inca empire in Peru, led expedition from Central America to Peru -Arrives in Peru after dispute between ruling brothers Huascar and Atahualpa; Pizarro exploits differences -1533 Takes capital of Cuzco, Holds "conference" of elites, kills all except Atahualpa who he gets large amounts of gold from and then decapitates -Able to topple empire due to subjects who resent Inca rule; little resistance; epidemc smallpox kills offensive forces due to its early arrival -Pizarro loots ornaments/jewelry from dead rulers, melts statues, steals from temples and buildings By 1540 Spanish forces establish themselves as lords of the land

Protestant Reformation's impact

Beliefs decrease priestly authority, including pope; return to religious authority in the Bible; causes fall of Western unity in Catholicism -Has large impact due to printing press, thirty years' war, and counter revolution

Peace of Westphalia

Established after Thirty Years' War to prevent the tearing of society -Treaty that laid the foundation for a system of independent and competing states; almost all Eur. states take place in its drafting, terms require states to treat each other as equal and sovereign -Recognizes each states' rights to individual domestic affairs, including religion; states act in own interest; BALANCE OF POWER -War still continues, 7 Years War and Sun King/Louis XIV -decreases Holy Roman and Habsburg Empires; rids need for supreme authority; marks conclusion of religious unity in Europe Sovereign states compete vigorously

Thirty Years War

Nationwide European conflict started by the attempts of Emperor Charles V to revive the Holy Roman Empire as the center of Europe; its principal battleground was Germany

Queen Nzinga efforts

Nzinga is unable to oust Portuguese forces from Africa, hinders their efforts but Portuguese wealth and arms allows for forces to exploit political differences Nzinga dies, Portuguese forces face less capable resistance, extend and tighten control over Angola -Angola becomes the first European colony in sub-Saharan Africa

Adam Smith

Scottish economist who wrote the Wealth of Nations, a precursor to modern Capitalism -Enlightenment philosopher, also writes "Theory of Moral Statements," known as Father of Economics, advocated free trade -Argued that capitalism would ultimately improve society

The Protestant Reformation spreads to

Switzerland, Germany, Low Countries, even Spain and Italy -Large movement in Germany

Ptolemaic Universe

Until the 17th century, European astronomers base understanding of universe on work of Greek scholar Cladius Ptolemy of Alexandria -Established work Almagest, synthesizes universe theories -Motionless earth surrounded by a series of nine hollow, concentric spheres revolving around it -Each of first 7 spheres had one observable heavenly body embedded in shell (sun,moon,mercury,venus,mars,jupiter,saturn) -Eighth sphere held stars;empty ninth shell surrounded cosmos and had spin that kept all others moving Beyond spheres, Christian astronomers locate heaven/realm of God ^believe heavenly bodies followed in perfect circular paths around earth and consisted of pure substance/matter not found on earth

Slaves in North America

only 5% of slaves imported to North America; slave women and slave families more common

There was less need for agriculture slave work in Europe because

serfs and free peasants cultivated the land

Columbian Exchange

the global diffusion of plants, food crops, animals, human populations and diseases pathogens that took place after voyages of exploration by Christopher Columbus and other European mariners

Some slaves work as

urban laborers or domestic servants, in Mexico and Peru many work as miners