CMY2602- all the notes
organisation's reason for existence is substantiated by its objectives
"An organization is a social unit intentionally constructed to seek specific goals.'' The objectives that are being pursued determine the nature and extent of the institution.
injury index
(no. of injuries or deaths per 108 kilometres
Law enforcement- Secondary units
. Communication unit . Accommodation and auxiliary services units . Collision bureau . Photo development services . Warrants and processes . Recovery and towing services
Law enforcement- Primary units
. Patrol units (shifts) . Saturation enforcement units (control units) =====. Speed control =====. Traffic light control =====. Environmental control =====. Noise pollution control =====. Air pollution control =====. Overloading control =====. Vehicle roadworthiness =====. Parking control =====. Freeway control =====. Miscellaneous units =====. Remedial units
Engineering section- Primary units
. Road marking . Road signs . Parking meters and areas . Traffic light maintenance
Engineering section-Secondary units
. Technical workshop === the procurement of road signs === the design of information signs (according to prescribed standards) === the purchase of paint and other materials === the rehabilitation of signs and poles === the erection of barriers . records . stores . management of the pound/auctions
The potential of COSA
. The COSA initiative has had a profound effect on all stakeholders: offenders, community volunteers, affiliated professionals, and the community at large. . Being involved in a COSA project appears to have greatly assisted many high-risk sexual offenders released into the community in remaining crime-free, with many reporting that they would likely have returned to offending without help from COSA. . Community volunteers involved in the project reported a perceived increase in community safety as a result of COSA, as well as a belief that core members were motivated to succeed in the community. . Professionals and agencies (for example, police officers, social services professionals, administrators and other similar professionals) identified increased offender responsibility and accountability, as well as enhanced community safety. . Survey results obtained from members of the community at large showed substantial increases in perceived community safety in knowing that high-risk sexual offenders in the community were involved in the project.
type of assessment is also dependent on the following
. The victim: past and possible future victims, modus operandi (ie methods used, coercion, stalking, weapons used, threats), circumstances of crime and proximity . Conditions and circumstances: to determine risk of past and future in order to predict high risk circumstances . Level of motivation: to offend and to comply with risk management plan and offender's own view of his or her risk . Consideration of imminence: linked to the likelihood and opportunity to reoffend . Risk determination: escalating of risks linked to risk management plan prediction ± are future risks (increased) foreseen and planned for?
traffic officer's functions can be divided into five broad categories:
. administrative functions . social services . preventative functions (proactive control) . repressive functions (reactive control) . miscellaneous functions
critical success factors of excellent programmes and interventions delivered with integrity are
. appropriate targeting . programme integrity (deliver the content as intended) . committed programme tutors . support for the programme by key workers . appropriate relapse prevention planning
CBT programmes targeted at sex offenders tend to focus on
. changing patterns of deviant sexual arousal . correcting distorted thinking and educating offenders in the ``cycle of abuse'' . educating offenders about the effects and impact of abuse . increasing social competence . victim empathy . controlling sexual arousal . reducing denial . relapse prevention . problem recognition and problem solving . skills practise for improving interpersonal relationships
risk management techniques (Kemshall)
. community protection measures (such as sexual offender registration, electronic tagging) . restorative and reintegrative measures (such as Circles of Support, preventative and opportunity management strategies and social inclusion and integration techniques)
Administrative section
. data capturing . court documentation . administration . training unit (internal and external)
three major issues of knowing high risk offenders (Kemshall)
. designing and implementing a risk assessment tool capable of reliably and consistently identifying high risk offenders . differing interpretations of what constitutes ``high risk'' among practitioners and sentencers . establishing sufficient criteria and evidence upon which to base judgements about the future
rationale for risk assessment necessitates the following endeavours
. determine the risk of reoffending . assess the risk posed by an offender (ie self-harm and escape) . identify the factors that contribute to offending behaviour . understand an offender's background characteristics to enhance theory and aetiology . identify the particular conditions under which an offender is likely to behave violently, aggressively or criminally . assist in an offender's case planning . safeguard fellow inmates from risk and dangerousness . understand childhood risk factors to improve treatment planning and treatment responsiveness . select appropriate targets for effective service delivery . manage offenders in such a way as to decrease their criminal activity . determine the probability that correctional inmates will engage in either dangerous or maladjusted behaviours . minimise negative events and encourage positive ones . assist in the safe reintegration of offenders into society
typical risk management package for a paedophile on release from custody
. electronic tagging . supervised accommodation . restriction of access to school locations . identification and intensive one-to-one work on key triggers (eg mood changes, attitudes to and the sexualisation of children) . use of local police intelligence on offending networks and surveillance of key movements . victim empathy work
Miscellaneous functions: traffic officer
. escorts: VIPs . church services (traffic control during funerals) . delivery of official documents . impounding of vehicles (lost vehicles) . rendering of emergency services (first aid) . traffic counts and studies . investigations and research projects: assistance . removal of oil and other substances from road surfaces . cordoning off roads: hazardous materials . arranging alternative routes (incident management).
supervisory staff will probably require the following:
. high frequency collision locations . types of collision that occur most frequently . times during which most collisions occur
Causative factors
. insufficient knowledge of the road rules, road environment and technology . attitudinal deficiencies towards the correct, safe use of roads . incompetence, especially because South African drivers are not compelled to attend driver education programmes . unskilled drivers, particularly young and very old drivers . traffic violations and lack of pedestrian safety . inconsiderate and aggressive behaviour . road environmental factors, especially defectively designed roads, insufficient road signs and markings and so on . vehicle defects
Paedophiles say they
. most likely know the child . do not look ``weird'' or ``dirty'' . come from any racial and social group . are good at making friends with children ± they offer to teach them to play a musical instrument, take them on outings and so on . give them gifts to soften them up . target single-parent families where the mother is grateful for any outside help . find victims through babysitting . hang around public swimming pools, schools, arcades, parks, fast food chains and malls . target Internet chat rooms
Deciding on "dangerousness'' for under 18/ no previous offence
. must take into account all such information that is available to it about the nature and circumstances of the offences . may take into account any information which is before it about any pattern of behaviour of which the offence forms a part . may take into account any information about the offender which is before it
Preventative policing : traffic officer
. preventative patrols: high visibility . traffic engineering services . education: juveniles . dissemination of statistical information regarding traffic crime and collisions . propaganda measures . interaction with client-based groups: local taxi liaison committees etc to facilitate law and order (motivational strategy) . inspection services: vehicle roadworthiness . training programmes . scholar patrol services . crowd control . assistance to neighbourhood watches . prevention of unlawful races and activities . retesting of incompetent drivers . patrols: public places such as parks . crime prevention programmes . stopping motorists from driving further
risk management strategies should also provide for the following (MacLean)
. strong incentives for individuals to manage their own behaviour . strong incentives to attend and comply with therapy and programmes . a thorough system of supervision with regular reassessment . clear boundaries for acceptable behaviour and enforcement . integrated management of custody, therapy and community services
Children who are vulnerable are
. taught that they don't have a right to say ``no'' to an adult . are naive about sex . have no plan when in danger . are left alone for long periods . live in single-parent families
Administrative functions: traffic officer
. the completion of registers . vehicle log sheets . daily, weekly and monthly reports on the activities performed, such as hours spent on patrol, services rendered, prosecutions instituted, etc. . collision reports, statements, etc. . departmental reports . police dossiers (dockets) . section 341 and 56 notices
most offenders are categorised as "low'', "medium'' or "high'' (maximum) risk offenders. This categorisation is mostly based on
. the likelihood to reoffend and dangerousness (to self and others) . the seriousness of crime . the absence or presence of protective factors (ie intelligence, support structure, criminal associations) . an offender's motivation to change risky behaviour . an offender's ability to self-risk manage (ie to behave, adjust and reform whilst in prison).
secondary objectives of traffic law enforcement
. the maintenance of social order in general . the promotion of voluntary compliance with the law . the protection of life and property through traffic safety education and engineering . the rendering of various services and assistance to the clientele . crime prevention
factors vital for any organisation:
. there must be an organisational structure . people must be grouped together . common goals and objectives must be pursued . the organisation must not only be static (structure) but also dynamic (process) by nature
most important information for traffic administrators
. total number of collisions over a specified period(s) . any increase/decrease in the number of collisions . equivalent accident number . collision trends . collision costs . holistic picture of the collision situation.
pattern to the way paedophiles approach children online.
1 Flattery and Friendship ± they will ask for a non-sexual picture and invite you to chat in a private chat room. 2 Relationship development ± they will ask about personal problems and issues and pretend they are a friend. 3 They will ask who has access to the computer, when they know they can't be detected; they will ask where the computer is (ie where the house it is). 4 They will build a sense of love and trust ± ``you can tell me anything'' is a common trick. 5 They will start sexually explicit conversations that can start with questions like ``Have you ever been kissed?'' and include requests for sexually explicit pictures. 6 They will suggest meeting up offline. They will lie about their age!
"building blocks'' of an effective criminal justice system (Conrad Brunk)
1 Protection of innocent law-abiding citizens. maintaining a moral society that encourages people to obey the law + deters them from breaking the law. 2 Punishment should fit the crime and be neither more nor less than the offenders deserve. 3 It should redress the injustice done by the criminal. The wrongdoer should right the wrongs. 4 Punishment should not make the offender a worse person rather a better one.
Cohen and Jeglic have identified four different notification models:
1 The first model is based on a three-tier model of dangerousness: low risk, moderate risk and high risk. 2 The second model uses notification by a designated agency. 3 The third model requires sex offenders to carry out notification under the supervision of state agencies. 4 Members of the community are required to make a request for information.
Assessment principles
1 The needs principle 2 The risk principle 3 The responsivity principle 4 Criminogenic needs
Duty of the driver in the event of an accident (Section 118 of the Road Traffic Act,)
1. if vehicle is involved in accident in which person is killed/ injured / damage in respect of any property or animal: (a) immediately stop the vehicle; (b) ascertain the nature and extent of any injury (c) render such assistance to the injured person (d) ascertain any damage sustained; (e) shall, give his name and address, the name and address of the owner of the vehicle the registration or similar mark; (f) give info to a traffic officer or as soon as is reasonably practicable, and in any case within 24 hours report the accident to any police officer at a police station; produce his driver's licence, identity number (g) shall not, take any intoxicating, and has been examined by a medical practitioner if required by a traffic officer. 8 No person shall in an urban area remove any vehicle involved- except when such accident causes complete obstruction of the roadway of a public road,
Level 3: Multi agency protection panel (MAPPA)
= "critical few'', ie registered sex offenders; violent and other aggressive offenders and repetitive violent offenders = MAPPA is responsible for risk management planning = Active partners take joint responsibility for community management of an offender = The offenders associated with this level are at high or very high risk of causing serious harm = Offenders present risks that can be managed through a plan identified by close cooperation at a senior level, owing to complexity of the case/ offender and resource commitment it requires = Likelihood of media scrutiny and/or public interest, need to ensure public confidence is sustained
responsivity principle
= "the responsivity principle maintains that programs should consider offenders' situations as well as characteristics that may become barriers to success in a correctional program''. = responsivity principle refers to delivering treatment programmes and intervention in a style and mode that is consistent with the ability and learning style of an offender. = offenders will only benefit from interventions that are meaningful to them
Level 2: Local inter-agency risk management
= Active involvement of more than one agency = Higher level of risk because of complexity of managing the offender = Level 3 cases can be referred to level 2 when risk of harm deflates = Responsible authorities decide on the frequency of meetings, representation, type of active role and quality assurance of risk management
Prevention and opportunity management strategies
= Craven applies this approach to sexual "grooming'', that is, the targeting of children for sexual abuse by offenders. preventative = measures should target, among other things, the following: . identifying potential offenders at the onset of their sexual interest in children . intervening with these potential offenders as they begin grooming behaviours . intervening once they are grooming the child = Stop it now! is a helpline working in the UK.; distributing pamphlets that describe grooming behaviours and this also assists parents in identifying problematic sexual behaviours in their children.
Criminogenic needs
= Factors that place an offender at future risk are often described as ``criminogenic'': social or personal. = Criminogenic factors are also changeable (dynamic) and include education, pro-offending attitudes, criminal associates, substance abuse, unemployment, aggression, and poor problem-solving skills
first gen risk instruments
= In custodial settings it is important to determine types of risk = and previous behaviour = Risk and needs assessment commenced with what is known as first-generation; based on unstructured clinical judgements of risk that were prone to error and bias.
South Africa's Sexual Offenders Register
= June 2008, = administered by the Department of Justice and Constitutional Development. = primary aim of the register is to prohibit sexual offenders from being employed in work involving children. = no specific job or personality profiles can describe sexual offenders per se, making it harder to seclude them from ordinary people. = details are not open to the public, only people who employ others who work with children can apply to the registrar to see if their prospective employee is on the register. = proposed register will contain the details of those who have been convicted of sexual offences against a child, whether in or outside South Africa = only the names of convicted offenders will be captured in this register, = Children's Act protection register will capture those found guilty by any legal forum, including the Children's Court and Civil Court
Key components of effective risk management
= Proactive planning = Police intelligence = Boundaries and swift enforcement = Targeted surveillance = Supervised accommodation = Accredited programmes = Victim protection = Addressing criminogenic and welfare needs
Community notification
= Registers should contain the sexual offenders' addresses, personal information, offence history and employment = administered by the police. = Will members of a specific community be able to function normally if they receive multiple sex offender warnings?
Level 1: Ordinary risk management
= Risk is managed by the agency responsible for the offender = No involvement of other agencies = Only offenders that are "low'' or "medium'' risk
How to keep your children safe from sex offenders
= Sexual Offences Act Chapter 6: all adults who work with children need a certificate stating that they are not on the National Register for Sex Offenders.
Factors related to risk prediction
= Static risk factors = Dynamic risk factors
Third-generation risk instruments
= Third-generation risk instruments highlighted the need for prediction models to predict risk and to inform the identification of criminogenic needs that could be targeted for change to reduce recidivism. = Examples of third-generation risk scales are the Level of Supervision Inventory - Revised; Historical, Clinical, and Risk Management Violence Risk Assessment Scheme; and the Self-Appraisal Questionnaire = based on empirically supported risk factors, and item selection was more deliberately determined by theoretical understandings of persistent criminality and violence = included dynamic risk factors that can change over time or with the influence of social, psychological, biological or contextual factors
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)
= This treatment is designed to assist offenders in changing their criminal behaviour by managing their thinking patterns, feelings and attitudes.
escape plan with your child:
= Use direct language to talk about body parts = what parts are wrong for others to touch. = Teach them to say ``NO!'' loudly and clearly; practise it with them. = The UK charity Kidscape recommends the ``Yell, Run, Tell'' rule: make a fuss, run away and tell a teacher or a trusted adult. = Tell them never to go into public toilets alone. = Teach them the difference between a gift and a bribe. = Teach them that there's good and bad in everyone, and people they think are ``good'' can hurt them. NEVER make the child feel guilty.
Criminological and legal approaches to risk and dangerousness
= an emphasis on a technical understanding of risk, within which risk and dangerousness are framed as objective phenomena if the correct measures and tools can be designed. = resulted in a constant developing in the pursuit of reliable risk assessment tools to identify dangerous offenders, = problems in tool use can be understood as arising from differing conceptualisations of risk rather than as necessarily being due to practitioners' lack of compliance. = risk assessment tools see the riskiness of an offender as rooted in the behaviour and circumstances of that individual. = perspective on risk as ``fluid'' or changeable, running along a behavioural continuum of low to high risk, and triggered by specific circumstances. = risks are knowable and can be calculated if behaviours and triggers can be measured against known risk profiles produced by the aggregated data on risky populations = Behaviours and triggers are also seen as changeable
Community protection risk management strategies
= centres on the protection of the community; = stresses controlling and restrictive measures for the offender = methods of supervision are usually rigorous, including monitoring techniques and corrective programmes that are founded on principles of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). = example of some restrictive measures: a sex offender may have a restriction against using certain leisure facilities may have, as a condition, to reside in a certain place (eg a hostel). = these conditions limit the opportunity for offenders to commit offences and to ``groom'' their victims, = conditions can sometimes have an adverse affect.-- that sex offenders that were restricted from certain areas were then in social isolation, especially from their own families and support networks, and this also led to a lack of reintegration. = often views risk management as working with unmotivated offenders and therefore aims to protect victims at all costs by containing offenders within the community and restricting their opportunities to reoffend.
Meta-analysis
= determines which instruments (risk assessment scales or instruments) can be applied most effectively as suitable and valid predictors of potential violence and reoffending behaviour = a good deal of the discrepancies among prediction studies are is to sampling error = One means of addressing this concern is to conduct meta-analyses, which statistically conclude the main study data to a superior estimation true to population parameters = is a comprehensive research endeavour that evaluates a plethora of studies (a big sample) on the same research phenomenon in order to determine the validity and accurateness of the scales or instruments used (ie the risk predictors or indicators).
the key issues surrounding high risk offenders Kemshall (2008:4)
= difficulties in identifying exactly who are high risk offenders = the questions surrounding their risk assessment = the problems with risk predictions in the future. = both perceptions and definitions of high risk are dependent on the context = risk is not a value neutral term as it encapsulates the values and meanings by those who use it
The problem of risk prediction
= difficulty in establishing the relationship between risk factors and subsequent offending = Risk factors can have different impacts ± what impacts on one offender does not necessarily impact on another. = judgements of risk are open to bias, stereotyping and interpretation
Governmentality theory of risk and dangerousness
= examine risk in the context of surveillance, discipline, and regulation of populations = concepts of risk construct certain norms of behaviour which are used to encourage individuals to engage voluntarily in selfregulation = ``responsibilisation'' = New techniques of surveillance linked by governmentality theorists to social regulation.
Cultural theory of risk and dangerousness
= examines how some dangers are chosen for attention while others are not = perspective pays attention to the symbolic and cultural meanings carried by risk and danger, and the political rationalities and strategies that underpin them.
dangerous offender (Kemshall)
= heterogeneous (or fairly diverse) = focused primarily on the sexual and violent offenders = in particular those offenders who commit sexually violent and predatory crimes against children = very flexible, incorporating potential terrorists, asylum seekers, problem youth, the socially excluded, as well as a wide range of sexual and violent offences of varying degrees of seriousness. = "every offender is deemed to present some risk ± the key is to determine the level of risk and match responses accordingly
these offender category levels assist in
= housing or grouping offenders according to their current dangerousness, = personality difficulty or problems, = protection of self, = other inmates and staff, = criminal history, attempted and/or actual escapes, = the type and severity of crime(s) committed, = harm done, and length of imprisonment sentence.
Problems encountered with community notification:
= implementing community registration; = difficulties in enforcing registration and notification; = sex offenders ``going underground''; = inaccurate information on registers = the draining of police resources
adopted Circles of Support and Accountability (COSA) model.
= joint venture is based on negative public reaction to the release of a sex offender into the community, = awareness that formal supervisory instruments can neither effectively reintegrate sex offenders nor promise public safety. = origin in faith-based communities offering ``circles of support'' and responsibility with regard to a sexual offender, = offering contact and support (ie a surrogate family) while monitoring the offender with caution. = recognises that many sex offenders are social isolates, and that reintegration following custody is on the whole difficult. = Sex offenders are perceived as being open to rehabilitation = obstacles to effective rehabilitation are recognised and the notion is that without sufficient assistance sex offenders will reoffend = in line with a broadly restorative and re-integrative approach to sexual offending, and aims to develop community safety through the effective reintegration of sex offenders into the community. = COSA has been evaluated in Canada and the UK with positive results, with a decrease of 70% in sexual offending.
Relapse prevention
= key component of successful risk management strategies. = comprises the attempts to prevent the offender from backsliding = targets among others, the following: == negative attitudes and antisocial feelings for example, victim blaming, == justifying offending or behaviours as a legitimate way to get what is wanted, == situations of high risk (such as contact with children)
problems in restorative approaches
= often met with controversy, particularly where ``gendered and sexualized violence'' = absence of workable alternatives, however, there is a need to extend the use of restorative justice to difficult societal problems, like children sexual abusers and child sexual abuse. = potential benefits for improving the safety of victims, for providing relief for communities and for rehabilitating offenders may mean that it is worth careful experiment = In order for these types of programme to be successful, a multi-agency approach is needed.
Community protection through partnership
= on managing and monitoring high risk offenders once they had been released from prison and reintegrated into the community. = known as formal multi-agency public protection arrangements (MAPPA),
The social construction of risk and the role of the media
= perceptions of risk and how risks and dangers are selected for importance and attention is significant; = contrast between the media, political and public attention given to children abducted and killed by strangers, and the number of children killed per year by a parent. = media shape issues, drawing the attention of the public and political figures = provide a frame of reference against which we measure our own experiences = ``champion'' causes, validate causes and experiences, demonise particular groups and popularise new fears, risk and dangers. = can also help to find solutions (or inhibit them), = mobilise activists and enable or prompt policymakers into action. = Garland--- "collective and institutionalised crime consciousness''
Risk assessment
= postulated by Siegel and Bartollas: risk assessment is used to allocate inmates to high, medium and low risk categories. = Treatment effectiveness is thought to be maximised by matching inmate needs with the proper treatment modality, that is, offender "responsivity'' or offender treatability = demands a methodical evaluation, analysis and assessment of criminal behaviour in order to determine an offender's risk of escaping, absconding, bullying behaviour (or own vulnerability), and dangerousness. (Hesselink-Louw) = risk of recidivating or causing harm to the public, known individuals, staff, or the self is included here. = Risk assessment can be applied in order to assist with inmate classification, offender management strategies, therapeutic interventions, parole decision making, community supervision and the sentencing of offenders.
Good Lives Model (GLM)
= proposes a more holistic and constructive way of conceptualizing and engaging with offenders, focusing less on individual offender deficits and more on the personal, inter-personal and social contexts required to enable offenders to live and sustain a good life = Risk Management Authority (RMA) in Scotland has incorporated the GLM into their approach to high risk offenders. = propose a dual focus in supervision, firstly promoting rehabilitation and secondly reducing harm while restricting liberty and engaging an offender in the process of change. = the balance between external and internal controls was the key to effective risk management. = engaging the offender and emphasising the GLM underpinned the best practice observed in the study. = where success was achieved was in reintegrating sex offenders back into housing and employment, and reintegrating young sex offenders back into education.
MAPPA issues
= publication represents limited communication with local communities, = while public commitment to the work of MAPPA remains unfulfilled = low trust and low reliability = "MAPPA's lack of accountability to the public and lack of transformation about its operation leaves it potentially isolated from local communities, and the distance between experts and public is problematic in long-term management taboo risks''.
Social inclusion and integration techniques
= restorative approach emphasises social inclusion and reintegration = (DCS) facilitates the correcting of offending behaviour and is responsible for the general development of all offenders as part of their rehabilitation, = in rehabilitation programmes prepares offenders for reintegration into society as productive, well-adapted and law-abiding citizens. = 2006/07 a Correctional Sentence Plan was finalised; this plan includes the implementation of six programmes that will address offence-specific crimes resulting from aggressive behaviour, sexual offences and substance abuse. = two of the key strategies of the development and rehabilitation processes are the engaging of community organisations to assist with development programmes for offenders and the promoting and implementing of restorative justice principles =Reintegrative approaches can be applied to serious crimes, as they promote genuine engagement with offenders and assist in the process of change;
second-generation risk instruments
= second-generation risk instruments were developed and offered a standardised assessment; based on statistically predictive indicators (empirical instruments) = Second-generation instruments included the Violence Risk Assessment Guide and the Statistical Information on Recidivism = most second-generation instruments are composed mainly of ``static'' risk items. = Static risk factors are unchangeable (eg criminal history, age, gender), and an exclusive reliance on static factors for risk assessment has = do not take into consideration the complexity of recidivism,
The rehabilitation approach model
= see offenders as either patients or victims or both. Either way, they are not seen as being morally responsible for offences committed = aligned with rehabilitation theory, although the two are worlds apart. = Restorative justice treats offenders as responsible moral agents = An offender who has taken responsibility for repairing the harm done to victims, and now has restored the trust and confidence of the community is ``rehabilitated'' in a far broader sense than one who has undergone individual therapy = alternative strategies, namely, the Public Health Approach (PHA), the Good Lives model (GLM), prevention strategies such as The Derwent Initiative (TDI) and Tackling Alcohol-related Street Crime (TASC).
Supervision and monitoring
= the contravention of parole conditions leads to interventions such as correctional programmes, stricter conditions, increased supervision and revocation of the parole. = Monitoring in these instances would include visits to the parolee's home and workplace, telephonic liaison and consultations at the Community Corrections Office. = difficulties regarding supervision of high risk offenders as mentioned by Kemshall : a lack of resources and an overemphasis on restrictions. = offenders lack incentive to change when their needs remain unmet or when restrictions are overly intrusive. = motivational approach to offenders is advocated, emphasising a ``meshing of motivational principles into the fabric of offender management''.
Criteria and evidence for "dangerousness''
= there is a difference between offenders who have no previous convictions or who are under the age of 18 = a number of complex judgements based on the interaction of the offender,the circumstances surrounding the offence, the impact on the victim(s), and a combination of in-depth knowledge of behaviour, attitudes and motivation are required = policy, legislation and practice are all conducted ``as if'' we can know them.
factors that Kemshall also stresses in CBT programmes
= timing of interventions, = programme integrity = relapse prevention can be crucial to the correct treatment methods and programmes. = after programmes have ended, offenders need to be taught self-risk management techniques and strategies for managing their own problematic behaviours.
Psychological framing of high risk offenders and dangerousness
= views risk and dangerousness as the individual, inherent traits of the offender = risk factors are understood as those factors predisposing the individual to sexual or violent offending. = result of mental illness or as a result of childhood experiences or family functioning. = Psychiatric assessments and treatments often run parallel to psychological approaches,
Boundaries and swift enforcement
Although these written contracts are not legally binding, contracts with offenders could reinforce conditions and hold these offenders to account for programme attendance and compliance with conditions, for example, rapid parole recall.
Proactive planning
Before a high risk offender is released from prison the following issues should be dealt with. 1, appropriate licence/parole conditions should be created, 2 accommodation should be secured, 3 victim protection + support work needs to take place 4 Surveillance and reporting requirements should be set up.
Supervised accommodation
Crucial for effective risk management. It provides stability and can be combined with curfews, CCTV surveillance, electronic monitoring and high levels of staff contact.
Addressing criminogenic and welfare needs
Failure to meet the basic offender needs can undermine the risk management plan.
Accredited programmes
Programme selection must be done with great care as part of a wider risk management strategy.
Victim protection
Providing relevant information, personal alarms, rapid response police numbers and restraining orders.
Sociological understanding of risk and dangerousness
Sociological understandings of risk and dangerousness are eclectic, drawing on a range of theoretical approaches . Cultural theory . Governmentality theory . The social construction of risk and the role of the media
Targeted surveillance
To establish key contacts and offender movements and to provide evidence of further offending and evidence to justify recall
Police intelligence
To monitor grooming and targeting activities and to identify offender networks
organization
a structure through which people work as a group
best risk management strategy (Joan van Niekerk, Childline South Africa)
a system of close monitoring that involves a team ± both therapy and a well-trained authority figure, such as a parole officer and a close family member, who is willing to engage as a partner in the rehabilitation process ± without taking any responsibility for maintaining safe behaviour away from the offender him- or herself
Repressive (or reactive) policing: traffic officer
activities geared to reinstate order after it has been breached. . law enforcement . investigation and reconstruction of traffic crimes and collisions . evidence in court . provision of information (civil litigation) . inspections . road blocks . execution of warrants . service of processes . impounding of vehicles and instruments used in crime
Dynamic risk factors
changeable factors that determine aspects and spheres of an offender's life, personality and/or lifestyle where change and personal development is possible. include aspects such as substance abuse, education, pro-criminal attitudes, criminal associations, lifestyle instability, relationship and intimacy problems, cognitive distortions, accommodation and unemployment. Also also known as criminogenic factors ± that is, factors that need to be effectively addressed to bring about positive change and development within an offender
responsibilisation
is essentially a mechanism of social regulation in which individuals are made responsible for their own actions, including their own risks, and for their own self-risk management.
The risk principle
maintains that criminal behaviour can be predicted and that it involves matching levels of treatment services to the risk level of an offender. Low risk inmates present a low risk of reoffending, whereas high risk offenders represent a high risk of recidivism. Also refers to high risk offenders receiving intensive treatment in order to reduce their risk for re-entering a correctional environment.
Officer's Accident Report (OAR) form
must be completed for every collision that occurs. source of all data in connection with collisions
collision rates
no. of collisions per 108 kilometres
fourth- generation risk assessments
specifically designed to be integrated into: . the process of risk management . the selection of intervention modes and targets for treatment . the assessment of rehabilitation progress = document changes in specific criminogenic needs that might occur between an offender's ``entrance'' into the criminal justice system and his or her ``exit'' from the criminal justice system. = mainly identify areas of success and positive progress and they highlight intervention strategies = Examples include the Level of Service/Case Management Inventory; the Violence Risk Scale ; Correctional Offender Management Profile for Alternative Sanctions
Actuarial scales or instruments
standardised, objective risk or needs instruments that have been developed through extensive research. are quantifiable measures of ``criminogenic'' risks and needs, and are linear in nature. the higher a person scores on the instrument, the greater the individual's presumed susceptibility for criminal or antisocial behaviour in the future. = Professional assessors base their predictions of reoffending and dangerousness on these statistical, research-based estimates of risk ± that is, an actuarial approach = indecision remains concerning the most appropriate instruments
The needs principle
the identification of offenders' needs can change criminal and antisocial behaviour into pro-social conduct, if identification processes are effectively applied. This principle stipulates the type of treatment targets (related to criminal behaviour) to develop and rehabilitate offenders positively. = These include: ==== substance abuse (alcohol and drug abuse), ==== medical factors (HIV/Aids, epilepsy), ==== attitudes (pro-criminal thinking patterns), ==== employment (previous unemployment) ==== psychological factors (cognitive distortions, self-esteem problems).
goals of traffic law enforcement
the policing of traffic order, which in turn is a component of the primary goal of policing- maintenance of social order in society. Traffic authorities are primarily responsible for the policing of traffic order.
Traffic officers are part of
the process of social control (order) and can be seen as supervisors who manage people.
Risk assessment tools
the rarer the behaviour of the high risk offender, the more difficult it is to accurately predict, even though this is just the type of high risk behaviour that criminal justice personnel are expected to predict. accuracy of risk assessment tools has also proved to be problematic in terms of maintaining long-term reliability.
Who are high risk offenders?
those individuals who have committed a violent or sexual offence, or who have been assessed as likely to do so. offenders likely to offend harmfully against the person, and those committing sexual offences resulting in physical harm or psychological trauma (Kemshall)
Static risk factors
unchangeable, historical risk factors and include aspects such as age, gender, marital status, criminal record, early behaviour problems, and race factors that are a given and are part of a person's existence and history
Community services: traffic officer
up to 70% of available man-hours are spent on these services . traffic point duty . school point duty . assistance at collision scenes . investigation of complaints . patrols . provision of information . assistance to stranded motorists . escorts: ambulance and private vehicles, funerals, abnormal-load vehicles . assistance during emergency situations, disasters, etc . protection: dangerous road conditions, excavations . removal of vehicles and other items that may cause an obstruction or pose a danger . protection of stolen or lost property . reporting of dangerous road conditions, road signs, etc . educating motorists . providing information through the mass media . removal and storage of vehicles involved in collisions . investigation of collisions . removal of animals and animal carcasses from the roads . proactive programmes