cog 3

B.F. Skinner, the modern champion of behaviorism, proposed that language is learned through

reinforcement.

Coherence refers to the

representation of the text in a reader's mind, so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text.

The semantic network model predicts that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information about a concept should be determined by

the distance that must be traveled through the network.

The circle problem, in which the task is to determine the length of a line inside a circle, was proposed to illustrate:

Representation and restructuring

Yoda, a central character of the Star Wars movies created by George Lucas, has a distinctive way of speaking. His statement, "Afraid you will be," violates which English language property?

Rules

Research on the physiology of semantic memory has shown that the representation of different categories in the brain (like living and non-living things) is best described as being

distributed.

The definitional approach to categorization

doesn't work well for most natural objects like birds, trees, and plants.

Tanenhaus and coworkers' eye movement study presented participants with different pictures for interpreting the sentence, "Put the apple on the towel in the box." Their results showed the importance of _____ in how we understand sentences in real-life situations.

environmental context

Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a

novel object

The elements of the problem space include all of the following EXCEPT:

operators

Your research advisor asks you to create stimuli for a discourse processing experiment to be run in the lab. Most likely, you would create stimuli where each trial you present a(n)

paragraph of text.

According to the situation model of text processing,

people create a mental representation of what the text is about in terms of people, objects, locations, and events.

Spreading activation

primes associated concepts.

One of Chomsky's most persuasive arguments for refuting Skinner's theory of language acqui-sition was his observation that children

produce sentences they have never heard.

Rosch found that participants respond more rapidly in a same-different task when presented with "good" examples of colors such as "red" and "green" than when they are presented with "poor" examples such as "pink" or "light green." The result of this experiment was interpreted as supporting the _____ approach to categorization.

prototype

Ty has finished work on his doctoral dissertation. He studied how most adults understand words, specifically the priming effects of categorically related words and submitted a proposal to be included in a psychological conference to present his work to his peers. Presentation at the conference is segregated based on the particular topic in psychology under consideration. It is most likely that Ty's work will be presented in a conference session on

psycholinguistics.

The connectionist network has learned the correct pattern for a concept when

the back propagated error signal is zero.

Consider the sentence, "Because he always jogs a mile seems like a short distance to him." The principle of late closure states that this sentence would first be parsed into which of the fol-lowing phrases?

"Because he always jogs a mile"

A researcher had participants read each of the sentences below and measured the time it took to read each sentence.

...

Trial 1: The lamb ran past the cottage into the pasture.

...

Trial 2: The dog ran past the house into the yard.

...

At what age do infants begin forming basic level categories?

3-4 months

Pollack and Pickett's experiment on understanding speech found that when participants were presented with individual words taken out of conversations (single words presented alone with no context), they could identify

50% of the words spoken by their own voices.

Which of the following reaction time data sets illustrate the typicality effect for the bird cate-gory, given the following three trials? (NOTE: Read data sets as RTs for Trial 1: Trial 2: Trial 3)Trial 1: An owl is a bird.Trial 2: A penguin is a bird.Trial 3: A sparrow is a bird.

583: 653: 518 msec

In evaluating retrieval rates for category information for a concept, Collins and Quillian's semantic network approach would predict the slowest reaction times for which of the following statements using a sentence verification technique?

A field sparrow is an animal.

According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take longest to verify which statement below?

A pig is an animal.

______ is an average representation of a category.

A prototype

Which of the following is NOT a property of the connectionist approach?

Before any learning has occurred in the network, the weights in the network all equal zero.

Which of the following is the best example of a garden path sentence?

Before the police stopped the Toyota disappeared into the night.

Which of the following statements does NOT apply to the results of research on differences between how experts and novices solve problems?

Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field.

Which of the following statements is NOT cited in your text as a reason why categories are useful?

Categories provide definitions of groups of related objects.

Which term below is most closely associated with semantic networks?

Cognitive economy

Which property below is NOT one of the characteristics that makes human language unique?

Communication

Which approach to categorization involves forming a representation based on an average of category members that a person has encountered in the past?

Prototype

Brain imaging studies reveal that semantics and syntax are associated with ____ brain mech-anisms.

different

Which approach to categorization can more easily take into account atypical cases such as flightless birds?

Exemplar

_______ are actual members of a category that a person has encountered in the past.

Exemplars

An advantage of the prototype approach over the exemplar approach is that the prototype ap-proach provides a better explanation of the typicality effect.

False

Collins and Loftus modified the original semantic network theory of Collins and Quillian to satisfy some of the criticisms of the original model. People consider this to be a strong theory because it is powerful enough to explain just about any result.

False

Connectionist theory states that a particular object (like a canary) is identified by activity in the specific "canary" output unit of the network.

False

Evidence that language is a social process that must be learned comes from the fact that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where there are no people who speak or use sign language, they are unable to develop any formal language skills.

False

Which methodology is used to study categorization processes in very young infants?

Familiarization/novelty preference procedure

Which of the following is NOT associated with the semantic network model?

Family resemblance

Which of the following represents a basic level item?

Guitar

Which of the following is an example of the sentence verification technique?

Indicate whether the following statement is true: An apple is a fruit. YES NO

Swinney's research measuring response time to different words with either similar or different meanings is an example of which research methodology?

Lexical priming

Which of the following is an operator for the acrobat problem?

One acrobat, and only one, can jump during each move

Which of the following is most closely modeled on the way the nervous system operates?

Parallel distributed processing theory

In a study, participants listened to the following tape recording: Rumor had it that, for years, the government building had been plagued with problems. The man was not surprised when he found several spiders, roaches, and other bugs in the corner of the room.As participants heard the word "bugs," they completed a lexical decision task to a test stimulus flashed on a screen. Results showed that the participants responded most slowly to the test stimulus

SKY

The ____ states that the nature of a culture's language can affect the way people think.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Which of the following members would most likely be ranked highest in prototypicality in the "birds" category?

Sparrow

People playing the parlor game "20 Questions" often use hierarchical organization strategies. One player asks up to 20 yes/no questions to determine the identity of an object another player has selected. The player's questions usually start as general and get more specific as the player approaches a likely guess. Initial questions asked by a player are often one of three questions: "Is it an animal?" "Is it a vegetable?" and "Is it a mineral?" Each of these three questions describes which level of categorization?

Superordinate

You are conducting a study on how fluency influences the phonemic restoration effect. You study two groups of non-native English speakers, one with a year of English classes and the other with 10 years. All of your stimuli are in English. Who would you expect to show the greatest phonemic restoration effect?

The group with 10 years of English instruction

Which of the following would be in a basic level category?

Truck

Which of the following is NOT influenced by meaning?

Word frequency effect

Which set of stimuli would be the best selection for having people perform a lexical decision task?

Words "pizza, history" and non-words "pibble, girk"

When a participant is asked to list examples of the category vegetables, it is most likely that

a carrot would be named before eggplant.

In a lexical decision task, participants have to decide whether

a letter string is a word.

In the phonemic restoration effect, participants "fill in" the missing phoneme based on all of the following EXCEPT

a mental "skimming" of the lexicon to find likely words.

A task for determining how prototypical an object is would be

a task where participants rate the extent to which each member represents the category title.

The activity that represents a particular object is established in a connectionist network through a process of learning that involves

adjusting the weights of inhibitory and excitatory connections between units.

An experiment on the phonemic restoration effect would most likely include

an extraneous cough.

Boxing champion George Foreman recently described his family vacations with the statement, "At our ranch in Marshall, Texas, there are lots of ponds and I take the kids out and we fish. And then of course, we grill them." That a reader understands "them" appropriately (George grills fish, not his kids!) is the result of a(n) _____ inference.

anaphoric

Consider the following sentences: "Captain Ahab wanted to kill the whale. He cursed at it." These two sentences taken together provide an example of a(n)

anaphoric inference.

Learning takes place in a connectionist network through a process of _____ in which an error signal is transmitted from output units towards the input units.

back propagation

According to Rosch, the ____ level of categories is the psychologically "privileged" level of category that reflects people's everyday experience.

basic

Your text describes cross-cultural studies of categorization with U.S. and Itza participants. Given the results of these studies, we know that if asked to name basic level objects for a catego-ry, U.S. participants would answer ____ and Itza participants would answer ____.

bird; sparrow

Swinney did an experiment in which he presented participants with the sentence, "The man was not surprised to find several spiders, roaches, and other bugs in the corner of the room." He found that immediately after hearing the word "bug," the participants accessed

both the "insect" and the "hidden listening device" meanings of the word.

Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack the feature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. This poses a problem for the _______ approach to categorization.

definitional

How is cognitive economy represented in the following example? The property _____ is stored at the _____ node.

can fly; bird

The prototype approach to categorization states that a standard representation of a category is based on

category members that have been encountered in the past.

Imagine you are interpreting a pair of sentences such as "The sidewalk was covered with ice" and "Ramona fell down." The kind of inference we use to link these sentences together would most likely be a(n) _____ inference.

causal

The given-new contract is a method for creating

coherence in people's conversations.

A(n) ____ is a mental representation used for a variety of cognitive functions, including memory, reasoning, and using and understanding language.

concept

Connectionist networks are modeled after neural networks in the nervous system and incorporate all of the following features of the nervous system EXCEPT

concepts represented by activity in individual nodes.

One of the key properties of the _____ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network.

connectionist

The process of back propagation is most closely associated with

connectionist networks.

One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that

damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation.

If a system has the property of graceful degradation, this means that

damage to the system doesn't completely disrupt its operation.

In the lexical decision task, participants are asked to decide whether a string of letters is a word or a non-word. A researcher had participants read each of the sentences below and measured the time it took to read each sentence.

decide whether a string of letters is a word or a non-word.

If you say that "a Labrador retriever is my idea of a typical dog," you would be using the _____ approach to categorization.

exemplar

Research suggests that the _____ approach to categorization works best for small categories (e.g., U.S. presidents).

exemplar

Swinney's lexical priming studies using ambiguous words as stimuli show that context

exerts its influence after all meanings of the word have been briefly accessed.

Priming occurs when presentation of one stimulus

facilitates the response to another stimulus.

The principle illustrated when most people are able to recognize a variety of examples of chairs even though no one category member may have all of the characteristic properties of "chairs" (e.g., most chairs have four legs but not all do) is

family resemblance.

In an eye movement study, Rayner and coworkers had participants read sentences that contained either a high- or low- frequency target word. For example, the sentence "Sam wore the horrid coat though his ____ girlfriend complained," contained either the target word "pretty" or "demure." Results showed the participants' _____ was shorter for the target word _____.

fixation; pretty

In New Guinea, tribes that had been isolated for centuries were found that

had a large number of sophisticated language systems.

The principle of late closure can be described as a(n) _____ since it provides a best guess about the unfolding meaning of a sentence.

heuristic

Language consists of smaller components, like words, that can be combined to form larger ones, like phrases, to create sentences, which themselves can be components of a larger story. This property is known as

hierarchical structure.

Noam Chomsky proposed that

humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language.

Most of the coherence in text is created by

inference.

Chaz is listening to his grandma reminisce about the first time she danced with his grandpa 60 years ago. When his grandma says, "It seemed like the song would play forever," Chaz un-derstands that it is more likely his grandma was listening to a radio playing and not a CD. This understanding requires Chaz use a(n)

instrument inference.

Imagine that a young child is just learning about the category "dog." Thus far, she has expe-rienced only two dogs, one a small poodle and the other a large German shepherd. On her third encounter with a dog, she will be LEAST likely to correctly categorize the animal as a dog if that animal

is a dog that does not bark.

When we look at a record of the physical energy produced by conversational speech, we see that the speech signal

is continuous.

Collins and Loftus modified the original semantic network theory of Collins and Quillian to satisfy some of the criticisms of the original model. However, their revised model was not im-mune to criticism. One criticism of Collins and Loftus' semantic network theory is that it

is of little explanatory value because it can explain just about any result.

According to the typicality effect,

items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group.

Lilo can't wait for school to start. This year is the first time she gets to take a foreign language class, and she is taking Japanese. Dr. Nabuto is a professor interested in studying how people learn additional languages later in life, and he is including Lilo's class in his research. Dr. Nabuto is most likely studying

language acquisition.

Ron is an avid reader. He has a large vocabulary because every time he comes across a word he doesn't know, he looks it up in the dictionary. Ron encounters "wanderlust" in a novel, reaches for the dictionary, and finds out this word means "desire to travel." The process of looking up unfamiliar words increases Ron's

lexicon.

Amber lives in a housing development between two parallel streets that both connect to a freeway. She usually takes the street to the south when heading southbound on the freeway to work, but that street is closed for repairs for three months. Amber takes the street to the north during that time. After the street to the south is re-opened, she continues to take the street to the north, even though it is a slightly longer route. Continuing to take the street to the north demonstrates

mental set

Olin and Bob are neighbors. Olin loves birds and his father works for the zoo. He has been to a dozen bird sanctuaries, and he and his dad go on bird watching hikes once a month. In contrast, Bob doesn't think much about birds. His only contact with them is in his backyard. It would be correct to say that Olin's standard probably involves

more exemplars than Bob's.

Lexical ambiguity studies show that people initially access

multiple meanings of an ambiguous word.

In the semantic network model, a specific category is represented at a

node.

Newell and Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems. Their research program was based on the idea that problem solving is a process that involves:

search

The _____ model includes associations between concepts and the property of spreading acti-vation.

semantic network

The interactionist approach to parsing states that

semantics is activated as a sentence is being read.

According to the idea of _____, when we read a sentence like, "Carmelo grabbed his coat from his bedroom and his backpack from the living room, walked downstairs, and called his friend Gerry," we create a map of Carmelo's apartment and keep track of his location as he moves throughout the apartment.

situation models

The word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more

slowly to low-frequency words than high-frequency words.

Considering the fortress and radiation problem together, the fortress problem represents the _______________ problem.

source

When the front part of a sentence can be interpreted more than one way, but the end of the sentence clarifies which meaning is correct, we say that the sentence is an example of

speech segmentation

Collins and Quillian explained the results of priming experiments by introducing the concept of _____ into their network model.

spreading activation

Items high on prototypicality have ____ family resemblances.

strong

People are most successful at noticing an analogous relationship between problems if they focus on

structural features

If we were conducting an experiment on the effect knowledge has on categorization, we might compare the results of expert and non-expert groups. Suppose we compare horticulturalists to people with little knowledge about plants. If we asked the groups to name, as specifically as possible, five different plants seen around campus, we would predict that the expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level, while the non-expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level.

subordinate; basic

According to the text, jumping from _______ categories results in the largest gain in information.

superordinate level to basic level

A psycholinguist conducts an experiment with a group of participants from a small village in Asia and another from a small village in South America. She asked the groups to describe the bands of color they saw in a rainbow and found they reported the same number of bands as their language possessed primary color words. These results

support the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

When two people engage in a conversation, if one person produces a specific grammatical construction in her speech and then the other person does the same, this phenomenon is referred to as

syntactic priming.

The idea that the grammatical structure of a sentence is the primary determinant of the way a sentence is parsed is part of the _____ approach to parsing.

syntax-first

Tanenhaus and coworkers' eye movement study presented participants with different pictures for interpreting the sentence, "Put the apple on the towel in the box." Their results support

the interactionist approach to parsing.

Within the realm of conversational speech, context refers to

the meaning of a conversation.

Rosch and coworkers conducted an experiment in which participants were shown a category label, like car or vehicle, and then, after a brief delay, saw a picture. The participants' task was to indicate as rapidly as possible whether the picture was a member of the category. Their results showed

the priming effect was most robust for basic level categories.

Syntax is

the rules for combining words into sentences.

Collins and Quillian's semantic network model predicts that the reaction time to verify "a canary is a bird" is _____ the reaction time to verify "an ostrich is a bird."

the same as

A phoneme refers to

the shortest segment of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of a word.

For the category "fruit," people give a higher typicality rating to "banana" than to "kiwi." Knowing that, we can also reason that

the word "fruit" will lead to a larger priming effect for banana than for kiwi.

"Kitchen tables" consists of ____ morphemes.

three

The word "bad" has ____ phoneme(s).

three

Good psychological theories must have all of the following properties EXCEPT being

too powerful to be refuted by empirical evidence.

The participants' response times were longer for _____ because of the _____ effect

trial 1; word frequency

Collins and Loftus modified the original semantic network theory of Collins and Quillian to satisfy some of the criticisms of the original model. In their modification, Collins and Loftus ac-count for the typicality effect by

using shorter links to connect more closely related concepts.

Learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network

weights

The crucial question in comparing syntax-first and interactionist approaches to parsing is ____ is involved.

when semantics