Cognition Exam 2

Imagine that a friend has just read a magazine article that discusses flashbulb memories, and your friend argues that people retain a very clear memory of certain emotional events. What would you respond?

"No, the article overstates the case; theses memories can be inaccurate and can fade with time."

Which of the following statements would be most consistent with the constructivist approach to memory?

"Our memory for an event sometimes changes over time, depending on our current beliefs."

Your friend claims that she always retains a very clear and accurate memory of surprising, important, and emotional events (such as when she heard about the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center in September 2001). How should you respond?

"Such memories may seem too clear and accurate, but people may nevertheless report inaccurate details."

Which of the following sentences describes an example of procedural memory?

"To make a capital letter on this keyboard, press SHIFT key."

Suppose that a friend tells you that her introductory psychology textbook says you should study for a test in the same room where you will take the test, because of the effects of context. Your most informed response would be

"Well, it can sometimes be helpful to have the same physical context for studying and for recall, but the effect is not very strong."

Freyd proposed that the concept of betrayal trauma can explain why people may forget about their own experience with sexual abuse during childhood. Which of the following statements would be most consistent with this perspective?

"When a child is sexually abused by a trusted adult, the child may not be able to recall the abuse at a later time."

According to the research on desirable difficulties, you should wait at least ____ between study sessions in order to maximize long-term retention.

1 day

In laboratory studies of false memories, about _____ % of participants actually come to remember an event that never actually occurred.

25%

According to a famous article by Miller (1956), short-term memory (or working memory) has a capacity limitation of about:

7 +/- 2 chunks of information.

Suppose that some friends of yours want to advertise their new product on a television show. If they want people to remember the product, what kind of program would you recommend and why?

A nonviolent show, because violence and anger usually reduce memory for the advertisement.

Which of the following students provides the most accurate summary about the emotions associated with events that occurred in the past?

Anna: "The emotional tone of unpleasant events fades more the the emotional tone of pleasant events."

Which of the following students provides the most accurate advice about metacomprehension?

Arianna: "Students typically have better metacognition if they read a passage, wait briefly, and then summarize the passage."

The chapter on working memory discussed several studies about individual differences in working memory. Which of the following students provides the best information about how working memory is related to academic skills?

Aroona: "People who are especially skilled on a task that uses the central executive are likely to score high in reading comprehension."

Which of the following statements most accurately captures the point of view called the "false memory perspective" with respect to childhood sexual abuse?

As adults, people construct an incorrect memory about abuse, and they believe that the abuse actually did occur.

Which of the following students provides the best comparison between the term "metacognition" and the term "self-knowledge"?

Audrey: "Metacognition refers to your knowledge about your cognitive skills; self-knowledge is a general term that includes a wide variety of beliefs about yourself."

Psychologists in the United States have conducted research on identifying faces of people from different ethnic groups. This research show that

Black and European American individuals are usually more accurate in recognizing members of their own ethnic groups, rather than members of other groups.

Which of the following is an example of an implicit memory task?

Completing a word for which the first and last letter have been supplied.

What can we conclude about the encoding-specificity principle?

Context effects are often demonstrated in our daily experiences, but the effect is relatively weak in laboratory research.

Which of the following eyewitnesses would be most likely to accurately identify an attacker?

Courtney, who identified a pickpocket from a lineup in which the investigating officer was careful to give her no feedback.

Which of the following students provides the best definition of the term mnemonics?

Cynthia: "Mnemonics refers to using a strategy to improve our memory."

What is one explanation that Craik and his colleagues propose for the reason why a deep level of processing leads to greater recall?

Deep levels make the stimulus different from other memory traces in the system; it's more distinctive.

Which of the following is an example of the concept known as dissociation?

Depressed people recall unpleasant material better than pleasant material, whereas non-depressed people recall pleasant material better than unpleasant material.

Which of the following students has the best understanding about how to apply the distributed-practice effect?

Derrick: "It's best to take breaks between your study sessions, so that your learning trials are spread across time."

A person (such as H.M.) who receives damage to the hippocampus and suffers from anterograde amnesia will show considerable difficulty:

Encoding new events into long-term memory so that they can be explicitly recalled later.

Component of Baddeley's working memory model integrates information from different modalities.

Episodic buffer

Which of the following statements about episodic memory is correct?

Episodic memory stores information about events in our lives.

Which of the following is a memory strategy emphasizing organization?

First-letter technique

Which of the following definitions for the term "foresight bias" is most accurate?

Foresight bias occurs when people are too confident that they will do well in a future exam, based on the estimates they make while studying the material.

What was Miller's first name?

George

Which of the following students provides the best statement about the difference between people's performance in laboratory research and their performance in everyday life, with respect to working memory?

Glencora: "People work on a greater variety of tasks in everyday life, compared to the laboratory."

Which of the following is an example of semantic memory?

I know that cabbage tastes bitter.

Which of the following statements is an example of episodic memory?

I remember reading the book Sense and Sensibility in twelfth grade.

Which of the following is an example of episodic memory?

I remember receiving the letter of acceptance from my college.

How would you characterize Alan Baddeley's description of working memory?

It is a highly active area in which information is being manipulated and changed.

Suppose that Joe experienced a hurricane about 18 months ago. His cousin Sam read about the hurricane in the newspaper, but he did not experience it. Which of the following would be most likely?

Joe's recall would be more accurate than Sam's, even if it is not perfect.

Suppose that you meet a student named Jane Frostig, and you try to recall her last name by imagining that she has chocolate frosting spread across her forehead. Which mnemonic method would this represent?

Keyword method

Which of the following is not an example of a mnemonic technique that emphasizes organization?

Keyword method

Which of the following students has the best understanding about the inconsistent research results on encoding specificity?

Mary Lou: "Encoding specificity works especially well for events that happened long ago."

Why should you pay attention to metamemory if you want to improve your memory?

Metamemory can help you decide which strategies work best for you.

According to the chapter on working memory, what was nontraditional about George Miller's article on the "magical number seven"?

Miller's article emphasized active mental processes, rather than simply focusing on the stimulus and the response.

Who wrote the famous article highlighting the "Magical Number Seven"?

Miller.

Which of the following illustrates foresight bias?

People are overconfident on an upcoming exam

In the discussion of working memory, why did Teasdale and his colleagues (1995) conclude that daydreaming is processed by the central executive?

People could generate a sequence of random numbers more successfully if they were not daydreaming.

The Pollyanna Principle is consistent with which theme of the textbook?

People process positive information more accurately than negative information.

An example of a failure of source monitoring was:

President Bush stating in 2003 that Iraq was negotiating with an African country to buy uranium.

Chapter 4 discussed a classic study by Wickens and his colleagues (1976) in which each of five group of participants learned a series of words belonging to one category (e.g., "occupations" or "meats"). On the final trial, they all switched to words belonging to a new category ("fruits"). What did the results of this study show about the recall for this final set of words?

Recall on the final set of words was most accurate when the previous items had belonged to a different semantic category.

Why is retroactive interference relevant to the post-event misinformation effect?

Recently learned material may interfere with the older memories.

Wickens and colleagues (1976) demonstrated which of the following?

Release from proactive interference

Loss of memory for events occurring prior to brain damage.

Retrograde amnesia

Which of the following students' statements best characterizes Baddeley's view of working memory?

Sam: "Working memory has four separate components, each with its own specialized kind of cognitive activity"

Which of the following students provides the most accurate summary about the relationship between divided attention and memory performance?

Shawn: "Divided attention can reduce your ability to process stimuli."

Suppose that students in a research study see a list of English words. Which of the following would be the best way for the researchers to test implicit memory later on in the session?

Show them a longer list of words, with several letters missing from each word, and ask them to complete the words.

Sometimes an adult seems to remember something previously forgotten, such as incidents of childhood sexual abuse. What is now known about so-called recovered memories?

Some people may accurately recover memories of traumatic events, but others may falsely recover memories of such events.

Part of Chapter 6 examined students' study strategies for easy and difficult material. Which of the following students provides the most accurate perspective on that research?

Sondra: "When the memory task is relatively easy, students spend the most time on the difficult items; when the memory task is relatively difficult, students spend the most time on the easy items."

What can we conclude about college students' accuracy on measures of metacomprehension?

Students are only slightly more confident about the items they answered correctly than the items they answered wrong.

Which of the following students provides the best definition of the term "ecological validity"?

Tessa: "Ecological validity means that there is a high similarity between the situation where the study is being conducted, and the situation in "real life" where the results will be applied."

What can we conclude about the self-reference effect?

The research shows that people are more likely to recall words that apply to themselves compared with words that do not apply.

Which of the following falls under the category of memory strategies emphasizing practice?

Total time hypothesis

Tip-of-the-finger effect is like the tip-of-the-tongue effect? (T/F)

True

If you had one important message about memory improvement that you could convey to a friend, what should it be?

Try to think about your memory strategies, plan how to study, and monitor whether you understand material.

How is the tip-of-the-tongue experience relevant to metacognition?

When people report a tip-of-the-tongue state, they accurately asses that they are close to identifying the missing word.

According to your textbook, which of the following is one likely explanation for the self-reference effect?

When people think about whether words apply to themselves, they consider how their personal characteristics are interrelated.

In which of the following conditions is your metamemory accuracy likely to be the highest?

When you wait several minutes before judging whether you'll remember the material.

Suppose that you hear a guest lecturer who says, "We must remember that expertise is typically context specific." Another way of stating this point is that

a person's expertise is often limited to one specific area; he or she may have average-level performance in other areas.

As Chapter 4 discusses, John Brown, Lloyd Peterson, and Margaret Peterson created a classic technique for assessing short-term memory. In this technique, people saw some stimuli, counted backwards by threes during the delay period, and then tried to recall the original stimuli. The results of their research showed that

after many previous trials, people had difficulty recalling the stimuli, even with only a short delay.

Baddeley's model of working memory now includes a feature called the "episodic buffer." According to Baddeley, the feature

allows you to make connections among the visuospatial sketchpad, the phonological loop, and information from long-term memory.

Imagine that you are trying to remember a reservation code that someone told you a minute ago. The number was 5834DM, but you remember it as 5834BN. This kind of error is called

an acoustic confusion.

The distinction between explicit memory tasks and implicit memory tasks involves whether or not people:

are aware that memory is being tested and intentionally try to recall or recognize previously presented information.

According to Baddeley's approach to working memory, the central executive plays a role when students are studying for an exam

because it helps individuals who have ADHD, so that they can actually suppress competing answers.

Metamemory, such as your knowledge of your knowledge of psychology while you are studying for a test is:

better after a few minutes delay.

Working memory is:

brief memory for information that a person is currently processing involved in coordinating a person's cognitive activities a term that is now used more often instead of a similar term--short-term memory (All of the above are correct)

Studies of the accuracy of metacomprehension, such as involving college students as participants, reveal that:

college students are not very accurate in their metacomprehension skills.

Suppose that you are looking at a complex, detailed painting of a dog. Which of the following working-memory tasks would interfere most with your ability to form a clear image of this painting?

creating a mental image of a dog that you actually see every day.

According to the discussion of prospective and retrospective memory,

distinctive encoding improves performance on both kinds of memory tasks.

deep levels of processing encourage recall because of two factors:

distinctiveness and elaboration

Which of the following research topics has implications concerning the use of memory improvement strategies?

divided attention levels of processing encoding specificity (All of the above are correct)

Lori types her notes on her laptop during her professor's lectures, but she also checks her email and monitors Facebook at the same time. Although Lori insists that she's a good multitasker, Steve informs her that she would remember the material better if she closed her email and browser during class. Steve's good advice is based on knowledge of

divided attention.

Suppose that when you hear a new acquaintance's name, Chris Money, you think about the meaning of the name Money, including both coins and dollar bills, and the importance of money in our culture. This kind of processing you would be using it called

elaboration.

Suppose that you are an advertiser, and a television station has told you that you can select the TV program in which you want your advertisement to appear. According to the research on long-term memory, you want your ad to appear in a program that is

emotionally neutral.

Sean is studying for his philosophy final exam. He knows that the test will be all essays, and he knows that the professor often asks students to compare two philosophical approaches. As part of his studying, he writes several practice essays in which he compares some philosophical approaches. Sean's study method makes use of the cognitive principle called

encoding specificity

Suppose that you are studying for a biopsychology examination, and you decide to try asking yourself questions about why various structures in the central nervous system operate the way they do. According to the discussion of memory strategies, your technique would

encourage a deep level of processing

The first short-term memory experiments used backward counting by threes, or a similar task, in order to:

ensure that a person is not able to rehearse during the delay.

What subtype of long-term memory is associated with remembering personal experiences?

episodic memory

1492-1776-1812-1941-1984 (Class demo of what concept noted in Miller's article)

example of chunking

Research on expertise in memory indicates that

experts are usually accurate in reconstructing missing parts of information from material that they partially remember.

Over time, unpleasant memories

fade more than pleasant memories.

For the false-memory/recovered memory debate, the evidence tends to support

false memory arguments and recovered memory arguments (both sides are partially correct)

Elaine memorized the lakes of the Great Lakes by using the word HOMES (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). Elaine has used the

first-letter technique

Complete the following: "Eat well, work out, stay hydrated, and

get enough sleep"

Solange is trying to recall her friend's new zip code, which is 14454. She remembers it by saying, "My birthday is September 14th; my father is 45 years old, and my nephew is 4 years old." Apparently, Solange

has created chunks out of the zip code.

A person with anterograde amnesia

has difficulty forming memories of things that happened after the brain damage.

Compared to people who are not depressed, people suffering from major depression:

have difficulty with some working memory tasks.

Based on Chapter 4's discussion of depression and working memory, a clinical psychologist should know that people with depression

have trouble when the phonological loop is involved in two simultaneous tasks.

Research indicated that people who are experts in one area (e.g., chess or music):

have well-organized, carefully learned knowledge structures in their area of expertise.

Baddeley's model of working memory had a different focus from the earlier approaches to short-term memory because

he emphasized that working memory is useful in holding related items in our memory simultaneously.

Chapter 5 discussed research about anxiety disorders and memory accuracy for words related to anxiety. According to this research,

high-anxious and low-anxious people differ significantly, when memory is measured on a recall test.

Suppose that you hear a lecture about memory improvement, and the speaker says, "We must remember the value of desirable difficulties." The speaker is likely to emphasize that

if students test themselves several minutes after learning some material, they will make more errors, which will encourage them to spend more time studying.

According to the discussion of the "false memory controversy,"

in some cases, therapists have suggested that unpleasant events may have occurred during childhood, and people may mistakenly believe that they actually occurred.

In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of short-term memory, the concept called "control processes"

is a strategy that helps you remember items more accurately.

The concept called "feeling of knowing"

is an estimate of the likelihood that you will recognize the correct answer to a question.

The research on encoding specificity shows that the effect

is more likely when items have been in memory for a long time.

Chapter 4 discusses neuroscience research on the central executive. According to this discussion, the central executive

is primarily controlled by portions of the frontal lobe.

According to the discussion in the chapter on long-term memory, ecological validity

is relatively strong when the research examines the correspondence between a real-life event and the memory of the event.

According to Baddeley's approach to working memory, the visuospatial sketchpad

is similar to the phonological loop because each has a limited capacity.

George Miller's (1956) classic article, on the magical number seven, introduced the concept of a chunk. According to Miller's terminology, a chunk

is the basic unit in short-term memory.

Working memory is useful in our daily lives because

it is flexible, so that you can work on a variety of tasks within a short time period.

According to Chapter 4, working memory is especially important because

it keeps some items active, so that we can use these items when we are working on a relevant task.

According to the discussion of improving prospective memory,

it's helpful to figure out a specific reminder that you can place in a relevant location.

According to the levels-of-processing approach, the most effective way to learn a passage in a textbook is usually in terms of

its meaning.

The term metacognition is used to refer in a general way to a person's:

knowledge and control of his or her cognitive processes.

The research on practice and memory improvement demonstrates that

learning is more effective if learning trials are spread out over time, rather than if you study without a break.

You read a psychology journal that the authors of an article have conducted a meta-analysis. You conclude that they have

located previous studies on a topic and then statistically combined the results of those studies in order to determine an overall effect.

Suppose that a friend is having difficulty in introductory psychology, so you decide to give her some memory tips. If you decide to emphasize metamemory, you would be likely to

make her think about the factors that influence her memory.

Your textbook discussed the research on release from proactive interference in working memory. One study used five different categories of words, such as fruits and occupations. The results of this study indicated that

material in working memory can be stored in terms of meaning.

The functioning of the phonological loop:

may give rise to acoustic confusions in working-memory tasks, especially when rehearsal is involved is related to a person's "inner voice," or his or her use of subvocalization to perform a task involves activation or information storage in the left hemisphere of the brain, including frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes (All of the above are correct)

What is autobiographical memory?

memory for issues and events concerning you

Suppose that some researchers would like to see whether memory is enhanced by using vivid imagery. They locate a large number of studies and use a statistical method to combine all the information to determine whether vivid imagery is effective. The method they use would be called

meta-analysis

According to the discussion of metacomprehension,

metacomprehension can be improved when students receive feedback about their understanding before they take a test.

As you read this question, you may be asking yourself whether you understand it. If so, you are engaging in

metacomprehension.

The general term referring to the use of mental strategies to improve a person's memory is:

mnemonics

When students are allowed to study various items at their own pace, they tend to spend:

more time than necessary studying items they already know, and not enough times studying items they have not yet mastered.

Deep processing increases distinctiveness, which can be especially important in learning

names

According to research on testing effect,

one explanation for the testing effect is that test-taking creates desirable difficulties.

The term metacognition refers to

our knowledge and control of our cognitive processes.

According to the textbook's description of a schema,

our schemas tend to guide our recall.

Research reveals that people's scores on working-memory tasks are correlated with:

overall intelligence and grades in school, verbal fluency and reasoning ability, reading ability. (All of the above are correct)

One reason that the visuospatial sketchpad is more challenging to study than the phonological loop is that

participants may spontaneously provide a verbal label for a shape, so the task may actually use the phonological loop.

Chapter 6 discusses the accuracy of people's metamemory for pairs of words on an item-by-item basis. This research suggests that

people are more accurate when predicting on an "item-by-time" basis as compared to an overall score basis.

According to the research on flashbulb memories,

people claim that they have accurate memories for these events, but many researchers have found that the memories contain inaccuracies.

In an early experiment (Bower & Winzenz, 1970), people were asked to learn pairs of words (e.g., soap-mermaid). Some people were told to repeat the pairs silently to themselves (repetition condition), whereas other people were told to construct an image of the two words in vivid interaction with each other (imagery condition). A major finding was that:

people in the imagery condition subsequently recalled more of the items than did people in the repetition condition.

According to the research on the own-ethnicity bias,

people may not show the own-ethnicity bias if they have frequent contact with people form another ethnic group.

The tip-of-the-tongue experience is related to metacognition because

people think about whether they are likely to remember the target word, and this estimate is one kind of metacognitive task.

Chapter 5 describes a study of Marian and Fausey, who studied English-Spanish bilinguals. They presented two stories in English and two stories in Spanish. Then the researchers asked questions about the stories, sometime in English and sometimes in Spanish. The results showed that

people were more accurate when the language of the stories matched the language of the questions.

Your textbook discusses research about the relationship between depression and performance on tasks involving the phonological loop. This research showed that

people with depression performed significantly worse than people without depression.

Compared to control-group participants, people with anterograde amnesia are likely to

perform similarly on implicit memory tasks, but poorer on explicit memory tasks.

Suppose that you are trying to perfect your accent in Spanish. Your teacher just pronounced the word "ferrocarril," and you are trying to keep the "rolling r" sound in your memory long enough to pronounce it yourself. In Baddeley's model, you are most likely to use your

phonological loop.

Research on emotions and memory suggests that ________ stimuli are better remembered and slower to fade than other types of stimuli.

pleasant

Better recall for information presented at beginning versus middle of list is called the...?

primacy effect

Suppose you are accustomed to driving a car in which the switch for the windshield wipers is located to the left of the steering wheel. Then you borrow a friend's car. To use the wipers on this car, you must activate the switch to the right of the steering wheel, but you keep reaching toward the left. You are demonstrating

proactive interference

Suppose that you are having trouble recalling the information for a question about Baddeley's theory because the information about Atkinson and Shiffrin's theory (which you learned earlier) keeps interfering. This phenomenon is called

proactive interference.

Suppose that you have been studying some terms related to your course in biopsychology. After you have been studying for about 15 minutes, you find that you are having more trouble learning and remembering new terms. This problem is an example of

proactive interference.

Long-term memory's components include: semantic, episodic, and

procedural memory

Imagine that you have to turn the clocks ahead for daylight saving time. You manage to recall the rather complex system by which you can advance the clock in your car. This skill is an example of your

procedural memory.

Your knowledge of how to program your DVR to record your favorite television show is an example of

procedural memory.

Suppose that you need to remember to pick up a book at the library after your examination today. This kind of memory task is an example of

prospective memory

The use of an external memory aid (such as a shopping list, an alarm clock, a Post-it note, or a personal data assistant) is especially helpful in a situation that involves:

prospective memory.

According to Baddeley's revised model of working memory, one major purpose of the episodic buffer is to

provide temporary storage for information from long-term memory, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad.

According to the research on implicit memory and explicit memory,

psychologists sometimes discover a dissociation; for example, a variable may have a large effect on an explicit task, but a small effect on an implicit task.

In Chapter 5 of your textbook, the discussion of encoding specificity and level of processing emphasized that

recall is more accurate if the instructions during encoding match the instructions during remembering; this match may actually be more important than deep processing.

A friend has just told you his cell phone number, and you repeat it to yourself several times as you search for a pen to record it. The technique you are using to remember the number is called

rehearsal.

In one recent study, researchers found that when students are studying material under conditions of time pressure, they tend to study:

relatively easy material, which they are especially likely to master, instead of relatively difficult material.

Suppose that you have been studying your French vocabulary words for several hours, and you are making an increasing number of mistakes. Then you switch to reviewing the new terms for your upcoming biology test, and your performance is noticeably better. You are experiencing

release from proactive interference.

If people are presented a series of items (such as words), their percent recalled typically shows a U-shaped function across serial positions. The recency effect seen in such data is usually attributed to information that:

remains in short-term memory at the time of recall.

Suppose that you have been looking at a magazine that contains a number of photos of attractive desserts, including one of a lemon meringue pie. Later, someone asks you what your favorite dessert is, and you reply "lemon meringue pie," you actually like other desserts equally well, though they were not among those original photos. You have experienced

repetition priming.

Amy recently saw a Broadway musical. As she listens to the soundtrack in her car a few days later, she forms clear visual images of the scenes from the show. The part of the brain that is most activated while she does this is the

right cerebral hemisphere, especially the frontal and parietal lobes

The part of the brain that is most strongly activated when a person performs visual and spatial tasks is the:

right cerebral hemisphere, especially the frontal and parietal lobes, but not including the occipital lobe.

Suppose that you have just learned that you will have a quiz in about 30 minutes on a set of fairly difficult short essays that you haven't even glanced at. If you are like the students described in the discussion of regulating study strategies, you would

select the easiest essays to read first.

What subtype of long-term memory is associated with remembering facts?

semantic memory

Consider this sentence: "I know that the winters in Wisconsin are colder than the winter in New Jersey." This sentence is an example of

semantic memory.

Consider this sentence: "I know that winters in Wisconsin are colder than winters in South Carolina." The knowledge expressed in this sentence is probably coded

semantically, by its meaning.

Suppose that you are trying to recall a friend's phone number, so you repeat it over and over to yourself without analyzing it or giving it a meaning. According to the levels-of-approach, this activity would be categorized as

shallow processing.

Imagine that you have volunteered to participate in some psychology research. The researcher tells you to look at several words briefly and then count backwards for about half a minute before recalling those words. The researcher is probably measuring

short-term memory

According to Atkinson and Shiffrin's classic theory,

short-term memory and long-term memory are distinctly different processes.

Suppose that you have spent some time thinking about how you are going to discuss a certain issue with a friend. Later, you try to decide whether you had actually discussed this issue, or whether you simply imagined doing so. This is an example of

source monitoring.

The levels-of-processing approach

states that deeper processing of material usually leads to more permanent retention.

Chapter 6 discussed college students' metamemory about factors affecting memory accuracy. According to this discussion,

students usually believe that simple rehearsal is an effective way to study for an exam.

In one recent study (Dunning and his coauthors, 2003), students took a sophomore-level psychology test, and then they estimated the score that they thought they had obtained. The results showed that:

students with above-average scores estimated their scores fairly accurately, but students with below-average scores were overconfident in estimating how well they had done.

The testing effect refers to the finding that:

taking a test is an excellent way to enhance a person's long-term recall of academic material.

Baddeley's model of working memory points out that

the capacity of the visuospatial sketchpad is limited.

Chapter 4 discusses characteristics of individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). According to this discussion, people with ADHD are especially likely to have difficulty with which of the following components of working memory?

the central executive.

People with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder often have problems because they are impulsive and inattentive. The component of working memory that is most likely to be relevant in these problems is

the central executive.

Suppose that you are calculating your recent expenses, and you are adding up five 2-digit numbers in your head. As you begin to calculate the final sum, you feel that you've reached the limits of your memory. This strain can be traced to

the difficulty of keeping all this material in your working memory.

Mandi is studying for her biopsychology exam by creating a diagram for the parts of the human nervous system. Her diagram shows two basic divisions, the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system; each of these systems is further divided and then subdivided. Mandi is using

the hierarchy technique.

Foley and her colleagues (1999) proposed that the research on self-reference may actually underestimate the magnitude of the self-reference effect. They reached this conclusion because

the participants reported that they had often used self-reference processing, even when they had received other instructions.

Suppose that you are trying to read the name of a psychologist who studies creativity, "Csikszentmihalyi." You find that you are silently pronouncing his name as you read it, because

the phonological loop plays a role in reading, as well as in memory.

Imagine that you are tutoring high school students, and you have quickly presented 12 new terms to them. They are likely to recall the first few terms most accurately because of

the primacy effect.

You are now reading a sentence on the screen. The stimulus landing on your retina is called

the proximal stimulus

Suppose that a friend asks you what movies you have seen within the past year. Your recall is especially accurate for the movies you saw during the last 2 weeks. This phenomenon is called

the recency effect.

According to the discussion of the narrative technique,

the research suggests that this technique works well as long as you can create the story easily and also recall it easily.

Suppose that you study for your next examination in this course by reviewing each topic and asking how the information might be relevant to the career you want to pursue. Your study technique makes use of

the self-reference principle.

Experiments on eyewitness testimony reveal that the accuracy of a person who is questioned about details of a previously experienced event may be heavily influence by:

the specific wording of the questions asked.

The chapter on long-term memory discussed the research by Talarico and Rubin, about students' memory for how they learned about the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. According to this research,

the students were overconfident that their recall of the event was accurate.

According to the research about factors that affect the capacity of working memory,

the studies on release from proactive interference demonstrate that semantic factors can influence working memory.

Suppose that you have been watching a figure skating competition. You close your eyes and you try to remember how the last skater performed her final jump, then glided to the center of the rink and finished with a spin. The component of your working memory that is now most active is

the visuospatial sketchpad

When people estimate their confidence while providing eyewitness testimony,

they are almost as confident about their incorrect memories as they are about their correct memories.

Suppose that people are working on an ongoing task. They are most likely to forget to complete a prospective-memory task if

they are performing the ongoing task automatically.

According to the introduction of Chapter 4, one important function of working memory is

to coordinate your current mental activities.

Researchers have developed several explanations for the observation that people recall information more accurately if they try to connect that information with themselves. Chapter 5 noted that one likely explanation is that people are more likely

to link self-reference information to a more distinctive and more well-rehearsed set of cues, so this enhances recall.

Suppose that you need to learn some new vocabulary words in your French class, and you plan to apply some of the memory strategies discussed in Chapter 6. If you decide to use a deep level of processing on this memory task, you would be most likely to:

try to think of some way to connect each French word with its English translation.

A driver who is listening to a football game on the radio and forming clear images of the action may experience difficulty driving. This interference may be attributable to the limited capacity of a working-memory component called the:

visuospatial sketchpad

You are trying to retain--in your working memory--a mental picture of a stranger's face. According to Baddeley, you are using your

visuospatial sketchpad

According to the discussion of schemas and memory,

we form schemas based on our previous experiences with someone or something.

In a study on working memory, one group of participants repeated a sound, thereby blocking acoustic coding for other material. This research showed that

when acoustic coding was blocked, people often used visual coding.

Chapter 5 discussed the relationship between the violence of a TV program and people's recall of commercials shown during that program. According to this research, people recall a commercial more accurately

when the program is nonviolent.

Absentminded behavior is especially likely to occur

when you must remember to do something that is not part of your customary routine.

Suppose that a professor asks the students in her class to say their names out loud (one at a time) on the first day of class. Then she asks them to write down as many of their classmates' names as they can recall. Then she constructs a graph that shows "Number of correct responses" on the Y-axis and "Serial position of the name" on the X-axis. The shape of the graph

will be a U-shaped line, with the greatest accuracy on the first and last items.

Baddeley chose the metaphor of a "workbench" to represent his model of working memory because

working memory focuses on a wide variety of projects, and a workbench can also handle a variety of projects.

Heather complains that her professor's Powerpoint slides are crowded with details and that she can't copy what is on the slides while listening to the lecture and taking notes on what is being said. Heather's complaint has to do with the limits of her

working memory.

Christopher and MacDonald compared the working memory capacities of people with and without major depression. They found that, in general, depressed people performed

worse on tasks involving either the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, or central executive.

According to research on the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon,

you can typically provide a similar-sounding word, which matches the target word reasonably closely.

The effects of proactive interference are decreased if:

you shift to a different category of items to learn.

Metamemory accuracy is likely to be highest when

you wait several minutes before judging memory level

Years ago, you read a story called "Le Petit Prince" ("The Little Prince") in French. According to the encoding specificity principle, you would be likely to remember more about the story if

you were asked questions about it in French.

Suppose that you are trying to improve your pronunciation of French by listening to French popular songs. You try to imitate the French pronunciation at the same time that you translate the words into English. According to Baddeley's model,

you'll probably have a difficult time on these tasks, because both tasks involve the phonological loop.

According to the principle of memory called the total-time hypothesis,

your score on a memory task is related to the amount of time you spend in learning the material.