cognitive notes for exam 2
Sharot, Delgado, and Phelps (2004)
-encoding: shown negative and neutral photos -retrieval: shown old and new pictures; fMRI scans during recognition and remember-know judgements (did you see this before?)
Godden and Baddeley(1965) results
-results revealed a context-dependency effect -effect found only for recall and not recognition
Warrington and Weiskrantz (1970)
Amnesics and non-amnesics •Encoding: list of words •Retrieval •Explicit memory test (recognition) •Implicit memory test (word fragment)
Casasanto and Dijkstra(2010) (marbles) results
As predicted •Supports notion of "metaphorical mental representations" •link cognitive and motor processing
results of Wang (2006) compared recall of early childhood memories in Tiawanese adults and US adults
As predicted, US had earlier childhood memories than did Taiwanese participants for all cue words and US memories tended to reflect personal autonomy more •Particularly early memories in both cultures for "mother" •Reflecting centrality of mother-child relationship in AM development
Encoding Processes in ExplicitLong-Term Remembering
Attention and Repetition
According to Levine and Edelstein (2009)
Attention narrows attention to the central detail •Central detail is operationally defined by the person's goal
Social-Cognitive Development in the emergence of autobiographical memory
Autobiographical remembering emerges as numerous abilities and contextual factors coalesce
narrative style
How families reminisce about past events
Distinctiveness
How well information can be distinguished from other items being encoded and/or other items stored in LTM
Working self
Knowledge of self—self-image, goals, plans, attitudes, beliefs, etc.
Marian and Neisser (2000) Exp2 results (russian vs english interview and cues)
Language mode—use of a language produces a state of mind that is a useful retrieval cue
von Restorff (1933)
Stimuli: list of words in which one word was in a different color
The serial reaction time task
Stimulus appears at a location on a computer screen; participant responds as rapidly as possible with the response key to corresponding location.
2 factors in determining the effect of spaced repetitions on long-term retention
Study interval (SI) and Retention interval (RI)
Persistence: Sin of Commission
The continued (but unwanted) automatic retrieval of memories
priming
The degree to which prior presentation of an item increases the likelihood of it being produced later
Deficient-processing view
•Locus of effect is at encoding •Massed repetition leads to deficient processing of the second presentation of the item •Result is only one fully encoded memory representation of the item
results of Marian and Neisser (2000) Investigated autobiographical memory in fluent Russian-English bilinguals
•Language is a fundamental aspect of the encoded event
Morris, Bansford, and Franks (1977) predictions
•Levels of processing ~deep > shallow •Transfer appropriate processing --Rhyme recognition test ~shallow > deep --Traditional recognition test ~deep > shallow
Autobiographical Knowledge Base three levels:
•Lifetime periods •General events •Complex episodic memories
Factors affecting lineup performance
•Lineup construction •Functional Size •All other things being equal, all members of lineup should have an equal chance of being chosen (reasonable distractors) •Distractors should match? •Appearance of suspect ◦(misinformation effect) •Perpetrator description
Gradient of difficulty in person recognition
RT for face recognition < RT for biographical info < RT for retrieving name
Goschke and Kuhl (1993) results (intention enactment)
RT was faster for words on the to-be-performed list (even though they were simply prepared to do actions, and never did)
Image-Based
Viewpoint-dependent theories
Parts-Based
Viewpoint-invariant theories
example of typicality effects on explicit judgments
(rate birdiness) •Wren more "birdy" than turkey
Inverting a face disrupts
2nd order relational processing
Name retrieval
A common source of tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon and often associated with a strong feeling knowing
Object Recognition
A complex and astoundingly efficient process, given what's involved
Thatcher Illusion
Difficulty in judging distortions to inverted faces
development of language in in the emergence of autobiographical memory
AM development parallels language development
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon and often associated with a strong feeling knowing
Access knowledge about person without being able to retrieve name
Enactment Effect
Action phrases ("hammer the nail") are better remembered if enacted than if read
Marian and Neisser (2000) Exp2
Added 2 conditions •Cue word language and interview language were the same •Cue word in one language; interview in the other language
Results of Lam and Buehler (2009) Investigated subjective temporal distance of memories
Backward recall was associate with events feeling more like yesterday than was forward recall forward recallers viewed themselves as having changed to a greater degree than did backward recallers
Fuzzy Trace Theory
Based on distinction between gist and verbatim memory
example of typicality effects on categorization
Blue jay categorized as "bird" faster than flamingo
Hunt & Einstein (1981); McDaniel & Einstein (2005):
Both organization and distinctiveness are important -optimal memory when both are used
mask
Briefly presented visual pattern that serves to erase the previously presented stimulus; Ensures identification is not based on a fleeting afterimage
reminiscence bump
Disproportionately great number of memories for events that occur between the ages of 10 and 30
strengths of Essentialist Approaches
Can account for ad hoc categories
Accessibility
Can you get to (retrieve) the information?
Similarity-Based Categorization
Categorization involves judging the similarity between a target object and long-term memory standard
Theory of mind
Child's understanding that they have a unique set of beliefs, desires, and knowledge that is inaccessible to others
development of cognitive self in the emergence of autobiographical memory
Children don't demonstrate AM until they have a sense of themselves as independent entities
problems with levels of processing
Circular definitions •How do we define depth of processing? •Whatever leads to better memory
Peak functioning account
Cognitive abilities and brain function are at their peak in early adulthood
Explanations for reminiscence bump
Cognitive explanation account, Identity explanation account, and Peak functioning account
Garry, Manning, Loftus, and Sherman (1996) results
Confidence ratings increased from Phase 1 to Phase 3, but only for events that were imagined
Example of Implicit Learning
Contextual Cuing (Chun & Jiang, 2003)
Explanations for the spacing effect
Deficient-processing view and Encoding Variability view
Flashbulb Memories
Detailed, vivid, and confidently held memory for the circumstances surrounding when you first heard some startling bit of news
Complex episodic memories
Details needed to construct a specific memory
Neisser's Challenge
Ecological Validity and Memory Research
Bottom-Up Processing in Object Recognition
Employs the information in the stimulus itself (i.e., the "data") to aid in its identification
Identity explanation account
Events during this period are defining in terms of our identity
Cognitive explanation account
Events from early adulthood: •Are often rehearsed due to their importance •Subject to less interference due to their distinctiveness
problem with image-based approach
Fails to account for the flexibility of object recognition
Sins of omission
Failure to bring something to mind
Absentmindedness: Sin of Omission
Failure to encode information due to insufficient attention
Childhood Amnesia
Few memories before age 10 and virtually no memories prior to age 2 or 3
Encoding Specificity Principle
For a given encoding condition, memory is best when the retrieval condition matches encoding condition
Hyde and Jenkins (1969) results
For both incidental and intentional memory instructions, words encoded with the pleasantness judgment were recalled better than the other two judgments
Storage
Formation of a memory representation
Observe aftereffects for
Gender and Emotion as well
problem with Memory tunneling/Memory narrowing
Given the nature of a traumatic event, it is unclear what constitutes a central and peripheral detail
Prospective Memory
High in self-initiation; must remember to remember
Brain Development in the emergence of autobiographical memory
Hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (important for explicit memory formation) are underdeveloped in infants
Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm
Illusory memories
Imagination inflation
Imagining an event leads to an increase in belief that the event occurred
Bias: Sin of Commission
Influence of beliefs, expectations, and desires on what we remember
Attention
Information must be actively processed in consciousness
The Prototype Approach
Instances of a category are classified in terms of their resemblance to a category member
Availability
Is the information in memory?
Repetition
Material that is presented more than once is easier to remember
Constructive Memory Framework: Schacter
Memories are collections of features corresponding to different aspect of event
Involuntary Autobiographical Memories
Memories that are retrieved without specific attempt to recall them
Misattribution: Sin of Commission
Memory is correct, but ascribed to the wrong source or context
Material Appropriate Processing
Memory is enhanced when encoding processes complement the nature of the TBR information
Carmichael, Hogan, and Walters (1932) Showed subjects an ambiguous picture -given one of two labels
Memory sin: bias
Unconscious plagiarism
Misattributing a thought or idea to oneself
Superordinate Level
Most general
Subordinate Level
Most specific
Final stage of face recognition
Name retrieval
Rubin, Rahall, & Poon (1998)
Not just a bump for autobiographical memories Also a bump for: •Autobiographical facts like personal preferences •Events people think are historically important •General semantic memories
Special physiological mechanism?
Not likely: flashbulb errors can include (serious) inaccuracies
Multhaup, Johnson, and Tetirick (2005)
Participants recalled events from childhood and labeled them as: •"Know" memories •"Recollect memories
Morris, Bansford, and Franks (1977) results
Performance better when processing at encoding matched processes used at retrieval
Testing effect
Periodic retrieval of TBR information improves retention
wane of childhood amnesia
Point at which the majority of memories become "recollect" rather than "know" (average 4.7 years, but much individual variability)
Weapon focus
Presence of a weapon narrows one's focus, which results in a memory representation that: •lacks peripheral detail (e.g., face of perpetrator) •preserves the central detail (e.g., the weapon)
Sins of commission
Presence of unwanted or inaccurate memories
Galton-Crovitzcue-word technique
Presented with word cues and asked to: •Retrieve an AM •Describe it •Date it
Corkin (1968)
Preserved Learning in Amnesia •Mirror tracing
Cavacoet al. (2004)
Preserved Learning in Amnesia •Real-world skills (e.g., weaving)
Nissen, Willingham, and Hartman (1989)
Preserved Learning in Amnesia •Serial reaction time learning
Spiers et al. (2001)
Preserved Learning in Amnesia •Skill/habit learning •Priming •Classical conditioning •Simple category learning
Wang (2006) compared recall of early childhood memories in Tiawanese adults and US adults
Procedure •Used Galton-Crovitzcue word technique •Provide earliest memory associated with the cue words: •Self, Mother, Family, Friend, Surroundings
source monitoring
Process of identifying the source of remembered information
Retrieval
Processes involved in getting information out of memory
Encoding
Processes involved in the acquisition of material
Tarr & Bulthoff (1995)
Proposed that view dependence/independence may depend on the type of task • Categorization - more viewpoint invariant • Exemplar identification - more viewpoint dependent
Posner, Goldsmith, and Welton(1967) results
Prototype was frequently recognized as "old" and at a much higher rate than other "new" items
two stages of source confusion
Reality monitoring and source monitoring
Targeted Event Recall
Recall of specific events
Jacoby (1983) results (hot-cold, xxx-cold)
Recognition (explicit memory) performance for phase 1 targets was best for participants who had generated the words in response to the opposite. Identification (implicit memory) performance for phase 1 targets was best for participants who had read the words in isolation
Retrospective memory (RM) tests
Remembering information from the past (e.g., explicit and implicit memory tests)
Prospective memory (PM) tests
Remembering to perform an action in the future
Maintenance rehearsal
Repeating information with no embellishment
Mood dependent memory
Retrieval is enhanced when mood at retrieval matches the mood at encoding
example of typicality effects on family resemblance
Robin and wren more shared attributes (than ostrich)
Contextual Cuing (Chun & Jiang, 2003)
Search task -find rotated T among Ls
Hierarchical Network Model
Semantic memory is organized into a series of hierarchical networks • Major concepts are represented as nodes • Properties/features are associated with each concept
The Seven Sins of Memory
Sins of omission, Sins of commission
Collins and Loftus, 1975
Spreading Activation Model
Berry & Broadbent (1984)
Sugar Factory •People learned to perform task accurately in 40-90 trials •Couldn't describe "rules" (if they did --wrong)
Lam and Buehler (2009) Investigated subjective temporal distance of memories
Target event recall but varied the order in which recall occurred
Blocking: Sin of Omission
Temporary failure to retrieve stored information
Transience: Sin of Omission
Tendency to lose access to information across time
Suggestibility: Sin of Commission
The tendency to incorporate information obtained from others into our own memory representation
von Restorff (1933) results (different color word)
The word was remembered better when it was in a different color than the other list items than when it was in the same color
Characteristics of Flashbulbs
They typically contain five components •Source - Who told them •Location - Where they heard •Emotion - How they felt emotionally •Aftermath - What they did next •Activity - What they were doing
Elaborative rehearsal
Thinking about meaning or forming associations
Autobiographical knowledge base
Three levels (types of knowledge) from which autobiographical memories are constructed
Retention interval (RI)
Time between the final study session and the final test
Study interval (SI)
Time between the repeated study sessions
general events (AKB)
Typical events within a given period
Problems with the Hierarchical Network Model
Typicality effect •Suggests categories are fuzzier than hierarchical model proposes
Top-Down Processing in Object Recognition
Using expectations, knowledge, and/or surrounding context to aid in recognition
Bruce and Young (1986) propose
a serial account
Events later in life show
a standard forgetting function
Involuntary memories were more likely to be retrieved by
negative phrases than positive or neutral ones
performance in explicit memory tests is measured by
accuracy
Direct Retrieval
activates specific episodic memories •Sensory cues (e.g., smell) may tap directly into complex episodic memories •Specific cues may trigger a specific episodic memory
Involuntary memories are
adaptive and serve to warn us of similar "dangerous" experiences in our past
Galton-Crovitzcue-word technique yeilds
an autobiographical memory retention function
Memory tunneling/Memory narrowing
•Encode central details •Don't encode peripheral details
In the Spreading Activation Model, links between nodes represent
associations
female superiority in
autobiographical memory
flashbulb memory is formed by
basic memory mechanisms, but is supplemented and/or intensified by emotion •May alter initial encoding or •Enhance likelihood the event is rehearsed
In Targeted Event Recall, evaluation is limited by
completeness and accuracy of the corroborating source
In Concepts in the Spreading Activation Model, knowledge is represented as
concept nodes linked in an association network
In the Spreading Activation Model, nodes represent
concepts
Explicit memory tests
conscious recollection
remember judgment
conscious recollection; affected by same factors that affect explicit memory tasks
metaphorical concept
meet intended meaning
elaborative style is used when conversing with
daughters
effects of face inversion
disrupts recognition
Special mechanism view is supported by
dissociations between object and face recognition • Patient's with intact object recognition, but impaired face recognition • Inversion hurts face recognition, but not object recognition
example of metaphorical concept
emotional prison
Encoding Specificity Principle relevant comparisons
encoding conditions are the same AA>AB BB>BA
branches of declarative memory
episodic and semantic
verbatim memory
exact form; supports recollection-based remembering; lead to remember judgments
characteristics of autobiographical memory
experience of remembering always present, frequent personal interpretation, variable truthfulness, context-specific sensory attributes always present, high self-reference, duration for years
characteristics of autobiographical fact
experience of remembering rarely present, rare personal interpretation, high truthfulness, context-specific sensory attributes rarely present, high self-reference, duration for years
some argue language is critical for
expression of AM but not their formation
Roediger and McDermott (1995) results
false recall and false recognition -false recognition > false recall
know judgment
familiarity in the absence of recollection; unaffected by factors that affect explicit memory
example of typicality effects on sentence verification
faster in "A sparrow is a bird" vs. "A penguin is a bird"
Context Dependency effects typically only occur
for recall (few retrieval cues available -will use context) •In recognition or cued recall -other (stronger) retrieval cues are available
example of natural kinds
fruit
characteristics of episodic
high likelihood; low usefulness; recollective experience present; sensory component; presence of emotion
typicality effects on explicit judgments
higher rating for more typical members
Confident witnesses who make their choice in about 10 seconds tend to be
highly accurate
subjective distance
how much a person feels they had changed since the event
Face recognition is akin to
image-based approaches to recognition
some argue parent-child interaction is the critical factor
in the development of language explanation
PTSD
is an extreme and abnormal result of a normal adaptive process
example of typicality effects on picture identification
is this a bird? •Wren faster than turkey
even if something is not remembered explicitly,
it may still have an impact on your attitudes, feelings, or behavior
typicality effects on production
list more typical first
example of typicality effects on production
list types of birds •Robin listed before vulture
effects of object inversion
little impact on recognition
Elaborative style
long and richly detailed discussions of past events
characteristics of semantic
low likelihood of forgetting; high usefulness; no recollective experience; no sensory component; no presence of emotion
gist memory
main idea; supports familiarity-based remembering; lead to know judgments
Organization
making connections or fitting information together helps memory
Types of repetition
massed and distributed
arousal increases
memory to a point
Unconscious transference is a sin of
misattribution
Voluntary memories tend to be
more general
individual level
more specific than subordinate level
Canonical view
most representative
Procedural Memory is not
not restricted to physical/motor skills
exposure is
not sufficient for effective encoding
Multiple Views Approach is supported by
physiological studies of recognition • Logothetis, Pauls, and Poggio (1995) found evidence of heavily viewpoint-dependent cortical cells • "physiological templates"
performance in implicit memory tests is measured by
priming
Generative Retrieval
process of reconstruction that proceeds from general to specific layers •Recall of specific events is slow and effortful (10 seconds) •Engages the working self •Same event often recalled differently at different times
distinct items are
recalled better
Specific events
recalled more quickly (therefore involuntary tends to be fast)
lineups are a _____ test for a witness
recognition
Palmer, Rosch, and Chase (1981) found that
recognition depends on perspective
remember-know paradigm
recognition task; if recognized, asked about subjective experience during retrieval
Implicit memory tests
recollection in the absence of conscious awareness
distributed repetition
repeated presentations spread out over time
massed repetition
repeated presentations that occur closely together in time
Transfer Appropriate Processing relevant comparisons
retrieval conditions are the same AA>BA BB>AB
According to the fuzzy trace theory, Memory performance depends on
retrieval of both types of information •Accurate retrieval is likely to occur when verbatim trace is stronger than gist trace •Phantom retrieval is likely to occur when gist trace is stronger than verbatim trace •ex: DRM paradigm, gist trace of sleep is strong
In Transfer-Appropriate Processing, memory depends on
retrieval-encoding match
Depressed people are overly general in autobiographical recall, which leads to
several cognitive deficits •Inability to solve current problems -If can't remember the specifics of how a prior problem was solved, current problems may seem unsolvable •Inability to envision a future -If can't remember a time when a previous bad period got better, will have trouble seeing that current period will improve
Pragmatic style is used when conversing with
sons
spacing effect
spaced/distributed is better than massed repetition
Memories undergo a transition from
specific autobiographical memories to general autobiographical facts
Involuntary memories tend to be
specific events
prototype
standard to which other category members are compared
Outshining hypothesis
stronger cues overwhelm weaker cues
Conclusions of of Lam and Buehler (2009) Investigated subjective temporal distance of memories
subjective distance is related to perceived change
Autobiographical memories are primary records of
success or failure in goal attainment
Pragmatic style
succinct—little detail
Multhaup, Johnson, and Tetirick (2005) conclusions
suggest that our memories for childhood events gradually transition from know memories to recollected memories
General events
takes more time to retrieve (therefore voluntary tends to be slow)
Banaji and Crowder argued
that uncontrolled factors in everyday memory research reduce generalizability
Face aftereffects suggest
that we are coding faces relative to an "average" face • Eye position, nose position, nose width, mouth position, etc.
According to Deffenbacher(1994), the effect of stress depends on
the attentional mode of the perceiver
Identity explanation account is similar to
the cognitive self explanation for offset of childhood amnesia •That we are vs. who we are
autobiographical memory retention function
the distribution of personal episodic memories across the lifespan
Unconscious transference
•Failure to distinguish a target person from another encountered at a different time •Sin of misattribution
Goals of the working self influence
the kinds of memories stored in autobiographical knowledge base and the types of memories retrieved from autobiographical knowledge base
the intention to perform the action leads to
the same memory benefit in enactment effect
what distinguishes flashbulb memories from other autobiographical memories
they are phenomenologicallyspecial in their vividness, detail, and confidence in their accuracy
example of ad hoc categories
things you'd save in a fire
if we remember that an event occurred,
this reflects conscious and effortful retrieval
if we know that an event occurred,
this reflects nonconscious, automatic memory retrieval
Pickel(1999) Fully crossed threat and expectedness in four videos shown to participants
threat does seem to matter but expectancy does; suggests that its not the threat but its the surprise
Typicality effects on sentence verification
typical are faster
typicality effects on picture identification
typical are faster
typicality effects on categorization
typical members are categorized faster
typicality effects on family resemblance
typical members have more shared attributes
In the Spreading Activation Model, encountering/thinking of a concept:
•Activates a node •Activation then spreads to related concepts •Activation decreases with distance •Explains the typicality effect •Predicts semantic priming
According to the fuzzy trace theory,
we encode events in both ways
example of artifacts
weapons
In Concepts in the Spreading Activation Model, your knowledge regarding a concept is determined by
what it is linked to •category membership (canary to bird) •property to concept (yellow to canary) •more subtle relationships (i.e., canary and cat)
Habib & Nyberg (2007) Results
• Activity in both the medial temporal lobe (MTL) and left inferior frontal cortex (LIFC) at encoding was involved for words that were remembered • Activity in MTL at encoding distinguished available from forgotten • Activity in LIFC at encoding distinguished available from remembered
Tarr and Bülthoff (1995) results
• After practice, time to identify novel views increased with degree of rotation
Dissociations Between Implicit and Explicit Memory Tests
when an encoding variable has a different effect on different memory tests
Faces seem to be encoded as
whole configurations
new perspective in how to classify spared learning in amnesia
~~Chun and Phelps (1999) •Contextual Cuing Experiment •Amnesiacs showed generalskill improvement on a visual search task, but no specific priming to repeated displays ~~Park et al. (2004) •Contextual Cuing Experiment •Midazolam-induced amnesia impaired implicit learning •Disrupts Binding?
conclusions of Schlageman and Kvavilashvili (2008) Developed a procedure to compare retrieval times for voluntary and involuntary memories
~~If general memory is retrieved: •Tends to be slow and effortful, except when involuntary •More likely to occur in voluntary retrieval situations than involuntary situations ~~If specific memory is retrieved: •Tends to be fast whether voluntary or involuntary •More likely to occur in involuntary retrieval situations than voluntary situations
Lineup Administration best practices
~~Inform witness that perpetrator may not be in the lineup •Reduces pressure to choose someone ~~Administrator should be "blind" to identity of the suspect •Important because of eyewitness confidence •Witness confidence is a poor predictor of accuracy •Confidence increases if "choice" in a lineup is supported by administrator •Can't happen if administrator is unaware of who the suspect is
Garry, Manning, Loftus, and Sherman (1996) (confidence effect occurred)
~~Phase 1: Initial Test •Given list of childhood events •Asked to rate confidence in whether they had occurred ~~Phase 2: 2 weeks later •For some of the low likelihood events: Imagine it happened ◦provide detail about how it would have played out ~~Phase 3: Re-rated confidence of all events •Told the experimenters had lost the original ratings -needed them •Allowed for comparison of confidence ratings pre-and post-imagination
Non-accidental properties
• Arrangement of lines, curves and junctions •Allow recovery of geon from almost any angle
implicit memory
• Do not require conscious recollection • Memory is reflected in an indirect way
Neuropsychological Evidence for different processes for face and object recognition
• Double dissociation • Prosopagnosia • Inability to recognize familiar faces • Ability to recognize objects • Visual Agnosia • Inability to recognized objects • Ability to recognize familiar faces
Thomson and Tulving (1970)
• Encoding • Presented weakly related pairs (glue - CHAIR) • Retrieval: cued recall; cues were one of two types • Strongly related word (but not shown earlier) • (table - ) • Weakly related word (but shown earlier) • (glue - )
Bruce and Young (1986) propose a serial account
• First, face must activate a stored representation in memory called an FRU (face recognition unit) • If activated, the person is recognized as familiar • Next, FRU must activate the person identity node (PIN), which stores biographical info about the person • If activated, the biographical info becomes available • Next, PIN must activate the terminal node (person's name)
Semantic Memory
• General knowledge of: objects, word meanings, facts, and people • Lacks a particular connection to time or place
geons
• Geometric ions • 36 basic shapes • can be recovered from any view
First steps in post-attentional processing
• Identifying and classifying input: object recognition • Matching an incoming stimulus with stored representations for the purpose of identification
Effects of Orientation and Perspective
• Key question for theories of object recognition: • Is recognition viewpoint-invariant? • Does recognition depend on a particular view?
Habib & Nyberg (2007) conclusion
• MLT activity is necessary for encoding information into memory, but does not ensure retrieval • LIFC activity is necessary for subsequent retrieval
Basic Level
• Midpoint classification level • Dominates everyday description and thought • The entry point (i.e., default level for) categorization
Déjà vu
• Mistaken feeling that you've been in a situation before • Implicit expression of encoding specificity principle
Viewpoint-invariant theories (Parts-Based)
• Objects can be recognized equally well from all angles. • Store 3-D representation of object (parts and their spatial relationships) • Object-centered representation • AKA: Structural description theories
Viewpoint-dependent theories (Image-Based)
• Objects can be recognized more easily from some angles than from others. • Store "views" of what objects look like from different angles (retinal image changes with view) • Viewer-centered representation • AKA: Template theories
Tanaka and Farah (1993)
• Presented faces or houses accompanied by labels • "Larry's house" or "Larry's face" •Recognition test • Conditions • Isolated-parts conditions • Which is "Larry's nose" or "Larry's door" • Whole-object condition • Which is "Larry" or "Larry's house"
Principle of Cognitive Economy
• Property information is stored as high up the hierarchy as possible to minimize redundancy • Sentences should take more time to process as the number of levels between the tested concept and features increases
Palmer (1975) presented context primes followed by objects to be recognized
• Recognition was faster for objects consistent with primes • Use top-down information to aid recognition process • Expectations about what objects present given context
Recognizing objects
• Requires first-order relational information • Information about object parts and how they relate
Gauthier and Tarr (2002): Results
• Speed increased with training • Still viewpoint dependent at end • slower as view orientation changes
Episodic Memory
• Storage and retrieval of specific events • Linked to a specific place and time • Associated with conscious recollection • Recently evolved, late-developing and early-deteriorating
Thomson and Tulving (1970) results
• Strong cue: 15% • Weak cue: 64% • Even though weak associates, they were part of the original episode
Davis et al. (2008) results (perp switch with innocent)
•60% missed switch (change blindness) •If missed the switch: •41% misidentified the continuous innocent •23% misidentified the discontinuous innocent •If noticed the switch: •10% misidentified the continuous innocent •25% misidentified the discontinuous innocent
Barsalou (1988) Asked subjects to recall specific memories from summer vacation
•60% of recalled memories were at general events level •(similar to basic level of categorization)
Essentialist Approaches: Concepts as Theories
•A "top-down" approach to categorization •Categorization not based on a similarity comparison •Categories not simply defined by presence of certain features •Categories have underlying "essences" that bind category members
Triggers for Involuntary Retrieval: Encoding specificity principle
•A match between the external event and the central details of the memory •Some aspect of the memory is partially activated by a recent event, which primes involuntary retrieval when another triggering event is encountered
Rips (1989) results (sorp)
•Accident condition: Change lowered similarity ratings more than categorization ratings •Essence condition: Change lowered categorization ratings more than similarity ratings
Rips (1989) predictions
•According to similarity-based approaches, these two tasks reflect the same thing •Rating should be the same
strengths of the Exemplar Approach
•Accounts for graded structure --We have more encounters with typical objects, hence more exemplars --More robins stored in memory than toucans •Accounts for the biasing effect of context --Context makes certain exemplars more retrievable --Seeing your friends makes it easier to retrieve their crappy cars •Can account for sensitivity to correlated features
Functions of Concepts
•Allow for understanding •Allow us to make predictions •Support new learning •Important for communication •Increases efficiency •Creates a common ground of understanding
Variables that dissociate explicit and implicit memory tests
•Amnesia •Encoding techniques
traditional viewpoint in how to classify spared learning in amnesia
•Amnesiacs have impaired declarative memory; intact non-declarative memory •The lack of a declarative component of implicit learning allows for preserved learning
Craik & Lockhart (1972)
•Argued against idea that more rehearsal = better encoding •Suggested that processing of words proceeds from a superficial analysis of structural features to deep analysis of meaning
Schlageman and Kvavilashvili (2008) Developed a procedure to compare retrieval times for voluntary and involuntary memories
•Assumed that the retrieval of involuntary memories are triggered by specific cues under conditions of diffuse attention •Phase 1 (involuntary memory phase) •Vigilance task •Watched 800 trials of horizontal or vertical lines •Task was to press a key when the display contained vertical lines •Only occurred on 15 trials •Intended to induce boredom, which would lead to mind wandering •Each trial was presented with a phrase unrelated to the detection task •Created to induce autobiographical remembering—something to which their mind could wander •Instructed to ignore it •Told their mind might wander to thoughts unrelated to the detection task •If they experienced a memory in response to a phrase, they were to hit a key •Detection task was paused and they were to write down a description of the memory •Phase 2 (voluntary memory phase) •One week later, presented with same phrases from phase 1 and asked to retrieve a specific memory
results of serial reaction time task
•At the end of the experiment, a block of trials conforms to a new sequence. •Become faster to the repeating sequence (learn to anticipate next response) •Not just a general practice effect (doesn't transfer to novel sequence) •Participants are unaware that a sequence was presented to them
Davis, Loftus, Vanous, and Cucciare(2008)
•Attributes unconscious transference to change blindness via the illusion of continuity •A perceiver misperceives continuity between two scenes due to top-down processing
Reality monitoring
•Attributing the memory to an external event or an internally generated event •Use perceptual and semantic detail (more vivid memories more likely to be real)
The Self-Memory System View
•Autobiographical memory is the basis for all episodic memories •Memories from our life and those from the lab are constructed by the same process •Two components - working self and autobiographical knowledge base
Multiple Views Approach
•Based on experience, we have multiple stored views of objects • Multiple templates for each object • Correspond to different views (that we have experienced)
Encoding Specificity vs. Transfer Appropriate Processing
•Both emphasize the overlap between encoding and retrieval as the key determinant of remembering •TAP focuses on encoding—encoding processes used should be appropriate for how memory will be tested •ESP focuses on retrieval—the best retrieval cues are those that tap into how something was encoded
Directive Function of Autobiographical Memory
•Can serve to guide future life course •Learn from past mistakes (and successes)
Ad hoc categories
•Categories formed "on the fly" in the service of a goal •Satisfaction of goal
Natural kinds
•Categories that occur naturally in the world •Similarity of appearance or features
Rips (1989) conclusions (sorp)
•Categorization and similarity ratings were dissociable •Strong evidence that categorization ≠ similarity judgment
Problems with the Exemplar Approach
•Category representations do seem to be abstracted in some cases --Posner et al. dot study—never-presented prototype recognized •Problem of economy --Do we really store every instance of encounter with each concept?
Problems with the Prototype Approach
•Category representations include more specific information than prototypes would predict •We're sensitive to correlated information among category members - Ex: big birds likely to squawk; small birds likely to sing •Category representation is sensitive to context •"Best example" depends on the situation -Prototypical car --College campus: Honda (old and rusty) --Country club: Mercedes
Organization refers to:
•Characteristics of the incoming information •Strategic orientation of encoder
autobiographical memory retention function features
•Childhood Amnesia •Reminiscence Bump •Forgetting
Face aftereffects
•Coding faces along a set of continua • Average face lies in the middle • Neurons tuned to each extreme (above and below average values) •Adapt neurons to face • Relatively stronger response by neurons coding other end of continuum
Explicit tests:
•Conceptually driven in nature •Aided by conceptually-driven encoding •Rely on elaboration and organization for successful performance
Source Confusion
•Criterion setting stage can be viewed as the source monitoring framework •Process by which we monitor the origins of encoded information
Event that triggers retrieval differs
•Cue in RM—something indicates that it is time to remember •No cue in PM—retrieval is self-initiated (must remember to remember) •External memory aids help us "remember to remember"
Implicit tests:
•Data-driven in nature •Aided by data-driven encoding •Rely on reading and perceptual operations for successful performance
levels of processing
•Deep processing = good encoding •Good encoding leads to successful retrieval
But confidence is not always a poor predictor of accuracy....
•Diagnosticityof RT •Confident witnesses who make their choice in about 10 seconds tend to be highly accurate
Goschke and Kuhl (1993)
•Encoding •Participants studied two lists of 5 activities that accomplished a goal (clearing a messy desk) •After encoding, told they would be performing the activities on one of the lists (never actually did) •Retrieval •Presented with single words •Indicate as quickly as possible if the word had been presented on the earlier lists
Bredahl, Clay, Ferrie, Groves, McDorman, and Dark (1998)
•Encoding •Studied a two-page article on psychoimmunology •Presence of background noise •Absence of background noise •Retrieval •Fill in the blank questions followed by multiple choice questions •Presence of background noise •Absence of background noise
Jacoby (1983) (hot, xxx-cold)
•Encoding conditions: (e.g., word: cold) •Generate condition (generate opposite of each word) •Hot ? (subjects never saw target word) •Read condition •xxx -cold (subjects actually saw the target word) •Retrieval •Explicit: recognition •Implicit: perceptual identification (brief duration of 30ms and task was to identify)
Hyde and Jenkins (1969)
•Encoding task: •One of three simple judgments were made for each word (ex: bench) •Pleasantness •Estimate the number of letters in the word •Indicate if the word contained an e •2 types of instructions (between groups) •Incidental memory instructions: participants are not told about the later memory test •Intentional memory instructions: participants are told about the later memory test
Morris, Bansford, and Franks (1977)
•Encoding tasks •Semantic (deep) •Does a target word (soup) fit into a given sentence (The ___ contained celery) •Phonological (shallow) •Does a target word (sit) rhyme with another word (hit) •Retrieval tasks •Traditional recognition test •Rhyme recognition (recognize words that rhymed with the target words)
Sharot, Delgado, and Phelps (2004) results (+ or - photos)
•Enhanced remember judgments for negative photos relative to neutral photos •This subjective feeling was not associated with memory accuracy (remember + know) •Negative and neutral photos were recognized as "old" at the same rate •Metacognition about occurrence of negative stimuli does not translate into performance
Basic-Systems View
•Episodic memories formed in the lab are qualitatively different than those formed in daily living •Different theoretical accounts are needed to explain the construction process in each area i.e., Autobiographical memories represent different memory system •Daily living AM are constructed from the concurrent operation of various brain systems involved in: Individual senses, Spatial encoding for locations of people and objects, Emotional processing, The narrative system that provides "coherence" to memories, and Explicit memory to combine all of the above •Lab-based episodic memory tasks (i.e., word lists) lack many of these components
Biederman & Gerhardstein (1993)
•Evaluated whether object recognition is "object centered" • Viewpoint should not matter •Used a "priming" procedure • Subjects asked to name objects • Repeat objects • Prior exposure to object - speeds recognition • Asked whether viewpoint mattered in priming •1st block of trials: shown different objects • Task: name out loud •2nd block of trials: shown different objects • Task: name out loud • Objects could be: • Same Exemplar • At same orientation • Rotated 67 or 135° • Different Exemplar
The intention to act can be triggered in 2 ways:
•Event-based: external event (easier) •Time-based: the passage of time (harder)
Janssen and Murre(2008): Results (reminiscence bump)
•Evidence of reminiscence bump •Bump was unrelated to any cognitive factors assessed •Memories were regular, unemotional, neutral, and unimportant •Supports peak functioning view
Craik and Watkins (1973)
•Examined Maintenance Rehearsal •Procedure •Presented lists of words that had different first letters •Task was to keep track of the last word that began with a specific letter ("P") •At the end of each list, report that word •Varied the number of intervening items (amount of rehearsal) from 2 to 12 items •Final recall of all words that began with "P" •Ex: Dog, Pear, Door, Pine, Rug, Car, Bone, Wood, Ball, Flute, Chair, Red, Tail, Bowl, Leaf, ??? •Ex: Pear: rehearsed for 2 words; Pine rehearsed for 12 words
Tarr and Bülthoff (1995)
•Examined viewpoint dependence / invariance •Reviewed studies in which participants practiced novel object identification from specific views. •Supports viewpoint-dependence.
Biederman's Recognition-by-Components Theory
•Example of a Parts-Based Theory • (Structural Description Theory) •Object recognition is viewpoint invariant •Objects consist of combinations of geons •Geons - can be recovered from any view •Based on invariant info in retinal image • Contours and edges are critical
Loftus & Palmer (1974) (car crash question wording)
•Experiment 1 •Subjects are shown Driver's Ed film of a car crash •Answered questions about the accident •How fast were the cars going when they ______ each other? •Word speed •smashed- 40.8 •collided-39.3 •bumped-38.1 •hit-34.0 •contacted-31.8 •Experiment 2 --150 subjects shown accident film •Divided into three groups •Describe accident in own words •answer questions on accident •Group 1: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? •Group 2: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? •Group 3: not asked about vehicle speed •Brought back into lab 1 week later •Did you see broken glass?
Casasanto and Dijkstra(2010) (marbles)
•Experimental set-up: Galton-Crovitzcue word technique •Think of an autobiographical memory in response to a neutral cue word (something you did yesterday) •At the same time, move a marble to the red box (up) or to the blue box (down) •Every two seconds to the beat of a metronome
strengths of the Spreading Activation Model
•Explains the typicality effect •Predicts semantic priming
Warrington and Weiskrantz (1970) results
•Explicit memory test (recognition) •Non-amnesics> amnesics •Implicit memory test (word fragment) •Non-amnesics= amnesics --amnesics demonstrated priming
Expertise View
•Extensive experience with faces makes us "face experts" •Expert recognition has a finer entry point for recognition • NOT the basic level (as for objects) • Individual level is the entry point
Biederman & Gerhardstein (1993) results
•Faster in second block of trials • Semantic priming • Concept activated •Faster for same vs. different exemplar • Specific object representation activated •Rotation had minimal effect • Not statistically significant • Activated object representation is object-centered, not viewer-centered
strengths of Diaries method
•Firmer conclusions about memory accuracy can be made •Broader range of memories are sampled than targeted event
Tanaka & Farah (1993) results
•For houses - Part and whole identification was the same •For faces - Whole identification was better than part identification •Supports the notion that faces are processed and remembered holistically
Tulvingand Pearlstone(1966) results
•Free recall -Less than half of the items were remembered •Cued recall test with category names (i.e., type of spice) as retrieval cues -Now recalled nearly three-quarters of the words •Previously inaccessible items now accessible when provided with a retrieval cue
types of explicit memory tests
•Free recall •Cued recall •Recognition
Explicit retrospective memory tests
•Free recall is high in self-initiation •Recognition is low in self-initiation
Marian and Neisser(2000) Investigated autobiographical memory in fluent Russian-English bilinguals
•Galton-Crovitzcue-word technique •½ of the subjects received Russian cue words •½ of the subjects received English cue words
Godden and Baddeley (1965) (beach vs under water)
•Gave divers a set of words to remember •Encoded: On beach or under water •Recall: On beach or under water
Autobiographical Fact
•General (context-free) knowledge about oneself and one's personal history •Semantic memory
example of attentional narrowing
•Goal-->avoidgetting shot •Central detail-->gun •Goal-->getthrough the interrogation •Central detail--> most likely not the face of the interrogator, which would be peripheral given the goal
Emotional Function of Autobiographical Memory
•Helps us think through life problems •Organization and reflection aids in future problem solving
possible outcomes of lineups
•Identification failure -Culprit present; "no" answer •Correct rejection -Culprit absent; "no" answer •Correct identification -Culprit present; "yes" answer •Incorrect identification -Culprit absent; "yes" answer
Morgan, Hazlett, Doran, Garrett, Hoyt, Thomas, Baranoski, and Southwick (2004) Experiential immersion in a mock prisoner of war camp
•Identification of guard and interrogator were not statistically different •Results for identification of interrogator:stress played a large roll in memory high stress can influence memory
Administrator should be "blind" to identity of the suspect
•Important because of eyewitness confidence •Witness confidence is a poor predictor of accuracy •Confidence increases if "choice" in a lineup is supported by administrator •Can't happen if administrator is unaware of who the suspect is
Concavities and Object Recognition
•In order to recognize objects, must be able to recover geons •Concavities are important in recovering geons (and their relationship to one another)
The Exemplar Approach
•Instead of comparing to a single "prototype" •We store all instances of encounters with a concept (exemplars) •Compare new item to existing exemplars
Tulving (1962)
•Interested in the degree to which participants would impose their own organizational structure on information •Stimuli: lists of unrelated items •Multitrialfree recall •Study, recall, repeat three times
Cepeda, Vuhl, Rohrer, Wixted(2008): Optimal Spacing
•Investigated the combination of Study Interval and Retention Interval that would maximize the amount of info retained over time •1354 participants! •Tested on 32 obscure •facts via the Internet •1st and 2nd session •Questionguessifwrong, correct answer given •Repeat cycle until 100% correct
Habib and Nyberg (2007)
•Investigated the neural correlates of availability and accessibility •Accessible -can recall •Available -can recognize •fMRI scans done during three phases •Phase 1: encode 60 word pairs •(e.g., hat-mouse; beach-window) •Phase 2: cued recall •Cue words from phase 1 were presented •(e.g., hat-???; beach-???) •Task was to recall the word paired with it in Phase1 •Phase 3: recognition •Intact and recombined word pairs from phase 1 were presented •(e.g., hat-mouse; beach-mouse) •Task was to indicate if the pair had been presented in Phase 1 •Examined differences in brain activity during encoding of words •Placed words in different categories depending on performance on memory test •A comparison of these conditions allowed for the assessment of brain activity when words were: •Recalled and recognized (remembered/accessible) •Not recalled, but recognized (available) •Not recalled or recognized (forgotten)
results of Schlageman and Kvavilashvili (2008) Developed a procedure to compare retrieval times for voluntary and involuntary memories
•Involuntary memories were retrieved almost twice as fast as voluntary memories •Involuntary memories tended to be specific and voluntary memories tended to be general
Pickel (1999)Proposed two possible reasons why weapons draw more attention:
•It poses a threat •It is unexpected
The Classical View
•Items are grouped into categories if they have certain critical features •Possession of these critical features is necessary and sufficient for membership in the category
Concepts in the Spreading Activation Model
•Knowledge represented as concept nodes linked in an associative network. •Your knowledge regarding a concept is determined by what it is linked to •category membership (canary to bird) •property to concept (yellow to canary) •more subtle relationships (i.e., canary and cat)
Events later in life show a standard forgetting function due to
•Lack of rehearsal •Interference •Similarity of events; lack of distinctiveness •Transition from memories to fact
Encoding Variability view
•Locus of effect is at retrieval •Massed repetition leads to little variability in the encoded memory representations •Results in representations that will be difficult to locate in a memory search
Studies that find high accuracy (consistency) in flashbulb memory
•Many tested memory for the first time a week after the event •Memory may have already changed by that point
Gauthier and Tarr (2002)
•Maybe as we develop expertise with an object there is a shift from viewpoint dependence to invariance? •Participants given 7 hours of practice in learning to identify "Greebles. •Task: Two Greebles presented sequentially • decide if they are the same or different "individual"
Tulving (1962) results (organization)
•Measure of organization: Recall order of items on first two trials (grouping of items) •On the first two trials, participants grouped items into idiosyncratic categories (subjective organization) •Participants who did more of this recalled more than those who did not
Autobiographical Memory
•Memory for a specific life experience •Episodic memory
Aging and Retrieval
•Memory performance declines with age •Age-related deficits are larger to the extent that the memory test requires self-initiated retrieval •The degree to which an individual must rely on their own processing to drive retrieval •Explicit retrospective memory tests •Free recall is high in self-initiation •Recognition is low in self-initiation •Therefore age-related deficits are larger on recall than recognition
Context Dependency Effects
•Memory should be better if context at retrieval matches context at encoding •Context provides retrieval cues to access the in information
Foerdeand Poldrack (2009) identified numerous types of skill learning:
•Motor skill learning •Sequence learning •Mirror tracing •Perceptual skill learning •Mirror reading
different ways of determining category membership
•Natural Kinds (e.g., fruit) •Artifacts (e.g., weapons) •Ad hoc categories (e.g., things you'd save in a fire) •Metaphorical concept (e.g., emotional prison)
problems with Brain Development in the emergence of autobiographical memory
•Neural substrates developed by age 2 •Paradox of childhood amnesia—young children have elaborate memories for previous events in their life
Craik and Watkins (1973) results
•No difference in final recall as a function of length of time rehearsed •2 repetitions as good as 12 repetitions
Bredahl, Clay, Ferrie, Groves, McDorman, and Dark (1998) results
•No main effect of encoding environment •But . . . •Exams are conducted in a quiet (retrieval) environment •Will do better if studying (encoding) environment is also quiet
Practical Implications
•No need to worry about taking a test in a different room from which you study •Studies of context-dependency effects typically involve memory for unrelated items •Not true of your college exams •Context is outshined by retrieval cues on the exam (e.g., essay prompt) and cues created by meaningful processing
Spreading Activation Model
•Nodes represent concepts •Links between nodes represent associations •Encountering/thinking of a concept: •Activates a node •Activation then spreads to related concepts •Activation decreases with distance •Explains the typicality effect •Predicts semantic priming
typicality effect
•Not all members of a category are "equal" •Some are better members of a category
artifacts
•Objects or conventions designed by humans to serve particular functions •Similarity of function
Davenport and Potter (2004): Results (object and background)
•Objects were more easily recognized than backgrounds •Consistent scenes and objects were better recognized than inconsistent ones
Activation mode
•Observer: high levels of cognitive anxiety (worry) and physiological arousal •Consequence: memory for all details suffer
Arousal mode
•Observer: physiologically relaxed •Consequence: novel, surprising and informative events receive most attention
Communicative Function of Autobiographical Memory
•Offer a greater sense of intimacy and connection when communicating with others •Sharing of history promotes empathy
predictions of Wang (2006) compared recall of early childhood memories in Tiawanese adults and US adults
•Offset of childhood amnesia -U.S. earlier than Taiwanese •Content of memories -U.S. would feature personal autonomy -Tiawanese would focus on group or social relationships
Usher and Neisser (1993) results (child memory)
•Offset of childhood amnesia depended on type of event --memories for the birth of a sibling and hospitalization went further back than memories for a death or a family move
TV priority
•Often event is seen repeatedly on TV •Schema for hearing about disaster news often includes having watched TV coverage
A sense of self refers to knowledge that:
•One is a person with unique and recognizable characteristics •One thinks and knows things about the world, and can serve as a causal agent
Palmer, Rosch, and Chase (1981) results
•One set of subjects rated how good or representative different views of objects were • Had clear preferences • Canonical view - most representative •A different set of subjects recognize the objects from different views • Faster and more accurate object recognition for canonical views than noncanonical views
Bower et al. (1969): Results (organization)
•Organized Condition •Recalled 90% of items by the 2nd trial •Recalled 100% on the last two trials •Unorganized Condition •Recall never exceeded 70%, even on the 4th trial •Organization of material aided memory performance
Winninghamet al. (2000): Memory and the verdict of the O.J. Simpson trial.
•People's memories changed considerably in the first few days after the acquittal •Became consistent thereafter
Memory Systems View
•Performance on explicit memory tests rely on the declarative memory (specifically episodic) system •Performance on implicit memory tests rely on the procedural memory system •Because these two types of LTM are mediated by different neurological underpinnings, these tests are affected by different variables
Transfer-Appropriate Processing
•Places emphasis on encoding-retrieval interaction •No encoding task is inherently better than any other at producing successful retrieval •Success depends upon the match between type of encoding and nature of retrieval task •Encoding processes should match processes to be engaged at retrieval •Encoding processes must transferto retrieval processes
Sequential over simultaneous advantage depends on:
•Position of suspects in lineup •Quality of viewing conditions in which suspect was seen
Rips (1989)
•Presented participants with a story of a bird-like creature called a sorp •Conditions -Accidental condition --Catastrophic accident occurs and sorpnow looks more like an insect, but still acts like a bird -Essence condition --Catastrophic accident occurs and sorpnow looks more like an insect AND acts like an insect --Given a new name—doon -Control --Only read story of bird-like sorps •How would the transformations affect categorization •Two categorization tasks: •Rate how well the sorpfit into the category of "bird" •Rate the similarity of sorpand a "bird"
Misidentifications in lineups are due to:
•Pressure-Witnesses feel pressured to pick someone •Preference-If unsure, witness forms a "preference" for a person who looks more like the perpetrator than the others
Usher and Neisser (1993)
•Procedure •Recalled critical events that were documented and could be verified by relatives and records •Hospitalization •Sibling birth •Family move •Family death
Relational Processing (impose organization):
•Processing items in terms of relationship to other items (organization) •Use when TBR information lacks organization
Individual Item Processing (look for distinctiveness):
•Processing items in terms of their individual characteristics (distinctiveness) •Use when TBR information is organized
strengths of the prototype approach
•Prototype view is more flexible than the classical approach •Probabilistic nature of categories accounts for graded structure and fuzzy boundaries •Typical members = high family resemblance
Posner, Goldsmith, and Welton(1967) (triangle)
•Prototypes are abstracted through repeated experience with category members •Extract out "average" category member --prototype •Presented dot patterns to participants •All patterns statistically generated from a (never presented) prototype •Recognition test (have you seen this before?) •Old and new dot patterns •Critical item: prototype
Nickerson and Adams (1979) (penny)
•Recall: 50% head facing wrong way •Recognition: > 50% couldn't identify
Brown and Kulik(1977) Asked people about assassination of JFK
•Received very detailed -rich recollections •Very confident in •Where they were •what they were doing •who they were with •Proposed special mechanism •Emotionally charged info •Important --Biological/Survival relevance •Utilizes special storage mechanism •Special neural mechanism "prints" details of such events permanently in the memory system
Rehearsal plays an important role in establishing flashbulb memories
•Recount or talk about with others •Information can become distorted in process
Roediger and Karpicke (2006): Results (SSSS vs STTT)
•Repeated studying led to better performance in the short-term •Being tested on the material led to better performance in the long-term
Recognizing faces
•Requires second-order relational information • Comparison of first-order relational information to a "typical" face • Eyes above nose, nose above mouth •Distance or proportion judgments •Judged relative to "average face"
results of Robinson (1980) Galton-Crovitzcue word technique with emotion and non-emotion words
•Retrieval times were shorter for emotional experiences than nonemotionalexperiences •Implies that emotional experiences have heightened accessibility in memory
Tulvingand Pearlstone(1966)
•Showed that all memory failures are not failures to encode •Encoding phase: -Categorized lists that contained two target words from each of 24 categories ("Type of Spice: garlic, parsley") •Retrieval phase: -Free recall followed by cued recall
Misinformation effect is an example of:
•Sin of suggestibility-Influenced by misinformation suggested by others •Sin of misattribution-Misattributes misinformation to original event •Retroactive interference-Misinformation works backward in time to interfere with memory for original event
Sharot, Delgado, and Phelps (2004) conclusions
•Source of subjective sense of remembering is the amygdala • (Memory) function of amygdala is to boost confidence • But this confidence far outweighs the boost in objective detail and quality of the memory
Cepeda, Vuhl, Rohrer, Wixted(2008) results
•Spacing repetitions (Study Interval) helped to a point, after which recall declined with increased spacing •Memory declined as retention interval increased •As the retention interval increased, optimal recall occurred at increasingly longer study intervals
Bower, Clark, Lesgold, and Winzenz (1969)
•Stimuli •4 different lists of words •Each list contained words from a different category •Conditions •Organized •Saw words organized into taxonomic categories •Unorganized •Saw words into a random arrangement •Memory was tested with multitrialfree recall •Learn the list—recall •Learn-recall (i.e., a trial) was repeated 4 times
example of priming
•Studied 10 words •Later tested with 20 word fragments (10 studied and 10 not studied) •Of the 10 studied ones you complete 7 (70%) •Of the 10 unstudied ones you complete 2 (20%) •Priming is 50%
Loftus, Miller, & Burns (1978)
•Subjects are shown a set of 30 slides •Pedestrian getting hit •One of the slides, either A or B •Stop sign or yield sign •Subjects answered a series of 20 questions •Split into two groups •Experimental group: •Did another car pass the red Datsun while it was at the yield (stop) sign? (wording opposite of picture they actually saw) •Control group: •Did another car pass the red Datsun while it was stopped at the intersection •20 minute filler task
Roediger and Karpicke (2006)
•Subjects read a scientific text passage •Procedure •Phase 1: •Four 5-minute periods •Study or be tested on material •Retention Interval •Amount of time between the first phase of the experiment and the final testing phase •5 minutes after period 4 •One week after period 4 •Phase 2: Final recall test
lifetime periods
•Substantial periods of life •Within a lifetime period, autobiographical knowledge is organized into thematic categories
Categories/Concepts exist at different levels
•Superordinate Level •Basic Level •Subordinate Level
examples of category levels
•Superordinate Level (e.g., animal) •Basic Level (e.g., bird) •Subordinate Level (e.g., blue-fairy wren)
Simultaneous lineup
•Suspects presented at same time •Witness must choose one •Relative judgment strategy: which one most resembles the culprit the witness saw
Sequential lineup
•Suspects presented one at a time •Witness must decide if each one is the culprit or not •Absolute judgment strategy: does this one match the culprit the witness saw
Talaricoand Rubin (2003): Tested students' memories of 9/11 and another recent daily event 1 day after
•The vividness of 9/11 memories remained very high after 224 days •However, the flashbulb memory showed no more lack of change or consistency than the everyday memory
elaborative rehearsal relies on two types of processing
•Thinking about the meaning of the to-be-remembered (TBR) information •Forming associations between TBR information and other information already stored in LTM
Janssen and Murre(2008)
•Used internet to collect autobiographical memories to 10 cue words from 3500 people age 16-75 •Memories did not have to be special, just personal •Interested in: •Lifespan distribution of memories •Specific characteristics of memories •Role of the following cognitive factors in what was remembered: •Novelty •Emotionality •Valence (positive or negative) •Importance
Davenport and Potter (2004) Investigated the interactive effect of scenes and objects in recognition
•Used photographs of familiar scenes • Presented each scene briefly followed by a mask •Task • Identify either the object in the foreground or the background scene •Varied the relationship between scene and object: • Consistent (e.g., quarterback on a football field) • Inconsistent (e.g., quarterback in a church)
Davis et al. (2008)
•Video of a staged crime involving a perpetrator and 2 innocent bystanders •One of the innocent bystanders (continuous innocent) enters an aisle and looks at products •In middle of the aisle passes behind a large stack of napkin boxes •Perpetrator emerges from behind the boxes and continues down the aisle and steals a bottle of wine •Switches to produce section where other innocent bystander (discontinuous innocent) is looking at oranges
Image-Based (IB) Approach
•Viewpoint dependent models •Objects are recognized by comparing retinal image with a stored replica (i.e., template) • Pattern match between template and retinal image • Exact match must be found
Multhaup, Johnson, and Tetirick (2005) results
•Wane of childhood amnesia •fits with social-cognitive view
Problems with the Classical View
•What are the critical features? •Model can't account for: •Graded structure of categories •"apple" is a "better" example of fruit than "kiwi" •Fuzzy boundaries •Distinctions between categories are not absolute •Example: Is bowling a sport or a game?
Concerned with the self
•What it may become in the future •Individual's current goals
results on the bump
•When close in age to the bump, everyday events enjoy an advantage (peak functioning) •As we age novel, emotional, and important events are rehearsed (cognitive explanation) and enjoy an advantage
Casasanto and Dijkstra(2010) (marbles) prediction
•When moving marbles up, participants would recall more positive memories •When moving marbles down, participants would recall more negative memories
types of implicit memory tests
•Word stem completion (gar__) •Word fragment completion (ga_ l _ c)
In Concepts in the Spreading Activation Model, your knowledge regarding a concept is determined by what it is linked to:
•category membership (canary to bird) •property to concept (yellow to canary) •more subtle relationships (i.e., canary and cat)
In comparison to non-depressed, depressed are:
•fasterat retrieving negative memories •slowerat retrieving positive memories
Depressed individuals are more likely to retrieve negative memories for:
•traditional lab materials (e.g., words and stories) •autobiographical memory experiences