cognitive notes for exam 2

Réussis tes devoirs et examens dès maintenant avec Quizwiz!

Sharot, Delgado, and Phelps (2004)

-encoding: shown negative and neutral photos -retrieval: shown old and new pictures; fMRI scans during recognition and remember-know judgements (did you see this before?)

Godden and Baddeley(1965) results

-results revealed a context-dependency effect -effect found only for recall and not recognition

Warrington and Weiskrantz (1970)

Amnesics and non-amnesics •Encoding: list of words •Retrieval •Explicit memory test (recognition) •Implicit memory test (word fragment)

Casasanto and Dijkstra(2010) (marbles) results

As predicted •Supports notion of "metaphorical mental representations" •link cognitive and motor processing

results of Wang (2006) compared recall of early childhood memories in Tiawanese adults and US adults

As predicted, US had earlier childhood memories than did Taiwanese participants for all cue words and US memories tended to reflect personal autonomy more •Particularly early memories in both cultures for "mother" •Reflecting centrality of mother-child relationship in AM development

Encoding Processes in ExplicitLong-Term Remembering

Attention and Repetition

According to Levine and Edelstein (2009)

Attention narrows attention to the central detail •Central detail is operationally defined by the person's goal

Social-Cognitive Development in the emergence of autobiographical memory

Autobiographical remembering emerges as numerous abilities and contextual factors coalesce

narrative style

How families reminisce about past events

Distinctiveness

How well information can be distinguished from other items being encoded and/or other items stored in LTM

Working self

Knowledge of self—self-image, goals, plans, attitudes, beliefs, etc.

Marian and Neisser (2000) Exp2 results (russian vs english interview and cues)

Language mode—use of a language produces a state of mind that is a useful retrieval cue

von Restorff (1933)

Stimuli: list of words in which one word was in a different color

The serial reaction time task

Stimulus appears at a location on a computer screen; participant responds as rapidly as possible with the response key to corresponding location.

2 factors in determining the effect of spaced repetitions on long-term retention

Study interval (SI) and Retention interval (RI)

Persistence: Sin of Commission

The continued (but unwanted) automatic retrieval of memories

priming

The degree to which prior presentation of an item increases the likelihood of it being produced later

Deficient-processing view

•Locus of effect is at encoding •Massed repetition leads to deficient processing of the second presentation of the item •Result is only one fully encoded memory representation of the item

results of Marian and Neisser (2000) Investigated autobiographical memory in fluent Russian-English bilinguals

•Language is a fundamental aspect of the encoded event

Morris, Bansford, and Franks (1977) predictions

•Levels of processing ~deep > shallow •Transfer appropriate processing --Rhyme recognition test ~shallow > deep --Traditional recognition test ~deep > shallow

Autobiographical Knowledge Base three levels:

•Lifetime periods •General events •Complex episodic memories

Factors affecting lineup performance

•Lineup construction •Functional Size •All other things being equal, all members of lineup should have an equal chance of being chosen (reasonable distractors) •Distractors should match? •Appearance of suspect ◦(misinformation effect) •Perpetrator description

Gradient of difficulty in person recognition

RT for face recognition < RT for biographical info < RT for retrieving name

Goschke and Kuhl (1993) results (intention enactment)

RT was faster for words on the to-be-performed list (even though they were simply prepared to do actions, and never did)

Image-Based

Viewpoint-dependent theories

Parts-Based

Viewpoint-invariant theories

example of typicality effects on explicit judgments

(rate birdiness) •Wren more "birdy" than turkey

Inverting a face disrupts

2nd order relational processing

Name retrieval

A common source of tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon and often associated with a strong feeling knowing

Object Recognition

A complex and astoundingly efficient process, given what's involved

Thatcher Illusion

Difficulty in judging distortions to inverted faces

development of language in in the emergence of autobiographical memory

AM development parallels language development

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon and often associated with a strong feeling knowing

Access knowledge about person without being able to retrieve name

Enactment Effect

Action phrases ("hammer the nail") are better remembered if enacted than if read

Marian and Neisser (2000) Exp2

Added 2 conditions •Cue word language and interview language were the same •Cue word in one language; interview in the other language

Results of Lam and Buehler (2009) Investigated subjective temporal distance of memories

Backward recall was associate with events feeling more like yesterday than was forward recall forward recallers viewed themselves as having changed to a greater degree than did backward recallers

Fuzzy Trace Theory

Based on distinction between gist and verbatim memory

example of typicality effects on categorization

Blue jay categorized as "bird" faster than flamingo

Hunt & Einstein (1981); McDaniel & Einstein (2005):

Both organization and distinctiveness are important -optimal memory when both are used

mask

Briefly presented visual pattern that serves to erase the previously presented stimulus; Ensures identification is not based on a fleeting afterimage

reminiscence bump

Disproportionately great number of memories for events that occur between the ages of 10 and 30

strengths of Essentialist Approaches

Can account for ad hoc categories

Accessibility

Can you get to (retrieve) the information?

Similarity-Based Categorization

Categorization involves judging the similarity between a target object and long-term memory standard

Theory of mind

Child's understanding that they have a unique set of beliefs, desires, and knowledge that is inaccessible to others

development of cognitive self in the emergence of autobiographical memory

Children don't demonstrate AM until they have a sense of themselves as independent entities

problems with levels of processing

Circular definitions •How do we define depth of processing? •Whatever leads to better memory

Peak functioning account

Cognitive abilities and brain function are at their peak in early adulthood

Explanations for reminiscence bump

Cognitive explanation account, Identity explanation account, and Peak functioning account

Garry, Manning, Loftus, and Sherman (1996) results

Confidence ratings increased from Phase 1 to Phase 3, but only for events that were imagined

Example of Implicit Learning

Contextual Cuing (Chun & Jiang, 2003)

Explanations for the spacing effect

Deficient-processing view and Encoding Variability view

Flashbulb Memories

Detailed, vivid, and confidently held memory for the circumstances surrounding when you first heard some startling bit of news

Complex episodic memories

Details needed to construct a specific memory

Neisser's Challenge

Ecological Validity and Memory Research

Bottom-Up Processing in Object Recognition

Employs the information in the stimulus itself (i.e., the "data") to aid in its identification

Identity explanation account

Events during this period are defining in terms of our identity

Cognitive explanation account

Events from early adulthood: •Are often rehearsed due to their importance •Subject to less interference due to their distinctiveness

problem with image-based approach

Fails to account for the flexibility of object recognition

Sins of omission

Failure to bring something to mind

Absentmindedness: Sin of Omission

Failure to encode information due to insufficient attention

Childhood Amnesia

Few memories before age 10 and virtually no memories prior to age 2 or 3

Encoding Specificity Principle

For a given encoding condition, memory is best when the retrieval condition matches encoding condition

Hyde and Jenkins (1969) results

For both incidental and intentional memory instructions, words encoded with the pleasantness judgment were recalled better than the other two judgments

Storage

Formation of a memory representation

Observe aftereffects for

Gender and Emotion as well

problem with Memory tunneling/Memory narrowing

Given the nature of a traumatic event, it is unclear what constitutes a central and peripheral detail

Prospective Memory

High in self-initiation; must remember to remember

Brain Development in the emergence of autobiographical memory

Hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (important for explicit memory formation) are underdeveloped in infants

Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm

Illusory memories

Imagination inflation

Imagining an event leads to an increase in belief that the event occurred

Bias: Sin of Commission

Influence of beliefs, expectations, and desires on what we remember

Attention

Information must be actively processed in consciousness

The Prototype Approach

Instances of a category are classified in terms of their resemblance to a category member

Availability

Is the information in memory?

Repetition

Material that is presented more than once is easier to remember

Constructive Memory Framework: Schacter

Memories are collections of features corresponding to different aspect of event

Involuntary Autobiographical Memories

Memories that are retrieved without specific attempt to recall them

Misattribution: Sin of Commission

Memory is correct, but ascribed to the wrong source or context

Material Appropriate Processing

Memory is enhanced when encoding processes complement the nature of the TBR information

Carmichael, Hogan, and Walters (1932) Showed subjects an ambiguous picture -given one of two labels

Memory sin: bias

Unconscious plagiarism

Misattributing a thought or idea to oneself

Superordinate Level

Most general

Subordinate Level

Most specific

Final stage of face recognition

Name retrieval

Rubin, Rahall, & Poon (1998)

Not just a bump for autobiographical memories Also a bump for: •Autobiographical facts like personal preferences •Events people think are historically important •General semantic memories

Special physiological mechanism?

Not likely: flashbulb errors can include (serious) inaccuracies

Multhaup, Johnson, and Tetirick (2005)

Participants recalled events from childhood and labeled them as: •"Know" memories •"Recollect memories

Morris, Bansford, and Franks (1977) results

Performance better when processing at encoding matched processes used at retrieval

Testing effect

Periodic retrieval of TBR information improves retention

wane of childhood amnesia

Point at which the majority of memories become "recollect" rather than "know" (average 4.7 years, but much individual variability)

Weapon focus

Presence of a weapon narrows one's focus, which results in a memory representation that: •lacks peripheral detail (e.g., face of perpetrator) •preserves the central detail (e.g., the weapon)

Sins of commission

Presence of unwanted or inaccurate memories

Galton-Crovitzcue-word technique

Presented with word cues and asked to: •Retrieve an AM •Describe it •Date it

Corkin (1968)

Preserved Learning in Amnesia •Mirror tracing

Cavacoet al. (2004)

Preserved Learning in Amnesia •Real-world skills (e.g., weaving)

Nissen, Willingham, and Hartman (1989)

Preserved Learning in Amnesia •Serial reaction time learning

Spiers et al. (2001)

Preserved Learning in Amnesia •Skill/habit learning •Priming •Classical conditioning •Simple category learning

Wang (2006) compared recall of early childhood memories in Tiawanese adults and US adults

Procedure •Used Galton-Crovitzcue word technique •Provide earliest memory associated with the cue words: •Self, Mother, Family, Friend, Surroundings

source monitoring

Process of identifying the source of remembered information

Retrieval

Processes involved in getting information out of memory

Encoding

Processes involved in the acquisition of material

Tarr & Bulthoff (1995)

Proposed that view dependence/independence may depend on the type of task • Categorization - more viewpoint invariant • Exemplar identification - more viewpoint dependent

Posner, Goldsmith, and Welton(1967) results

Prototype was frequently recognized as "old" and at a much higher rate than other "new" items

two stages of source confusion

Reality monitoring and source monitoring

Targeted Event Recall

Recall of specific events

Jacoby (1983) results (hot-cold, xxx-cold)

Recognition (explicit memory) performance for phase 1 targets was best for participants who had generated the words in response to the opposite. Identification (implicit memory) performance for phase 1 targets was best for participants who had read the words in isolation

Retrospective memory (RM) tests

Remembering information from the past (e.g., explicit and implicit memory tests)

Prospective memory (PM) tests

Remembering to perform an action in the future

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information with no embellishment

Mood dependent memory

Retrieval is enhanced when mood at retrieval matches the mood at encoding

example of typicality effects on family resemblance

Robin and wren more shared attributes (than ostrich)

Contextual Cuing (Chun & Jiang, 2003)

Search task -find rotated T among Ls

Hierarchical Network Model

Semantic memory is organized into a series of hierarchical networks • Major concepts are represented as nodes • Properties/features are associated with each concept

The Seven Sins of Memory

Sins of omission, Sins of commission

Collins and Loftus, 1975

Spreading Activation Model

Berry & Broadbent (1984)

Sugar Factory •People learned to perform task accurately in 40-90 trials •Couldn't describe "rules" (if they did --wrong)

Lam and Buehler (2009) Investigated subjective temporal distance of memories

Target event recall but varied the order in which recall occurred

Blocking: Sin of Omission

Temporary failure to retrieve stored information

Transience: Sin of Omission

Tendency to lose access to information across time

Suggestibility: Sin of Commission

The tendency to incorporate information obtained from others into our own memory representation

von Restorff (1933) results (different color word)

The word was remembered better when it was in a different color than the other list items than when it was in the same color

Characteristics of Flashbulbs

They typically contain five components •Source - Who told them •Location - Where they heard •Emotion - How they felt emotionally •Aftermath - What they did next •Activity - What they were doing

Elaborative rehearsal

Thinking about meaning or forming associations

Autobiographical knowledge base

Three levels (types of knowledge) from which autobiographical memories are constructed

Retention interval (RI)

Time between the final study session and the final test

Study interval (SI)

Time between the repeated study sessions

general events (AKB)

Typical events within a given period

Problems with the Hierarchical Network Model

Typicality effect •Suggests categories are fuzzier than hierarchical model proposes

Top-Down Processing in Object Recognition

Using expectations, knowledge, and/or surrounding context to aid in recognition

Bruce and Young (1986) propose

a serial account

Events later in life show

a standard forgetting function

Involuntary memories were more likely to be retrieved by

negative phrases than positive or neutral ones

performance in explicit memory tests is measured by

accuracy

Direct Retrieval

activates specific episodic memories •Sensory cues (e.g., smell) may tap directly into complex episodic memories •Specific cues may trigger a specific episodic memory

Involuntary memories are

adaptive and serve to warn us of similar "dangerous" experiences in our past

Galton-Crovitzcue-word technique yeilds

an autobiographical memory retention function

Memory tunneling/Memory narrowing

•Encode central details •Don't encode peripheral details

In the Spreading Activation Model, links between nodes represent

associations

female superiority in

autobiographical memory

flashbulb memory is formed by

basic memory mechanisms, but is supplemented and/or intensified by emotion •May alter initial encoding or •Enhance likelihood the event is rehearsed

In Targeted Event Recall, evaluation is limited by

completeness and accuracy of the corroborating source

In Concepts in the Spreading Activation Model, knowledge is represented as

concept nodes linked in an association network

In the Spreading Activation Model, nodes represent

concepts

Explicit memory tests

conscious recollection

remember judgment

conscious recollection; affected by same factors that affect explicit memory tasks

metaphorical concept

meet intended meaning

elaborative style is used when conversing with

daughters

effects of face inversion

disrupts recognition

Special mechanism view is supported by

dissociations between object and face recognition • Patient's with intact object recognition, but impaired face recognition • Inversion hurts face recognition, but not object recognition

example of metaphorical concept

emotional prison

Encoding Specificity Principle relevant comparisons

encoding conditions are the same AA>AB BB>BA

branches of declarative memory

episodic and semantic

verbatim memory

exact form; supports recollection-based remembering; lead to remember judgments

characteristics of autobiographical memory

experience of remembering always present, frequent personal interpretation, variable truthfulness, context-specific sensory attributes always present, high self-reference, duration for years

characteristics of autobiographical fact

experience of remembering rarely present, rare personal interpretation, high truthfulness, context-specific sensory attributes rarely present, high self-reference, duration for years

some argue language is critical for

expression of AM but not their formation

Roediger and McDermott (1995) results

false recall and false recognition -false recognition > false recall

know judgment

familiarity in the absence of recollection; unaffected by factors that affect explicit memory

example of typicality effects on sentence verification

faster in "A sparrow is a bird" vs. "A penguin is a bird"

Context Dependency effects typically only occur

for recall (few retrieval cues available -will use context) •In recognition or cued recall -other (stronger) retrieval cues are available

example of natural kinds

fruit

characteristics of episodic

high likelihood; low usefulness; recollective experience present; sensory component; presence of emotion

typicality effects on explicit judgments

higher rating for more typical members

Confident witnesses who make their choice in about 10 seconds tend to be

highly accurate

subjective distance

how much a person feels they had changed since the event

Face recognition is akin to

image-based approaches to recognition

some argue parent-child interaction is the critical factor

in the development of language explanation

PTSD

is an extreme and abnormal result of a normal adaptive process

example of typicality effects on picture identification

is this a bird? •Wren faster than turkey

even if something is not remembered explicitly,

it may still have an impact on your attitudes, feelings, or behavior

typicality effects on production

list more typical first

example of typicality effects on production

list types of birds •Robin listed before vulture

effects of object inversion

little impact on recognition

Elaborative style

long and richly detailed discussions of past events

characteristics of semantic

low likelihood of forgetting; high usefulness; no recollective experience; no sensory component; no presence of emotion

gist memory

main idea; supports familiarity-based remembering; lead to know judgments

Organization

making connections or fitting information together helps memory

Types of repetition

massed and distributed

arousal increases

memory to a point

Unconscious transference is a sin of

misattribution

Voluntary memories tend to be

more general

individual level

more specific than subordinate level

Canonical view

most representative

Procedural Memory is not

not restricted to physical/motor skills

exposure is

not sufficient for effective encoding

Multiple Views Approach is supported by

physiological studies of recognition • Logothetis, Pauls, and Poggio (1995) found evidence of heavily viewpoint-dependent cortical cells • "physiological templates"

performance in implicit memory tests is measured by

priming

Generative Retrieval

process of reconstruction that proceeds from general to specific layers •Recall of specific events is slow and effortful (10 seconds) •Engages the working self •Same event often recalled differently at different times

distinct items are

recalled better

Specific events

recalled more quickly (therefore involuntary tends to be fast)

lineups are a _____ test for a witness

recognition

Palmer, Rosch, and Chase (1981) found that

recognition depends on perspective

remember-know paradigm

recognition task; if recognized, asked about subjective experience during retrieval

Implicit memory tests

recollection in the absence of conscious awareness

distributed repetition

repeated presentations spread out over time

massed repetition

repeated presentations that occur closely together in time

Transfer Appropriate Processing relevant comparisons

retrieval conditions are the same AA>BA BB>AB

According to the fuzzy trace theory, Memory performance depends on

retrieval of both types of information •Accurate retrieval is likely to occur when verbatim trace is stronger than gist trace •Phantom retrieval is likely to occur when gist trace is stronger than verbatim trace •ex: DRM paradigm, gist trace of sleep is strong

In Transfer-Appropriate Processing, memory depends on

retrieval-encoding match

Depressed people are overly general in autobiographical recall, which leads to

several cognitive deficits •Inability to solve current problems -If can't remember the specifics of how a prior problem was solved, current problems may seem unsolvable •Inability to envision a future -If can't remember a time when a previous bad period got better, will have trouble seeing that current period will improve

Pragmatic style is used when conversing with

sons

spacing effect

spaced/distributed is better than massed repetition

Memories undergo a transition from

specific autobiographical memories to general autobiographical facts

Involuntary memories tend to be

specific events

prototype

standard to which other category members are compared

Outshining hypothesis

stronger cues overwhelm weaker cues

Conclusions of of Lam and Buehler (2009) Investigated subjective temporal distance of memories

subjective distance is related to perceived change

Autobiographical memories are primary records of

success or failure in goal attainment

Pragmatic style

succinct—little detail

Multhaup, Johnson, and Tetirick (2005) conclusions

suggest that our memories for childhood events gradually transition from know memories to recollected memories

General events

takes more time to retrieve (therefore voluntary tends to be slow)

Banaji and Crowder argued

that uncontrolled factors in everyday memory research reduce generalizability

Face aftereffects suggest

that we are coding faces relative to an "average" face • Eye position, nose position, nose width, mouth position, etc.

According to Deffenbacher(1994), the effect of stress depends on

the attentional mode of the perceiver

Identity explanation account is similar to

the cognitive self explanation for offset of childhood amnesia •That we are vs. who we are

autobiographical memory retention function

the distribution of personal episodic memories across the lifespan

Unconscious transference

•Failure to distinguish a target person from another encountered at a different time •Sin of misattribution

Goals of the working self influence

the kinds of memories stored in autobiographical knowledge base and the types of memories retrieved from autobiographical knowledge base

the intention to perform the action leads to

the same memory benefit in enactment effect

what distinguishes flashbulb memories from other autobiographical memories

they are phenomenologicallyspecial in their vividness, detail, and confidence in their accuracy

example of ad hoc categories

things you'd save in a fire

if we remember that an event occurred,

this reflects conscious and effortful retrieval

if we know that an event occurred,

this reflects nonconscious, automatic memory retrieval

Pickel(1999) Fully crossed threat and expectedness in four videos shown to participants

threat does seem to matter but expectancy does; suggests that its not the threat but its the surprise

Typicality effects on sentence verification

typical are faster

typicality effects on picture identification

typical are faster

typicality effects on categorization

typical members are categorized faster

typicality effects on family resemblance

typical members have more shared attributes

In the Spreading Activation Model, encountering/thinking of a concept:

•Activates a node •Activation then spreads to related concepts •Activation decreases with distance •Explains the typicality effect •Predicts semantic priming

According to the fuzzy trace theory,

we encode events in both ways

example of artifacts

weapons

In Concepts in the Spreading Activation Model, your knowledge regarding a concept is determined by

what it is linked to •category membership (canary to bird) •property to concept (yellow to canary) •more subtle relationships (i.e., canary and cat)

Habib & Nyberg (2007) Results

• Activity in both the medial temporal lobe (MTL) and left inferior frontal cortex (LIFC) at encoding was involved for words that were remembered • Activity in MTL at encoding distinguished available from forgotten • Activity in LIFC at encoding distinguished available from remembered

Tarr and Bülthoff (1995) results

• After practice, time to identify novel views increased with degree of rotation

Dissociations Between Implicit and Explicit Memory Tests

when an encoding variable has a different effect on different memory tests

Faces seem to be encoded as

whole configurations

new perspective in how to classify spared learning in amnesia

~~Chun and Phelps (1999) •Contextual Cuing Experiment •Amnesiacs showed generalskill improvement on a visual search task, but no specific priming to repeated displays ~~Park et al. (2004) •Contextual Cuing Experiment •Midazolam-induced amnesia impaired implicit learning •Disrupts Binding?

conclusions of Schlageman and Kvavilashvili (2008) Developed a procedure to compare retrieval times for voluntary and involuntary memories

~~If general memory is retrieved: •Tends to be slow and effortful, except when involuntary •More likely to occur in voluntary retrieval situations than involuntary situations ~~If specific memory is retrieved: •Tends to be fast whether voluntary or involuntary •More likely to occur in involuntary retrieval situations than voluntary situations

Lineup Administration best practices

~~Inform witness that perpetrator may not be in the lineup •Reduces pressure to choose someone ~~Administrator should be "blind" to identity of the suspect •Important because of eyewitness confidence •Witness confidence is a poor predictor of accuracy •Confidence increases if "choice" in a lineup is supported by administrator •Can't happen if administrator is unaware of who the suspect is

Garry, Manning, Loftus, and Sherman (1996) (confidence effect occurred)

~~Phase 1: Initial Test •Given list of childhood events •Asked to rate confidence in whether they had occurred ~~Phase 2: 2 weeks later •For some of the low likelihood events: Imagine it happened ◦provide detail about how it would have played out ~~Phase 3: Re-rated confidence of all events •Told the experimenters had lost the original ratings -needed them •Allowed for comparison of confidence ratings pre-and post-imagination

Non-accidental properties

• Arrangement of lines, curves and junctions •Allow recovery of geon from almost any angle

implicit memory

• Do not require conscious recollection • Memory is reflected in an indirect way

Neuropsychological Evidence for different processes for face and object recognition

• Double dissociation • Prosopagnosia • Inability to recognize familiar faces • Ability to recognize objects • Visual Agnosia • Inability to recognized objects • Ability to recognize familiar faces

Thomson and Tulving (1970)

• Encoding • Presented weakly related pairs (glue - CHAIR) • Retrieval: cued recall; cues were one of two types • Strongly related word (but not shown earlier) • (table - ) • Weakly related word (but shown earlier) • (glue - )

Bruce and Young (1986) propose a serial account

• First, face must activate a stored representation in memory called an FRU (face recognition unit) • If activated, the person is recognized as familiar • Next, FRU must activate the person identity node (PIN), which stores biographical info about the person • If activated, the biographical info becomes available • Next, PIN must activate the terminal node (person's name)

Semantic Memory

• General knowledge of: objects, word meanings, facts, and people • Lacks a particular connection to time or place

geons

• Geometric ions • 36 basic shapes • can be recovered from any view

First steps in post-attentional processing

• Identifying and classifying input: object recognition • Matching an incoming stimulus with stored representations for the purpose of identification

Effects of Orientation and Perspective

• Key question for theories of object recognition: • Is recognition viewpoint-invariant? • Does recognition depend on a particular view?

Habib & Nyberg (2007) conclusion

• MLT activity is necessary for encoding information into memory, but does not ensure retrieval • LIFC activity is necessary for subsequent retrieval

Basic Level

• Midpoint classification level • Dominates everyday description and thought • The entry point (i.e., default level for) categorization

Déjà vu

• Mistaken feeling that you've been in a situation before • Implicit expression of encoding specificity principle

Viewpoint-invariant theories (Parts-Based)

• Objects can be recognized equally well from all angles. • Store 3-D representation of object (parts and their spatial relationships) • Object-centered representation • AKA: Structural description theories

Viewpoint-dependent theories (Image-Based)

• Objects can be recognized more easily from some angles than from others. • Store "views" of what objects look like from different angles (retinal image changes with view) • Viewer-centered representation • AKA: Template theories

Tanaka and Farah (1993)

• Presented faces or houses accompanied by labels • "Larry's house" or "Larry's face" •Recognition test • Conditions • Isolated-parts conditions • Which is "Larry's nose" or "Larry's door" • Whole-object condition • Which is "Larry" or "Larry's house"

Principle of Cognitive Economy

• Property information is stored as high up the hierarchy as possible to minimize redundancy • Sentences should take more time to process as the number of levels between the tested concept and features increases

Palmer (1975) presented context primes followed by objects to be recognized

• Recognition was faster for objects consistent with primes • Use top-down information to aid recognition process • Expectations about what objects present given context

Recognizing objects

• Requires first-order relational information • Information about object parts and how they relate

Gauthier and Tarr (2002): Results

• Speed increased with training • Still viewpoint dependent at end • slower as view orientation changes

Episodic Memory

• Storage and retrieval of specific events • Linked to a specific place and time • Associated with conscious recollection • Recently evolved, late-developing and early-deteriorating

Thomson and Tulving (1970) results

• Strong cue: 15% • Weak cue: 64% • Even though weak associates, they were part of the original episode

Davis et al. (2008) results (perp switch with innocent)

•60% missed switch (change blindness) •If missed the switch: •41% misidentified the continuous innocent •23% misidentified the discontinuous innocent •If noticed the switch: •10% misidentified the continuous innocent •25% misidentified the discontinuous innocent

Barsalou (1988) Asked subjects to recall specific memories from summer vacation

•60% of recalled memories were at general events level •(similar to basic level of categorization)

Essentialist Approaches: Concepts as Theories

•A "top-down" approach to categorization •Categorization not based on a similarity comparison •Categories not simply defined by presence of certain features •Categories have underlying "essences" that bind category members

Triggers for Involuntary Retrieval: Encoding specificity principle

•A match between the external event and the central details of the memory •Some aspect of the memory is partially activated by a recent event, which primes involuntary retrieval when another triggering event is encountered

Rips (1989) results (sorp)

•Accident condition: Change lowered similarity ratings more than categorization ratings •Essence condition: Change lowered categorization ratings more than similarity ratings

Rips (1989) predictions

•According to similarity-based approaches, these two tasks reflect the same thing •Rating should be the same

strengths of the Exemplar Approach

•Accounts for graded structure --We have more encounters with typical objects, hence more exemplars --More robins stored in memory than toucans •Accounts for the biasing effect of context --Context makes certain exemplars more retrievable --Seeing your friends makes it easier to retrieve their crappy cars •Can account for sensitivity to correlated features

Functions of Concepts

•Allow for understanding •Allow us to make predictions •Support new learning •Important for communication •Increases efficiency •Creates a common ground of understanding

Variables that dissociate explicit and implicit memory tests

•Amnesia •Encoding techniques

traditional viewpoint in how to classify spared learning in amnesia

•Amnesiacs have impaired declarative memory; intact non-declarative memory •The lack of a declarative component of implicit learning allows for preserved learning

Craik & Lockhart (1972)

•Argued against idea that more rehearsal = better encoding •Suggested that processing of words proceeds from a superficial analysis of structural features to deep analysis of meaning

Schlageman and Kvavilashvili (2008) Developed a procedure to compare retrieval times for voluntary and involuntary memories

•Assumed that the retrieval of involuntary memories are triggered by specific cues under conditions of diffuse attention •Phase 1 (involuntary memory phase) •Vigilance task •Watched 800 trials of horizontal or vertical lines •Task was to press a key when the display contained vertical lines •Only occurred on 15 trials •Intended to induce boredom, which would lead to mind wandering •Each trial was presented with a phrase unrelated to the detection task •Created to induce autobiographical remembering—something to which their mind could wander •Instructed to ignore it •Told their mind might wander to thoughts unrelated to the detection task •If they experienced a memory in response to a phrase, they were to hit a key •Detection task was paused and they were to write down a description of the memory •Phase 2 (voluntary memory phase) •One week later, presented with same phrases from phase 1 and asked to retrieve a specific memory

results of serial reaction time task

•At the end of the experiment, a block of trials conforms to a new sequence. •Become faster to the repeating sequence (learn to anticipate next response) •Not just a general practice effect (doesn't transfer to novel sequence) •Participants are unaware that a sequence was presented to them

Davis, Loftus, Vanous, and Cucciare(2008)

•Attributes unconscious transference to change blindness via the illusion of continuity •A perceiver misperceives continuity between two scenes due to top-down processing

Reality monitoring

•Attributing the memory to an external event or an internally generated event •Use perceptual and semantic detail (more vivid memories more likely to be real)

The Self-Memory System View

•Autobiographical memory is the basis for all episodic memories •Memories from our life and those from the lab are constructed by the same process •Two components - working self and autobiographical knowledge base

Multiple Views Approach

•Based on experience, we have multiple stored views of objects • Multiple templates for each object • Correspond to different views (that we have experienced)

Encoding Specificity vs. Transfer Appropriate Processing

•Both emphasize the overlap between encoding and retrieval as the key determinant of remembering •TAP focuses on encoding—encoding processes used should be appropriate for how memory will be tested •ESP focuses on retrieval—the best retrieval cues are those that tap into how something was encoded

Directive Function of Autobiographical Memory

•Can serve to guide future life course •Learn from past mistakes (and successes)

Ad hoc categories

•Categories formed "on the fly" in the service of a goal •Satisfaction of goal

Natural kinds

•Categories that occur naturally in the world •Similarity of appearance or features

Rips (1989) conclusions (sorp)

•Categorization and similarity ratings were dissociable •Strong evidence that categorization ≠ similarity judgment

Problems with the Exemplar Approach

•Category representations do seem to be abstracted in some cases --Posner et al. dot study—never-presented prototype recognized •Problem of economy --Do we really store every instance of encounter with each concept?

Problems with the Prototype Approach

•Category representations include more specific information than prototypes would predict •We're sensitive to correlated information among category members - Ex: big birds likely to squawk; small birds likely to sing •Category representation is sensitive to context •"Best example" depends on the situation -Prototypical car --College campus: Honda (old and rusty) --Country club: Mercedes

Organization refers to:

•Characteristics of the incoming information •Strategic orientation of encoder

autobiographical memory retention function features

•Childhood Amnesia •Reminiscence Bump •Forgetting

Face aftereffects

•Coding faces along a set of continua • Average face lies in the middle • Neurons tuned to each extreme (above and below average values) •Adapt neurons to face • Relatively stronger response by neurons coding other end of continuum

Explicit tests:

•Conceptually driven in nature •Aided by conceptually-driven encoding •Rely on elaboration and organization for successful performance

Source Confusion

•Criterion setting stage can be viewed as the source monitoring framework •Process by which we monitor the origins of encoded information

Event that triggers retrieval differs

•Cue in RM—something indicates that it is time to remember •No cue in PM—retrieval is self-initiated (must remember to remember) •External memory aids help us "remember to remember"

Implicit tests:

•Data-driven in nature •Aided by data-driven encoding •Rely on reading and perceptual operations for successful performance

levels of processing

•Deep processing = good encoding •Good encoding leads to successful retrieval

But confidence is not always a poor predictor of accuracy....

•Diagnosticityof RT •Confident witnesses who make their choice in about 10 seconds tend to be highly accurate

Goschke and Kuhl (1993)

•Encoding •Participants studied two lists of 5 activities that accomplished a goal (clearing a messy desk) •After encoding, told they would be performing the activities on one of the lists (never actually did) •Retrieval •Presented with single words •Indicate as quickly as possible if the word had been presented on the earlier lists

Bredahl, Clay, Ferrie, Groves, McDorman, and Dark (1998)

•Encoding •Studied a two-page article on psychoimmunology •Presence of background noise •Absence of background noise •Retrieval •Fill in the blank questions followed by multiple choice questions •Presence of background noise •Absence of background noise

Jacoby (1983) (hot, xxx-cold)

•Encoding conditions: (e.g., word: cold) •Generate condition (generate opposite of each word) •Hot ? (subjects never saw target word) •Read condition •xxx -cold (subjects actually saw the target word) •Retrieval •Explicit: recognition •Implicit: perceptual identification (brief duration of 30ms and task was to identify)

Hyde and Jenkins (1969)

•Encoding task: •One of three simple judgments were made for each word (ex: bench) •Pleasantness •Estimate the number of letters in the word •Indicate if the word contained an e •2 types of instructions (between groups) •Incidental memory instructions: participants are not told about the later memory test •Intentional memory instructions: participants are told about the later memory test

Morris, Bansford, and Franks (1977)

•Encoding tasks •Semantic (deep) •Does a target word (soup) fit into a given sentence (The ___ contained celery) •Phonological (shallow) •Does a target word (sit) rhyme with another word (hit) •Retrieval tasks •Traditional recognition test •Rhyme recognition (recognize words that rhymed with the target words)

Sharot, Delgado, and Phelps (2004) results (+ or - photos)

•Enhanced remember judgments for negative photos relative to neutral photos •This subjective feeling was not associated with memory accuracy (remember + know) •Negative and neutral photos were recognized as "old" at the same rate •Metacognition about occurrence of negative stimuli does not translate into performance

Basic-Systems View

•Episodic memories formed in the lab are qualitatively different than those formed in daily living •Different theoretical accounts are needed to explain the construction process in each area i.e., Autobiographical memories represent different memory system •Daily living AM are constructed from the concurrent operation of various brain systems involved in: Individual senses, Spatial encoding for locations of people and objects, Emotional processing, The narrative system that provides "coherence" to memories, and Explicit memory to combine all of the above •Lab-based episodic memory tasks (i.e., word lists) lack many of these components

Biederman & Gerhardstein (1993)

•Evaluated whether object recognition is "object centered" • Viewpoint should not matter •Used a "priming" procedure • Subjects asked to name objects • Repeat objects • Prior exposure to object - speeds recognition • Asked whether viewpoint mattered in priming •1st block of trials: shown different objects • Task: name out loud •2nd block of trials: shown different objects • Task: name out loud • Objects could be: • Same Exemplar • At same orientation • Rotated 67 or 135° • Different Exemplar

The intention to act can be triggered in 2 ways:

•Event-based: external event (easier) •Time-based: the passage of time (harder)

Janssen and Murre(2008): Results (reminiscence bump)

•Evidence of reminiscence bump •Bump was unrelated to any cognitive factors assessed •Memories were regular, unemotional, neutral, and unimportant •Supports peak functioning view

Craik and Watkins (1973)

•Examined Maintenance Rehearsal •Procedure •Presented lists of words that had different first letters •Task was to keep track of the last word that began with a specific letter ("P") •At the end of each list, report that word •Varied the number of intervening items (amount of rehearsal) from 2 to 12 items •Final recall of all words that began with "P" •Ex: Dog, Pear, Door, Pine, Rug, Car, Bone, Wood, Ball, Flute, Chair, Red, Tail, Bowl, Leaf, ??? •Ex: Pear: rehearsed for 2 words; Pine rehearsed for 12 words

Tarr and Bülthoff (1995)

•Examined viewpoint dependence / invariance •Reviewed studies in which participants practiced novel object identification from specific views. •Supports viewpoint-dependence.

Biederman's Recognition-by-Components Theory

•Example of a Parts-Based Theory • (Structural Description Theory) •Object recognition is viewpoint invariant •Objects consist of combinations of geons •Geons - can be recovered from any view •Based on invariant info in retinal image • Contours and edges are critical

Loftus & Palmer (1974) (car crash question wording)

•Experiment 1 •Subjects are shown Driver's Ed film of a car crash •Answered questions about the accident •How fast were the cars going when they ______ each other? •Word speed •smashed- 40.8 •collided-39.3 •bumped-38.1 •hit-34.0 •contacted-31.8 •Experiment 2 --150 subjects shown accident film •Divided into three groups •Describe accident in own words •answer questions on accident •Group 1: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? •Group 2: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? •Group 3: not asked about vehicle speed •Brought back into lab 1 week later •Did you see broken glass?

Casasanto and Dijkstra(2010) (marbles)

•Experimental set-up: Galton-Crovitzcue word technique •Think of an autobiographical memory in response to a neutral cue word (something you did yesterday) •At the same time, move a marble to the red box (up) or to the blue box (down) •Every two seconds to the beat of a metronome

strengths of the Spreading Activation Model

•Explains the typicality effect •Predicts semantic priming

Warrington and Weiskrantz (1970) results

•Explicit memory test (recognition) •Non-amnesics> amnesics •Implicit memory test (word fragment) •Non-amnesics= amnesics --amnesics demonstrated priming

Expertise View

•Extensive experience with faces makes us "face experts" •Expert recognition has a finer entry point for recognition • NOT the basic level (as for objects) • Individual level is the entry point

Biederman & Gerhardstein (1993) results

•Faster in second block of trials • Semantic priming • Concept activated •Faster for same vs. different exemplar • Specific object representation activated •Rotation had minimal effect • Not statistically significant • Activated object representation is object-centered, not viewer-centered

strengths of Diaries method

•Firmer conclusions about memory accuracy can be made •Broader range of memories are sampled than targeted event

Tanaka & Farah (1993) results

•For houses - Part and whole identification was the same •For faces - Whole identification was better than part identification •Supports the notion that faces are processed and remembered holistically

Tulvingand Pearlstone(1966) results

•Free recall -Less than half of the items were remembered •Cued recall test with category names (i.e., type of spice) as retrieval cues -Now recalled nearly three-quarters of the words •Previously inaccessible items now accessible when provided with a retrieval cue

types of explicit memory tests

•Free recall •Cued recall •Recognition

Explicit retrospective memory tests

•Free recall is high in self-initiation •Recognition is low in self-initiation

Marian and Neisser(2000) Investigated autobiographical memory in fluent Russian-English bilinguals

•Galton-Crovitzcue-word technique •½ of the subjects received Russian cue words •½ of the subjects received English cue words

Godden and Baddeley (1965) (beach vs under water)

•Gave divers a set of words to remember •Encoded: On beach or under water •Recall: On beach or under water

Autobiographical Fact

•General (context-free) knowledge about oneself and one's personal history •Semantic memory

example of attentional narrowing

•Goal-->avoidgetting shot •Central detail-->gun •Goal-->getthrough the interrogation •Central detail--> most likely not the face of the interrogator, which would be peripheral given the goal

Emotional Function of Autobiographical Memory

•Helps us think through life problems •Organization and reflection aids in future problem solving

possible outcomes of lineups

•Identification failure -Culprit present; "no" answer •Correct rejection -Culprit absent; "no" answer •Correct identification -Culprit present; "yes" answer •Incorrect identification -Culprit absent; "yes" answer

Morgan, Hazlett, Doran, Garrett, Hoyt, Thomas, Baranoski, and Southwick (2004) Experiential immersion in a mock prisoner of war camp

•Identification of guard and interrogator were not statistically different •Results for identification of interrogator:stress played a large roll in memory high stress can influence memory

Administrator should be "blind" to identity of the suspect

•Important because of eyewitness confidence •Witness confidence is a poor predictor of accuracy •Confidence increases if "choice" in a lineup is supported by administrator •Can't happen if administrator is unaware of who the suspect is

Concavities and Object Recognition

•In order to recognize objects, must be able to recover geons •Concavities are important in recovering geons (and their relationship to one another)

The Exemplar Approach

•Instead of comparing to a single "prototype" •We store all instances of encounters with a concept (exemplars) •Compare new item to existing exemplars

Tulving (1962)

•Interested in the degree to which participants would impose their own organizational structure on information •Stimuli: lists of unrelated items •Multitrialfree recall •Study, recall, repeat three times

Cepeda, Vuhl, Rohrer, Wixted(2008): Optimal Spacing

•Investigated the combination of Study Interval and Retention Interval that would maximize the amount of info retained over time •1354 participants! •Tested on 32 obscure •facts via the Internet •1st and 2nd session •Questionguessifwrong, correct answer given •Repeat cycle until 100% correct

Habib and Nyberg (2007)

•Investigated the neural correlates of availability and accessibility •Accessible -can recall •Available -can recognize •fMRI scans done during three phases •Phase 1: encode 60 word pairs •(e.g., hat-mouse; beach-window) •Phase 2: cued recall •Cue words from phase 1 were presented •(e.g., hat-???; beach-???) •Task was to recall the word paired with it in Phase1 •Phase 3: recognition •Intact and recombined word pairs from phase 1 were presented •(e.g., hat-mouse; beach-mouse) •Task was to indicate if the pair had been presented in Phase 1 •Examined differences in brain activity during encoding of words •Placed words in different categories depending on performance on memory test •A comparison of these conditions allowed for the assessment of brain activity when words were: •Recalled and recognized (remembered/accessible) •Not recalled, but recognized (available) •Not recalled or recognized (forgotten)

results of Schlageman and Kvavilashvili (2008) Developed a procedure to compare retrieval times for voluntary and involuntary memories

•Involuntary memories were retrieved almost twice as fast as voluntary memories •Involuntary memories tended to be specific and voluntary memories tended to be general

Pickel (1999)Proposed two possible reasons why weapons draw more attention:

•It poses a threat •It is unexpected

The Classical View

•Items are grouped into categories if they have certain critical features •Possession of these critical features is necessary and sufficient for membership in the category

Concepts in the Spreading Activation Model

•Knowledge represented as concept nodes linked in an associative network. •Your knowledge regarding a concept is determined by what it is linked to •category membership (canary to bird) •property to concept (yellow to canary) •more subtle relationships (i.e., canary and cat)

Events later in life show a standard forgetting function due to

•Lack of rehearsal •Interference •Similarity of events; lack of distinctiveness •Transition from memories to fact

Encoding Variability view

•Locus of effect is at retrieval •Massed repetition leads to little variability in the encoded memory representations •Results in representations that will be difficult to locate in a memory search

Studies that find high accuracy (consistency) in flashbulb memory

•Many tested memory for the first time a week after the event •Memory may have already changed by that point

Gauthier and Tarr (2002)

•Maybe as we develop expertise with an object there is a shift from viewpoint dependence to invariance? •Participants given 7 hours of practice in learning to identify "Greebles. •Task: Two Greebles presented sequentially • decide if they are the same or different "individual"

Tulving (1962) results (organization)

•Measure of organization: Recall order of items on first two trials (grouping of items) •On the first two trials, participants grouped items into idiosyncratic categories (subjective organization) •Participants who did more of this recalled more than those who did not

Autobiographical Memory

•Memory for a specific life experience •Episodic memory

Aging and Retrieval

•Memory performance declines with age •Age-related deficits are larger to the extent that the memory test requires self-initiated retrieval •The degree to which an individual must rely on their own processing to drive retrieval •Explicit retrospective memory tests •Free recall is high in self-initiation •Recognition is low in self-initiation •Therefore age-related deficits are larger on recall than recognition

Context Dependency Effects

•Memory should be better if context at retrieval matches context at encoding •Context provides retrieval cues to access the in information

Foerdeand Poldrack (2009) identified numerous types of skill learning:

•Motor skill learning •Sequence learning •Mirror tracing •Perceptual skill learning •Mirror reading

different ways of determining category membership

•Natural Kinds (e.g., fruit) •Artifacts (e.g., weapons) •Ad hoc categories (e.g., things you'd save in a fire) •Metaphorical concept (e.g., emotional prison)

problems with Brain Development in the emergence of autobiographical memory

•Neural substrates developed by age 2 •Paradox of childhood amnesia—young children have elaborate memories for previous events in their life

Craik and Watkins (1973) results

•No difference in final recall as a function of length of time rehearsed •2 repetitions as good as 12 repetitions

Bredahl, Clay, Ferrie, Groves, McDorman, and Dark (1998) results

•No main effect of encoding environment •But . . . •Exams are conducted in a quiet (retrieval) environment •Will do better if studying (encoding) environment is also quiet

Practical Implications

•No need to worry about taking a test in a different room from which you study •Studies of context-dependency effects typically involve memory for unrelated items •Not true of your college exams •Context is outshined by retrieval cues on the exam (e.g., essay prompt) and cues created by meaningful processing

Spreading Activation Model

•Nodes represent concepts •Links between nodes represent associations •Encountering/thinking of a concept: •Activates a node •Activation then spreads to related concepts •Activation decreases with distance •Explains the typicality effect •Predicts semantic priming

typicality effect

•Not all members of a category are "equal" •Some are better members of a category

artifacts

•Objects or conventions designed by humans to serve particular functions •Similarity of function

Davenport and Potter (2004): Results (object and background)

•Objects were more easily recognized than backgrounds •Consistent scenes and objects were better recognized than inconsistent ones

Activation mode

•Observer: high levels of cognitive anxiety (worry) and physiological arousal •Consequence: memory for all details suffer

Arousal mode

•Observer: physiologically relaxed •Consequence: novel, surprising and informative events receive most attention

Communicative Function of Autobiographical Memory

•Offer a greater sense of intimacy and connection when communicating with others •Sharing of history promotes empathy

predictions of Wang (2006) compared recall of early childhood memories in Tiawanese adults and US adults

•Offset of childhood amnesia -U.S. earlier than Taiwanese •Content of memories -U.S. would feature personal autonomy -Tiawanese would focus on group or social relationships

Usher and Neisser (1993) results (child memory)

•Offset of childhood amnesia depended on type of event --memories for the birth of a sibling and hospitalization went further back than memories for a death or a family move

TV priority

•Often event is seen repeatedly on TV •Schema for hearing about disaster news often includes having watched TV coverage

A sense of self refers to knowledge that:

•One is a person with unique and recognizable characteristics •One thinks and knows things about the world, and can serve as a causal agent

Palmer, Rosch, and Chase (1981) results

•One set of subjects rated how good or representative different views of objects were • Had clear preferences • Canonical view - most representative •A different set of subjects recognize the objects from different views • Faster and more accurate object recognition for canonical views than noncanonical views

Bower et al. (1969): Results (organization)

•Organized Condition •Recalled 90% of items by the 2nd trial •Recalled 100% on the last two trials •Unorganized Condition •Recall never exceeded 70%, even on the 4th trial •Organization of material aided memory performance

Winninghamet al. (2000): Memory and the verdict of the O.J. Simpson trial.

•People's memories changed considerably in the first few days after the acquittal •Became consistent thereafter

Memory Systems View

•Performance on explicit memory tests rely on the declarative memory (specifically episodic) system •Performance on implicit memory tests rely on the procedural memory system •Because these two types of LTM are mediated by different neurological underpinnings, these tests are affected by different variables

Transfer-Appropriate Processing

•Places emphasis on encoding-retrieval interaction •No encoding task is inherently better than any other at producing successful retrieval •Success depends upon the match between type of encoding and nature of retrieval task •Encoding processes should match processes to be engaged at retrieval •Encoding processes must transferto retrieval processes

Sequential over simultaneous advantage depends on:

•Position of suspects in lineup •Quality of viewing conditions in which suspect was seen

Rips (1989)

•Presented participants with a story of a bird-like creature called a sorp •Conditions -Accidental condition --Catastrophic accident occurs and sorpnow looks more like an insect, but still acts like a bird -Essence condition --Catastrophic accident occurs and sorpnow looks more like an insect AND acts like an insect --Given a new name—doon -Control --Only read story of bird-like sorps •How would the transformations affect categorization •Two categorization tasks: •Rate how well the sorpfit into the category of "bird" •Rate the similarity of sorpand a "bird"

Misidentifications in lineups are due to:

•Pressure-Witnesses feel pressured to pick someone •Preference-If unsure, witness forms a "preference" for a person who looks more like the perpetrator than the others

Usher and Neisser (1993)

•Procedure •Recalled critical events that were documented and could be verified by relatives and records •Hospitalization •Sibling birth •Family move •Family death

Relational Processing (impose organization):

•Processing items in terms of relationship to other items (organization) •Use when TBR information lacks organization

Individual Item Processing (look for distinctiveness):

•Processing items in terms of their individual characteristics (distinctiveness) •Use when TBR information is organized

strengths of the prototype approach

•Prototype view is more flexible than the classical approach •Probabilistic nature of categories accounts for graded structure and fuzzy boundaries •Typical members = high family resemblance

Posner, Goldsmith, and Welton(1967) (triangle)

•Prototypes are abstracted through repeated experience with category members •Extract out "average" category member --prototype •Presented dot patterns to participants •All patterns statistically generated from a (never presented) prototype •Recognition test (have you seen this before?) •Old and new dot patterns •Critical item: prototype

Nickerson and Adams (1979) (penny)

•Recall: 50% head facing wrong way •Recognition: > 50% couldn't identify

Brown and Kulik(1977) Asked people about assassination of JFK

•Received very detailed -rich recollections •Very confident in •Where they were •what they were doing •who they were with •Proposed special mechanism •Emotionally charged info •Important --Biological/Survival relevance •Utilizes special storage mechanism •Special neural mechanism "prints" details of such events permanently in the memory system

Rehearsal plays an important role in establishing flashbulb memories

•Recount or talk about with others •Information can become distorted in process

Roediger and Karpicke (2006): Results (SSSS vs STTT)

•Repeated studying led to better performance in the short-term •Being tested on the material led to better performance in the long-term

Recognizing faces

•Requires second-order relational information • Comparison of first-order relational information to a "typical" face • Eyes above nose, nose above mouth •Distance or proportion judgments •Judged relative to "average face"

results of Robinson (1980) Galton-Crovitzcue word technique with emotion and non-emotion words

•Retrieval times were shorter for emotional experiences than nonemotionalexperiences •Implies that emotional experiences have heightened accessibility in memory

Tulvingand Pearlstone(1966)

•Showed that all memory failures are not failures to encode •Encoding phase: -Categorized lists that contained two target words from each of 24 categories ("Type of Spice: garlic, parsley") •Retrieval phase: -Free recall followed by cued recall

Misinformation effect is an example of:

•Sin of suggestibility-Influenced by misinformation suggested by others •Sin of misattribution-Misattributes misinformation to original event •Retroactive interference-Misinformation works backward in time to interfere with memory for original event

Sharot, Delgado, and Phelps (2004) conclusions

•Source of subjective sense of remembering is the amygdala • (Memory) function of amygdala is to boost confidence • But this confidence far outweighs the boost in objective detail and quality of the memory

Cepeda, Vuhl, Rohrer, Wixted(2008) results

•Spacing repetitions (Study Interval) helped to a point, after which recall declined with increased spacing •Memory declined as retention interval increased •As the retention interval increased, optimal recall occurred at increasingly longer study intervals

Bower, Clark, Lesgold, and Winzenz (1969)

•Stimuli •4 different lists of words •Each list contained words from a different category •Conditions •Organized •Saw words organized into taxonomic categories •Unorganized •Saw words into a random arrangement •Memory was tested with multitrialfree recall •Learn the list—recall •Learn-recall (i.e., a trial) was repeated 4 times

example of priming

•Studied 10 words •Later tested with 20 word fragments (10 studied and 10 not studied) •Of the 10 studied ones you complete 7 (70%) •Of the 10 unstudied ones you complete 2 (20%) •Priming is 50%

Loftus, Miller, & Burns (1978)

•Subjects are shown a set of 30 slides •Pedestrian getting hit •One of the slides, either A or B •Stop sign or yield sign •Subjects answered a series of 20 questions •Split into two groups •Experimental group: •Did another car pass the red Datsun while it was at the yield (stop) sign? (wording opposite of picture they actually saw) •Control group: •Did another car pass the red Datsun while it was stopped at the intersection •20 minute filler task

Roediger and Karpicke (2006)

•Subjects read a scientific text passage •Procedure •Phase 1: •Four 5-minute periods •Study or be tested on material •Retention Interval •Amount of time between the first phase of the experiment and the final testing phase •5 minutes after period 4 •One week after period 4 •Phase 2: Final recall test

lifetime periods

•Substantial periods of life •Within a lifetime period, autobiographical knowledge is organized into thematic categories

Categories/Concepts exist at different levels

•Superordinate Level •Basic Level •Subordinate Level

examples of category levels

•Superordinate Level (e.g., animal) •Basic Level (e.g., bird) •Subordinate Level (e.g., blue-fairy wren)

Simultaneous lineup

•Suspects presented at same time •Witness must choose one •Relative judgment strategy: which one most resembles the culprit the witness saw

Sequential lineup

•Suspects presented one at a time •Witness must decide if each one is the culprit or not •Absolute judgment strategy: does this one match the culprit the witness saw

Talaricoand Rubin (2003): Tested students' memories of 9/11 and another recent daily event 1 day after

•The vividness of 9/11 memories remained very high after 224 days •However, the flashbulb memory showed no more lack of change or consistency than the everyday memory

elaborative rehearsal relies on two types of processing

•Thinking about the meaning of the to-be-remembered (TBR) information •Forming associations between TBR information and other information already stored in LTM

Janssen and Murre(2008)

•Used internet to collect autobiographical memories to 10 cue words from 3500 people age 16-75 •Memories did not have to be special, just personal •Interested in: •Lifespan distribution of memories •Specific characteristics of memories •Role of the following cognitive factors in what was remembered: •Novelty •Emotionality •Valence (positive or negative) •Importance

Davenport and Potter (2004) Investigated the interactive effect of scenes and objects in recognition

•Used photographs of familiar scenes • Presented each scene briefly followed by a mask •Task • Identify either the object in the foreground or the background scene •Varied the relationship between scene and object: • Consistent (e.g., quarterback on a football field) • Inconsistent (e.g., quarterback in a church)

Davis et al. (2008)

•Video of a staged crime involving a perpetrator and 2 innocent bystanders •One of the innocent bystanders (continuous innocent) enters an aisle and looks at products •In middle of the aisle passes behind a large stack of napkin boxes •Perpetrator emerges from behind the boxes and continues down the aisle and steals a bottle of wine •Switches to produce section where other innocent bystander (discontinuous innocent) is looking at oranges

Image-Based (IB) Approach

•Viewpoint dependent models •Objects are recognized by comparing retinal image with a stored replica (i.e., template) • Pattern match between template and retinal image • Exact match must be found

Multhaup, Johnson, and Tetirick (2005) results

•Wane of childhood amnesia •fits with social-cognitive view

Problems with the Classical View

•What are the critical features? •Model can't account for: •Graded structure of categories •"apple" is a "better" example of fruit than "kiwi" •Fuzzy boundaries •Distinctions between categories are not absolute •Example: Is bowling a sport or a game?

Concerned with the self

•What it may become in the future •Individual's current goals

results on the bump

•When close in age to the bump, everyday events enjoy an advantage (peak functioning) •As we age novel, emotional, and important events are rehearsed (cognitive explanation) and enjoy an advantage

Casasanto and Dijkstra(2010) (marbles) prediction

•When moving marbles up, participants would recall more positive memories •When moving marbles down, participants would recall more negative memories

types of implicit memory tests

•Word stem completion (gar__) •Word fragment completion (ga_ l _ c)

In Concepts in the Spreading Activation Model, your knowledge regarding a concept is determined by what it is linked to:

•category membership (canary to bird) •property to concept (yellow to canary) •more subtle relationships (i.e., canary and cat)

In comparison to non-depressed, depressed are:

•fasterat retrieving negative memories •slowerat retrieving positive memories

Depressed individuals are more likely to retrieve negative memories for:

•traditional lab materials (e.g., words and stories) •autobiographical memory experiences


Ensembles d'études connexes

Chapter 17 Eye and Ear Diseases/ Disorders

View Set

CH 30: Management of Patients with Hematologic Neoplasms

View Set

NU372 Week 2 EAQ Evolve Elsevier: Immunity (Custom Quiz)

View Set

Personal Finance Final Exam Quiz

View Set

Section 6 - Dangerous Driving Behaviors

View Set

Super Bowl Commercials Lean On Celebrities

View Set