Cognitive Psychology exam 3 new
Give an example of the blending of prototypes and exemplars in a sentense
"we know generally what cats are (prototype) but we know specifically our own cat the best (exemplar)"
Name and describe the experimental result that showed naming?
(Mervis et al., 1976) High prototypical items are named first when people list examples of a category
Name and describe the experimental result that showed priming?
(Rosch, 1975b) Faster same - different color judgement for high prototypical items
Name and describe the experimental result that showed family resemblance?
(Rosh 1975) Higher ratings for high prototypical items when people rate how "good" a member of the category is (scale from 1 to 7)
Name and describe the experimental result that showed typicality?
(Smith et al., 1974) Faster reaction time to statements like "A______is a bird" for high prototypical items (like robin) than for low prototypical items (like ostrich)
Neuropsychological damage to a visual process
(e.g., color, object identification, location, visual neglect) produces the same problems in imagery as in perception
Can Images Be Studied Scientifically? -Bottom line Imagery impacts memory
-Introspectionists said, "Yes" -Behaviorists said, "No" -observable behavior -Alan Paivio (1971) said, "Let's try this again" -Duel-coding (or "conceptual peg") hypothesis -Concrete vs. abstract words in paired-associate learning -Two codes are better than one (1. Verbal and Imagery)
Mental Rotation
-Shepard & Metzler (1971) examined dynamic (not static) imagery -Mental chronometry: measure reaction time to make same/different judgments for shapes that are at different orientations (mental rotation task) -Strong linear relation between reaction time and degree of rotation -The more you have to mentally rotate an image the longer it takes you to make a decision about it
Two smallest units of language
-phonemes, which refer to sounds. -morphemes, which refer to meanings.
The Four major concerns of psycholinguistics;
1. Comprehension - How do people understand spoken language? 2. Speech production - How do people produce language, included both mental and physical processes. 3. Representation - How is language represented in the mind? 4. Acquisition - How do people learn language?
Relationships Between Categories: Semantic Networks
1. Hierarchical Model (Collins and Quillian) -Nodes (concepts) are connected through links (relations) -Concepts organized hierarchically, show property inheritance -Cognitive Economy: Stored shared properties just once at a higher-level node
The topographic man
1. Research on the topographic map on the visual cortex indicates that looking at a small object causes activity in the back of the visual cortex, and looking at larger objects causes activity to spread toward the front of the visual cortex. 2. Subjects were then instructed to create small, medium, and large visual images while they were in a brain scanner. The result, is that when subject created small visual images, activity was centered near the back of the brain, but as the size of the mental image increased, activation moved toward the front of the visual cortex, just as it does for perception *Thus, both imagery and perception result in topographically organized brain activation
Is imagery Spatial or Propositional?
1. Spatial (Correct): Representation has the same structure as the thing represented -Retain properties of images 2. Propositional: Representations uses symbols or sentences; non-spatial -Propositions take the form or relation (argument)
Input Units Hidden Units Output Units
1. Units in a connectionist network that are activated by stimulation from the enviornment 2. Units in a connectionist network that are located between input units and output units. 3. Units in a connectionist network that contain the final output of the network. *A stimulus presented to the input units is represented by the pattern of activity that is distributed across other units.
Evidence for Spatial Relationships: Brain Imagining Studies
1. fMRI study of visual areas activated by perceptions and visual images (Le Bihan) *Activity in the in the striate cortex increased both when a personed observed presentations of actual visual stimuli (perception) and when the person was imagining this stimulus (imagery) 2. fMRI studies of mental images of different sizes (kasslyn, 1993, 1995) -larger images activated more early visual areas in occipital lope - just like perception -The topographic map refers to the fact that specific locations on a visual stimulus cause activity at specific locations in the visual cortex and that points next to each other on the stimulus cause activity at locations next to each other on the cortex
What are the 4 effects of prototypicality? (behavior based)
1.) Family Resemblance 2.) Typicality 3.) Naming 4.) Priming
Name the 3 levels of categories that Rosch researched?
1.) superordinate level (GLOBAL LEVEL) 2.) basic level 3.) subordinate level (SPECIFIC LEVEL)
How are objects placed into categories?
1.Definitonal Approach: Does an object have the defining features of the category -This approach has been proven to be wrong 2. Prototype Approach: Does an object resemble a "typical" memory of the category? - Evidence: Effects of Protypicality 1. Fruit example 2. Sentence verification technique (RT) shows typicality effect -higher reaction time for apple than a pomegranate 3. Priming - Color Rosch 3. Exemplar Approach: Does an object resemble one or more examples of the category
1) Prediction 2) Reasoning 3) Communication
3 Functions of Concepts
Which of the following reaction time data sets illustrates the typicality effect for the bird category, given the following three trials?
583: 653: 518 msec
Chronometric Studies
A "time-measuring" study; a study that measures the amount of time a task takes
Phrase Structure Rules
A constraint that governs the pattern of branching in a phrase structure; govern what the constituents must be for any syntactic element of a sentence
phrase-structure rule
A constraint that governs the pattern of branching in a phrase-structure tree.
Anomia
A disruption of language abilities, usually resulting from specific brain damage, in which the individual loses the ability to name objects, including highly familiar objects.
fluent aphasia
A disruption of language, caused by brain damage, in which afflicted individuals are able to produce speech but the speech is not meaningful, and the individuals are not able to understand what is said to them.
Cognitive Economy
A feature of some semantic network models in which properties of a category that are shared by many members of a category are store at a higher-level node in the network. For example, the property "can fly" would be stored at the node for "bird" rather than at the node for "canary"
In evaluating retrieval rates for category information for a concept, Collins and Quillian's semantic network approach would predict the slowest reaction times for which of the following statements using a sentence verification technique?
A field sparrow is an animal.
specific language impairment (SLI)
A genetically rooted syndrome in which individuals seem to have normal intelligence but problems in learning the rules of language.
minimal attachment
A heuristic used in sentence perception. The listener or reader proceeds through the sentence seeking the simplest possible phrase structure that will accommodate the words heard so far.
Basic-Level Categorization
A level of categorization hypothesized as the "natural" and most informative level, neither too specific nor too general (ex: tend to use "chair" rather than generally "furniture" or specifically "armchair")
Concepts
A mental representation of a class or individual. Also, the meaning ob objects, events, and abstract ideas. An example of a concept would be the way a person mentally represents "cat" or "house"
The Hub and Spoke Model
A model of semantic knowledge that proposes that areas of the brain that are associated with different functions are connected to the anterior temporal lobe, which integrates information from these areas.
Connectionism
A network model of mental operation that proposes that concepts are represented in networks that are modeled after neural networks. This approach to describing the mental representation of concepts is also called the parallel distributed processing approach (PDP)
phonemic restoration effect
A pattern in which people "hear" phonemes that actually are not presented but that are highly likely in that context. Thus, if one is presented with the word "legislature" but with the [s] sound replaced by a cough, one is likely to hear the [s] sound anyhow.
Lexical Decision Task
A procedure in which a person is asked to decide as quickly as possible whether a particular stimulus is a word or non word.
Back Propagation
A process by which learning can occur in a connectionist network., in which an error signal is transmitted backward through the network. This backward transmitted error signal provides the information needed to adjust the weights in the network to achieve the correct output signal for a stimulus.
________ is a "typical" or "average" member of a category.
A prototype
Category-Specific Memory Impairment
A result of brain damage in which the patient has trouble recognizing objects in a specific category.
garden-path sentence
A sentence that initially leads the reader to one understanding of how the sentence's words are related, but that then requires a change in this understanding in order to comprehend the sentence.
Garden-Path Sentences
A sentence that initially suggests an interpretation that turns out to be wrong
Sentence
A sequence of words that conforms to the rules of syntax (and so has the right constituents in the right sequence).
Prototype
A standard used in categorization that is formed by averaging that category members a person has encountered in the past.
Sentence Verification Technique
A technique in which the participant is asked to indicated whether a particular sentence is true or false. For example, sentences like "An apple is a fruit" have been used in studies on categorization.
Pragmatics
A term referring to knowledge of how language is ordinarily used, knowledge (for example) that tells most English speakers that "Can you pass me the salt?" is actually a request for the salt, not an inquiry about someone's arm strength.
Coarticulation
A trait of speech production in which the way a sound is produced is altered slightly by the immediately previous and immediately following sounds. Because of this "overlap" in speech production, the acoustic properties of each speech sound vary according to the context in which that sound appears.
Indirect Route
Access to lexicon in which word knowledge is activated from sounding it out or matching sound to knowledge
Direct Route
Access to lexicon in which word knowledge is activated from spelling
Spreading Activation
Activity that spreads out along any link in a semantic network that is connected to an activated node.
The Lexicon
All the various knowledge about words and how to activate word knowledge; can be through direct or indirect route
Semantic Category Approach
An approach to describing how semantic information is represented in the brain that proposes that there are specific neural circuits for some specific categories.
Connectionist Networks/Connectionism
An approach to theorizing about the mind that relies on parallel distributed processing among elements that provide a distributed representation of the information being considered
Semantic Network Approach
An approach to understanding how concepts are organized in the mind that proposes that concepts are arranged in networks.
Wernicke's area
An area usually in the left frontal lobe of the brain; damage here typically causes fluent aphasia.
Action Compatibility Effect
An effect in which understanding a sentence that implies a movement away from yourself happens more quickly if the movement to reach for the response button is also moving away from yourself
over-regularization error
An error in which one perceives or remembers a word or event as being closer to the "norm" than it really is.
Image-Scanning Procedure
An experimental procedure in which participants are asked to form a specific mental image and then are asked to scan with their "mind's eye" from one point in the image to another; measures visual imagery
Sentence Verification Task
An experimental procedure used for studying memory in which participants are given sample sentences and must respond as quickly as possible whether the sentence is true or false (ex: cats are animals)
Production Task
An experimental procedure used in studying concepts in which the person is asked to name as many examples as possible (ex: name as many fruits as possible)
Semantic Bootstrapping
An important process in language learning in which a person uses knowledge of semantic relationships as a basis for figuring out the syntax of the language
semantic bootstrapping
An important process in language learning in which someone (usually a child) uses knowledge of semantic relationships as a basis for figuring out the syntax of the language.
Aphasia
An inability to comprehend and formulate language because of damage to specific brain regions
Exemplar
An instance of a category
Percept
An internal representation of the world that results from perceiving; considered organized depictions
Crowding
Animals tend to share many properties, such as eyes, legs, and the ability to move. This is relevant to the multiple-factor approach to the representation of concepts in the brain.
Nonfluent Aphasia
Aphasia that involves adequate verbal comprehension with slow, labored speech and poor articulation
Fluent Aphasia
Aphasia that involves poor comprehension or processing meanings of words and sentences; able to talk freely, but conveys little information ("word salad")
Broca's Area
Area of the brain located near the primary motor cortex that is associated with non-fluent aphasia
Wernicke's Area
Area of the brain that is located posterior to the primary auditory cortex and receives input from it; associated with fluent aphasia
Hierarchical Model
As applied to knowledge representation, a model that consists of levels arranged so that more specific concepts, such as a canary or salmon, are at the bottom and more general concepts, such as bird, fish, or animal, are at higher levels
Cheves Perky
Asked her subjects to "project" visual images of common objects onto a screen, and then to describe these images. Unbeknowst to the subject, Perky was back-projecting a very dim image of this object onto the screen. Therefore, The subjects descriptions of their images matched the images that Perky was projecting. *Not one of Perky's 24 subjects noticed that there was an actual picture on the screen. They had mistaken an actual picture for a mental image.
Morphemes
Basic units of meaning (ex: test vs. post-test or enter vs. re-enter)
Phonemes
Basic units of sound in spoken language (ex: "bat" and "cat" differ by one)
Which of the following statements is NOT cited in your text as a reason why categories are useful?
Categories provide definitions of groups of related objects.
Theory-Based View
Concept represented mentally in terms of our theory about them by considering certain important diagnostic features
Classical View
Concept represented mentally in which there are clear boundaries and features that something has (ex: a bachelor is male, human, and adult); has necessary and sufficient attributes
Probabilistic View
Concept represented mentally in which there are varying levels of category membership; having certain features makes it more likely that an instance belongs to a category
Advantages of the Connectionist Approach
Concepts are represented by distributed network activity Connection weights can be excitatory or inhibitory Networks can be trained! Back propagation sends error signals backward through the network, which adjusts connection weights After many repetitions, network can "learn" and "generalize"! Networks show graceful degradation
- Image-Rotation - Scanning - Mainly Spatial Representations
Congenitally blind subjects perform the same as sighted subjects on these imagery tasks
Semantic Somatotpoy
Correspondence between words related to specific parts of the body and the location of brain activity associated with that part of the body.
Demand Character
Cues within an experiment that signal to the participant how he or she is "supposed to" respond
Parietal Lobe
Damage to this part of the brain has a parallel effect in imagery making it difficult to describe relative locations of landmarks, but can describe objects, faces, and animals
Temporal Lobe
Damage to this part of the brain has a parallel effect in imagery making it difficult to report color or describe faces, objects, and animals, but can describe relative locations and landmarks
Graceful Degradation
Disruption of performance due to damage to a system that occurs only gradually as parts of the system are damaged. This occurs in some cases of brain damage and also when parts of a connectionist network are damaged.
Overregularization Errors
Error in which a person perceives or remembers a word or event as being closer to the norm than it really is (ex: reading misspelled words correctly)
Language Bias
Evidence supporting this shows that Japanese and Chinese have consistent names for numbers while English has irregular names and Asian children more likely use grouped cubes to represent numbers
Which approach to categorization can more easily take into account atypical cases such as flightless birds?
Exemplar
Mental imagery involves
Experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input.
Sensory-functional (S-F) hypothesis
Explanation oh how semantic information is represented in the brain that stated that the ability to differentiate living things are artifacts depends on one system that distinguishes sensory attributes and another system that distinguishes function.
Self-Report Data
Form of evidence in which the person is asked directly about his or her own thoughts or experiences
Amir Amedi
Found that when subjects were using visual imagery, some areas associated with non-visual stimuli, such as hearing and touch, were deactivated or their action was decreased. This may be because visual images are more fragile than real perception and this deactivation helps quiet down irrelevant activity that might interfere with the mental image.
Finke and Pinker
Four dot display presentation experiment. They argue that because their subjects wouldn't have had time to memorize the distances between the arrow and the dot before making their judgements, it is unlikely that they used tacit knowledge about how long it should take to get from one point to another.
Paivio (1963) proposed the conceptual peg hypothesis. His work suggests which of the following would be most difficult to remember?
Freedom
Category
Group of things that have something in common
Category
Groups of objects that belong together because they belong to the same class of objects, such as "houses," "furniture," or "schools"
B.F Skinner's behaviorist view on language
He published a book called "Verbal Behavior" which proposed that language is learned through reinforcement.
Noam Chomsky's view on language
He published a book in the same year as B.F Skinner, titled "Syntactic Structures" which proposed that human language is encoded in our genes. He noted that the underlying basis of all language is similar. His most persuasive arguments against B.F's behaviorist view on language is that as children learn language, they produce sentences they have never heard, and have never been reinforced. Example of this is "I hate you, Mommy"
Giorgio Ganis
His results show activation at three different locations in the brain. 1. Perception and imagery both activate the same areas in the frontal lobe 2. Perception and imagery both activate the same areas in the temporal and parietal lobes of the brain 3. Perception activates more of the brain in the occipital lobe than imagery
- Not universal - Exist irrespective of the color category - Categorical perception
How does language relate to color perception?
Orthography
How the word is spelled (if the person is literate); you know this when you know a word
What are the two structures of language?
I. Hierarchical II. governed by rules
Conclusions from the imagery debate
Imagery and perception have many features in common, but there are also differences between them.
How does visual imagery work?
Imagery happens in working memory -Visuospatial sketch pad -Image maintenance & inspection -Central Executive -Image transformation *Baddeley's working memory model
- They were very orderly - Showed that imagery could be studied objectively
Implications for Mental Rotation Task Findings
Basic Level
In Rosch's categorization scheme, the level below the global level (e.g. "table" or "chair") for the global category above which much information is lost and below which little is chained
Exemplars
In categorization, members of a category that a person has experienced in the past
Connection Weight
In connectionist models, a connection weight determines the degree to which signals sent from one unit either increase or decrease the activity of the next unit.
Which approach works better in the description of how people use categories: Prototypes or exemplars?
It has been proposed that as we initially learn about a category, we may average exemplars into a prototype; then later in learning, some of the exemplar information becomes stronger. Research shows that the exemplar approach may work better for small categories and the prototype approach may work best for larger categories
Syntax
Key to the comprehension of sentences
Conceptual Knowledge
Knowledge that enables people to recognize objects and events and to make inferences about their properties.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
Kosslyn and coworkers presented transcranial magnetic stimulation to the visual cortex while subjects were carrying out either a perception task or an imagery task. *The results showed that stimulation caused subjects to respond more slowly, and that Kosslyn concluded that the brain activation that occurs in response to imagery is not an epiphenomenon and that brain activity in the visual cortex plays a casual role in both perception and imagery
Imagery Neurons
Kreiman and coworkers found neurons that responded to some objects but not others. -For example, the records show the response of a neuron that responded to a picture of a baseball but did not respond to a picture of a face. The neuron fired in the same way when the person closed his or her eyes and imagined a baseball (good firing) or a face (no firing)
What is language?
Language is a system of communication using sound or symbols that enables us to express out feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences.
Broca's area
Lesions here are associated with Broca's aphasia (non-fluent aphasia or expressive aphasia) - adequate verbal comprehension, slow labored speech, telegraphic speech
Kosslyn concluded that the image field is limited in size. This conclusion was drawn from the _____ experiment.
Mental Walk
Using imagery to improve memory
Method of Loci: A method for remembering things in which the things to be remembered are placed at different locations in a mental image of a spatial layout. Pegword Technique: A method for remembering things in which the things to be remembered are associated with concrete words.
Distributed Representations
Mode of representing ideas or contents in which there is no one node representing the content and no one place where it is stored; content is represented via a pattern of simultaneous activity across many nodes
Does the "definitional approach" work for sorting objects? what is the "definitional approach to categorization?
NO. Cognitive psychologists do not use this approach. It means that we can decide if something is a member of a category by determining whether it meets the definition of the category. This definition works well for geometrical objects but not natural objects and human made objects
Are basic - level categories special
Naming things demonstration -The first name you come up with is basic-level categories 1. Global (Furniture) 2. Basic (Table) -Basic categories appear to be psychologically privileged -Basic gives just enough information: For each person your basic names will be influenced by experience and expertise 3. Specific (Kitchen Taste)
Piazza del Duomo demonstration
Neglect 1/2 of visual images
Semantic Networks
Network that assumes that information is represented by symbols in our mind
Mirror Neurons
Neurons in the premotor cortex, originally discovered in the monkey, that respond both when a monkey observes someone else (usually the experiment) carrying out an action and when the monkey itself carries out the action. There is also evidence for mirror neurons in humans.
Voicing
One of the properties that distinguishes different categories of speech sounds
Voicing
One of the properties that distinguishes different categories of speech sounds.
Hierarchical Organization
Organization of categories in which larger, more general categories are divided into smaller, more specific categories. These categories can, in turn, be divided into even more specific categories to create a number of levels.
Evidence for Spatial Relationships
Overlap between Imagery & Perception -If the mechanisms for visual perception are also used for mental imagery, then predict: -Images should 'act-like' real-world pictures -Images with visual processing ..Right visual cortex may be particularly important for imagery
Which of the following is a connectionist model proposing that concepts are represented by activity that is spread across a network?
Parallel distributed processing theory
Temporal Lobe
Part of the brain that assists with attention and further processing of imagery; shape, color, texture, etc.
Parietal Lobe
Part of the brain that assists with attention and further processing of imagery; spatial properties, location, size, rotation, etc.
Area V1
Part of the brain that is activated during visualization and imagery tasks; important for visual perception and mental imagery
Broca's aphasia
Patients who have damage to the broca's area, with symptoms such as slow, labored, ungrammatical speech.
Prosody
Pattern of pauses and pitch changes that characterize speech production; can be used to emphasize elements of a spoken sentence
Binocular Rivalry
Pattern that arises when the input to one eye cannot be integrated with the input to the other eye
Naming
People are more likely to list some objects than others when asked to name objects in a category. -Experimental Result: -High-prototypical items are name first when people list examples of a category (Mervis)
Tacit Knowledge Explanation
People know that in the real world it takes longer to travel longer distances, so they simulate this results in Kosslyn's experiment. This is called tacit knowledge because it states that subjects unconsciously use knowledge about the world in making their judgements.
Typicality Effect
People react rapidly to members of a category that are "typical" of the category. -Experimental Result: -Faster reaction time to statements like "A_is a bird" for high-prototypical items (like robin) than for low prototypical items (like ostrich) (Smith)
95% of right-handed people and 60% of left-handed people
Percent of people that have language in the left hemisphere of the brain
Perception and Imagery
Perception and Imagery lines up perfectly in the first and second thirds of the brain. Not in the third part of the brain
Evidence for Spatial Relationships: Neuropsychological Case Studies
Perceptual problems are accompanied by problems with imagery -Damage to the parietal lobes can cause unilateral neglect -They ignore/neglect the left half of their visual field -Will only draw half of a flower or clock *It is not blindness
Place of Articulation
Position at which a speaker momentarily obstructs the flow of air out of the lungs to produce a speech sound (ex: the tongue briefly touches the roof of the mouth during the "d" sound)
Wernicke's area
Posterior to primary auditory cortex, receives input from primary auditory cortex, involved in comprehension of speech, important for processing meanings of words & sentences
Priming
Presentation of one stimulus affects responses to a stimulus that follows. -Experimental Result: -Faster same-different color judgments for high prototypical items (Rosch) Conceptual/semantic priming due to spreading activation
Exemplar Theory
Probabilistic view that a conceptual category is represented by memory of all different examples you've seen
Prototype Theory
Probabilistic view that we categorize items by comparing it to our idea of what is typical for a certain category
Not all concepts can be defined clearly by necessary and sufficient features
Problem with Classical View
Not all dimensions count as a relevant feature for similarity (ex: plum vs. lawn mower both weigh less than 1000 pounds and both cannot hear)
Problem with probabilistic view and similarity
Mental Rotation
Process that participants seem to use in comparing one imagined form to another; to make the comparison, participants rotate the image using imagery
Speech Segmentation
Process through which a stream of speech is "sliced" into its constituent words and into the constituent phonemes
Parsing
Process through which an input is divided into its appropriate elements (ex: dividing the stream of incoming speech into its constituent words)
- Prosody (rhythmic, musical aspects of speech) - Interpret emotional content
Processes that occur in the right (non-dominant) hemisphere of the brain
Embodied Approach
Proposal that our knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when we interact with an object.
Which approach to categorization involves forming a standard representation based on an average of category members that a person has encountered in the past?
Prototype
Acquired Dyslexia
Reading problem caused by brain damage; consists of two types
Exemplar-Based Reasoning
Reasoning that draws on knowledge about specific category members rather than drawing on more general information about the overall category
Eidetic Imagery
Relatively rare capacity in which the person can retain long-lasting and detailed visual images of scenes that can be scrutinized as if they were still physically present
Depictive Representations
Representations that are like realistic pictures of an object, so that parts of the representation correspond to parts of the object
Prescriptive/Normative Rules
Rules describing how things are supposed to be instead of how they are
prescriptive rules
Rules describing how things are supposed to be instead of how they are. Often called normative rules
Syntax
Rules that help with comprehension (ex: English is subject - verb - object)
Descriptive Rules
Rules that simply describe the regularities in a pattern of observations with no commentary on whether the pattern is proper, correct, or desirable
descriptive rules
Rules that simply describe the regularities in a pattern of observations, with no commentary on whether the pattern is "proper," "correct," or "desirable."
Parallels between visual perception and visual imagery
Same area of brain activated om fMRI studies
Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP)
See connectionism and connectionist network
Visual Imagery
Seeing in the absence of a stimulus -Picturing your childhood home
Multiple-factor Approach
Seeking to describe how concepts are represented in the brain by searching for multiple factors that determine how concepts are divided up within a category.
Where is knowledge in LTM in the hierarchy?
Semantic (meaning)
Sentence
Sequence of words that conforms to the rules of syntax and so has the right constituents in the right sequence
Leborgne (Tan) Case
Severe case of Broca's/nonfluent aphasia in which the individual could only say "tan tan" but used inflection and gestures; his intelligence, comprehension, and cognition remained intact
Patient M.G.S.
She had part of her right occipital lobe removed. Removing part of the visual cortex reduced the size of her field of view, so the horse filled up the field when she was farther away. This result supports the idea that the visual cortex is important for imagery
Martha Farah (Proposed a way out of the imagery debate)
She suggested that instead of solely relying on behavioral experiments, we should investigate how the brain responds to visual imagery. *Results of her experiment - accuracy was higher when the letter shown was the same as the one that had be imagined.
Alan Paivio
Showed that it was easier to remember concrete nouns, like truck or tree that can be imagined, than it is to remember abstract nouns, like truth or justice that are difficult to imagine. He used paired-associate learning *Proposed the conceptual peg hypothesis: concrete nouns create images that other words can hang onto
1) word order as cue 2) function words (articles and pronouns signal phrase parts)
Steps of syntax as a guide to sentence parsing
Representativeness Heuristic
Strategy that is often used in making judgements about categories; equivalent to making the assumption that the instances of a category will resemble the prototype for that category and vice versa
- Can respond to new things (generalizes) - Mimics humans in many ways - "Lesion" network - doesn't shut down, but does graceful degradation
Strengths of PDP Models
Tree Structure
Style of depiction often used to indicate hierarchical relationships, such as the relationships among the words in a phrase or sentence
Specific Language Impairment (SLI)
Syndrome in which individuals seem to have normal intelligence but experience problems in learning the rules of language
Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP)
System of handling information in which many steps happen at once and in which various aspects of the problem or task are represented only in a distributed fashion
Balance-Beam Model
Task in which learning is seen as mimicking how children learn through growing the PDP network
Rating Tasks
Task in which research participants must evaluate some item or category with reference to some dimension (ex: how typical are these birds on a scale of 1-7?)
Categorization Task
Task in which the exemplar is compared to the prototype and a small overlap leads to the typicality effect
Lexical Decision Task
Task in which you determine if a string of letters are words or not or if the two words are related or not; evidence for semantic networks
Evidence for Spatial Relationships: Mental Scanning
Task: Commit fictional map to memory (kosslyn et. al. 1978) *Scanning an image into your mind -measuring reaction time -more to scan-longer reaction time **Kosslyn determined the relationship between reaction time and distance shown. Just as in the boat experiment, it took longer to scan between greater distances on the image, a result that supports the idea that visual imagery is spatial in nature
Evidence for Spatial Relationships: Size in visual field
Task: Imagining Animals -Faster decision when image was larger (kosslyn 1978) Task: Image Walk Task -A task used in imagery experiments in which participants are asked to form a mental image of an object and to imagine that they are walking toward this mental image
Boundary Extension
Tendency for people to remember pictures as being less "zoomed in" than they actually were
Categorical Perception
Tendency to hear speech sounds merely as members of a category (ex: the category of "z" sounds)
Pragmatics
Term referring to knowledge of how language is ordinarily used (ex: "can you pass me the salt?" refers to passing the salt, not an inquiry about someone's strength)
Content Addressable
Term referring to the content of memory having a storage address
Addressing System
Term that refers to the model of knowledge being like a library in which each entity has it's own unique address
Mental Imagery
The ability to recreate the sensory world in the absence of physical stimuli, also occurs in sense other than vision -Imagining tastes, smells, and tactile experiences
Performance
The actual behavior someone produces (including the errors he or she makes) under ordinary circumstances.
Referent
The actual object, action, or event in the world that a word refers to.
Exemplar Approach in Categorization
The approach to categorization in which members of a category are judged against exemplars - examples of members of the category that the person has encountered in the past
Phonemes
The basic categories of sound used to convey language. For example, the words "peg" and "beg" difer. [p] in one case, [b] in the other.
Units
The circles in the connectionist Approach
Typicality
The degree to which a particular case (an object, situation, or event) is typical for it's kind
Typicality Effects
The degree to which exemplars are seen as good examples of a category
McGurk Effect
The effect in which you cannot tell the difference between different phonemes because visual cues aren't present
Generativity
The idea that one can combine and recombine basic units to create new and more-complex entities. Linguistic rules are an example and so they govern how a limited number of words can be combined and recombined to produce a vast number of sentences.
Phoneme Restoration Effect
The idea that people fill in the missing phonemes using context (ex: the *eel was on the axle = the wheel was on the axle)
Graded Membership
The idea that some members of a category are "better" members and therefore are more firmly in the category than other members
Plasticity
The idea that the brain is flexible enough so that if a child has left hemispherectomy before puberty, he can acquire language on the right side
Lateralization of Language
The idea that the dominant hemisphere is where language is; usually the left hemisphere
Embodied Cognition
The idea that thinking involves simulation of perceiving and acting and we might be using visual and motor imagery as an essential part of comprehension
New Representation of Thought
The idea that thoughts are represented in the same perceptual and motor systems as our perceptions and actions in the case of language comprehension
Definitional Approach to Categorization
The idea that we can decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether the objet meets the definition of the category.
Prototype Approach to Categorization
The idea that we decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether it is similar to a standard representation of the category - called a prototype.
Old Representation of Thought
The idea that we store ideas as abstract representations in the case of language comprehension
Idea that the classical view is wrong and more like family resemblance because all exemplars are not equal
The impact of typicality effects on the classical view
Semantics
The meaning of words and sentences (ex: turtle = green animal with hard shell)
Concept
The mental representation of a category
Superordinate Level or Global Level
The most general category level distinguished by Rosch - for example, "furniture"
Subordinate Level or Specific Level
The most specific category level distinguished by Rosch- for example, "kitchen table"
Family Resemblance
The notion that members of a category resemble one another; relies on some number of features being shared
Hierarchical
The organization of language
1) Input Nodes (question) 2) Hidden Nodes 3) Output Nodes (answer)
The pathway for "growing" a PDP (parallel distributed processing) network
Prosody
The pattern of pauses and pitch changes that characterize speech production. Can be used to emphasize elements of a spoken sentence, to highlight the sentence's intended structure, or to signal the difference between a question and an assertion.
place of articulation
The position at which a speaker momentarily obstructs the flow of air out of the lungs to produce a speech sound. For example, the [b] sound is the lips; the [d] sound is created by the tongue briefly touching the roof of the mouth.
Categorization
The process by which objects are placed in categories.
speech segmentation
The process through which a stream of speech is "sliced" into its constituent words and, within words, into the constituent phonemes.
Parsing
The process through which one divides an input into its appropriate elements-for example, divides the stream of incoming speech into its constituent words
linguistic relativity
The proposal that the language that we speak shapes our thought, because the structure and vocabulary of our language create certain ways of thinking about the world.
Linguistic Relativity
The proposal that the language we speak shapes our thought, because the structure and vocabulary of our language create certain ways of thinking about the world
Random Errors
The reason the library analogy of the model of knowledge fell down
Phonology
The sequence of phonemes that make up the word; you know this when you know a word
Morpheme
The smallest language unit that carries meaning. Psycholinguists distinguish content (the primary carriers of meaning) from function (which specify the relations among words).
Propositions
The smallest unit of knowledge that can be either true or false; often expressed via simple sentences
extralinguistic context
The social and physical setting in which a sentence is encountered; usually, cues within this setting guide the interpretation of the sentence.
Extralinguistic Context
The social and physical setting in which an utterance is encountered; cues within this setting usually guide the interpretation of the utterance
Which of the following has been used as an argument AGAINST the idea that imagery is spatial in nature?
The tacit-knowledge explanation
categorical perception
The tendency to hear speech sounds "merely" as members of a category-the category of "z" sounds, the category of "p" sounds, and so on. As a consequence, one tends to hear sounds within the category as being rather similar to each other; sounds from different categories, however, are perceived as quite different.
VOT (Voice Onset Time)
The time that elapses between the start of a speech sound and the onset of voicing
Generativity
The trait of a system that allows someone to combine and recombine basic units to create new and more complex entities (ex: linguistic rules)
Connectionist Network
The type of network proposed by the connectionist approach to the representation of concepts. Connectionist networks are based on neural networks but are not necessarily identical to them. One of the key properties of a connectionist network is that a specific category is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network. This contrasts with semantic networks, in which specific categories are represented at individual nodes. -Input units send signals to hidden units, which send signals to output units
D-structure
The underlying and abstract representation of a speaker's intended meaning in uttering a sentence.
Manner of Production
The way in which a speaker momentarily obstructs the flow of air out of the lungs to produce a speech sound (ex: air flow is stopped for a moment when producing the "t" or "b" sound)
manner of production
The way in which a speaker momentarily obstructs the flow of air out of the lungs to produce a speech sound. This obstruction can take several forms. For example, the airflow can be fully stopped for a moment, as it is in the [t] or [b] sound; or the air can continue to flow, as it does in the pronunciation of [f ] or [v].
Dual Coding Theory
Theory that imaginable materials, such as high-imagery words, will be doubly represented in memory; the word itself will be remembered with the corresponding image
Kosslyn's Theory of Perception and Imagery
Theory that there is a prime stored representation to create an image and that imagery is a pattern of activation in the visual areas and then attention selects for further processing
Transformation Studies
Theory-based view study that shows concepts thought to be natural kinds were not represented in terms of features or similarity (ex: raccoon turning into skunk vs. coffeepot turning into bird feeder)
Gelman-Markman Triad Task
Theory-based view task showing that similar tests using artifacts show more reliance on visible features, especially "natural kinds" (ex: bat vs. bird laying eggs)
Why are Phonemes and Morphemes so important?
These are the building blocks of words.
Sue-Hynn Lee
They found that activity in the visual cortex in the occipital lobe resulted in the best prediction for what their subject were perceiving, and activity in higher visual areas was the best predictor of what their subjects were imagining
Family Resemblance
Things in a category resemble each other in a number of ways. -Experimental Result: -Higher ratings for high-prototypical items when people rate how "good" a member of the category it is (Rosch)
- Children's Language Learning - Decision Making - Stroop Effect - Memory Deficits in Alzheimer's
Things that PDP models have been used to demonstrate
Coarticulation
Trait of speech production in which the way a sound is produced is altered slightly by the immediately preceding and immediately following sounds; the overlap in each sound varies according to the context in which that sound occurs
Phonological Dyslexia
Type of acquired dyslexia in which one can read irregular words (ex: yacht) and regular words, but can't read non words (ex: nust)
Surface Dyslexia
Type of acquired dyslexia in which one can read words and non words, but has trouble with irregular words (ex: might read "flood" as rhyming with "mood")
Allocentric
Type of spatial reasoning skill in which you place something in reference to it's position in space; used both by English speakers and Tzeltal (ex: north, south, east, west, uphill, downhill, etc.)
Egocentric
Type of spatial reasoning skill in which you place something in reference to yourself; used by English speakers (ex: left, right, over there, by me, etc.)
Image Files
Visual information stored in long-term memory specifying what a particular object or shape looks like; can be used as instructions for how to construct an active image of this object or shape
- Speed of deciding if example is in category - Instance generation (generate typical before atypical) - Children learn typical instances before atypical ones
What do typicality ratings predict?
- Identifying properties - To navigate and reach - Anticipate results of movements
What is imagery for?
Probabilistic models
When you learn a category, you acquire the prototype
Because it is fast - as many as 50 phonemes per second
Why is the perception of phonemes difficult?
Smith and Medlin 1981
Without concepts and categories, mental life would be chaotic.
Imageless thought debate
Wundt proposed that images were one of three basic elements of consciousness, along with sensations and feelings. This led to the Imageless thought debate: 1. (Francis Galton) Thought is possible without an image -Galton: people who had great dificulty formnig visual images were still quite capable of thinking 2. (Aristotle) Thought is impossible without an image *The behaviorists branded the study of imagery as unproductive because visual images are invisible to everyone except the person experiencing them.
Make sense of mixed results (look in notes for double dissociation)
You need attention to maintain a mental image -Visual perception necessarily involves bottom-up processing; visual imagery is necessarily top-down *The neuropsychological cases present a paradox: One one hand, there are many case that show close parallels between perceptual deficits and deficits in imagery. On the other hand, there are a number of cases in which dissociations occur, so that perception is normal but imagery is poor, or perception is normal but imagery is poor -The cases in which imagery and perception are affected differently by brain damage provide evidence for a double dissociation between imagery and perception. 1. One way to explain this (Behrmann) is that the mechanisms of perception and imagery overlap only partially, with the mechanism for perception being located at both lower and higher visual centers and the mechanism for imagery being located mainly in higher visual centers
Imagery Debate
Zenon Pylyshyn: proposed another explanation (rather than kosslyn's) a debate about whether imagery is baed on spatial mechanisms, such as those involved in perception, or on mechanisms related to language, called propositional mechanisms. -Just because we experience imagery as spatial, that doesn't mean that the underlying representation is spatial *The spatial experience of mental images, argues Pylyshyn, is an epiphenomenon: something that accompanies the real mechanism but is not actually part of the mechanism -Example: of an epiphenomenon is lights flashing as a mainframe computer carried out its calculations. The lights may indicate that something is going on inside the computer, but they don't necessarily tell is what is actually happening.
prototype
a "typical" member in a category. It is based on an average of members of a category that are commonly experienced.
Suppose we asked people to form simultaneous images of two or more animals such as a rabbit alongside an elephant. Then, we ask them basic questions about the animals. For example, we might ask if the rabbit has whiskers. Given our knowledge of imagery research, we would expect the fastest response to this question when the rabbit is imagined alongside
a bumblebee
situational model
a mental representation of what a text is about
concept
a mental representation that is used for a variety of cognitive functions, including memory, reasoning, and using and understanding language
Lexicon
a person's knowledge of what words mean, how they sound, and how they are used in relation to other words.
Wernicke's aphasia
ability to talk freely, but conveys little information, word salad, poor comprehension
Auditory imagery and motor imagery
activate auditory cortex and motor cortex respectively
exemplar
actual members of the category that a person has encountered in the past. If a person has encountered sparrows, robins, and blue jays in the past, each of these would be an exemplar for the category "birds"
Action Compatibility Effect
an effect in which understanding a sentence that implies a movement away from yourself happens more quickly if the movement to reach for the response button is also moving away from yourself
family resemblance
an idea that philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein proposed to deal with the problem that definitions often do not include all members of a category. It refers to the idea that things in a particular category resemble one another in a number of ways. this allows for some variation within a category so there is no definite criteria that every member of a category must meet.
Aphasia
an inability to comprehend and formulate language because of damage to specific brain regions
Exemplar
an instance of a category
Semantic networks
assume that info is represented by symbols in our mind, nodes are semantically related
Language may force you to
attend to particular ideas
Images are maintained by
attending to parts (the eye-movements across a blank screen as people image a checkerboard they saw)
Learning takes place in a connectionist network through a process of ______ in which an error signal is transmitted starting from the property units.
back propagation
Morphemes
basic units of meaning (test vs posttest, enter vs re-enter)
Phonemes
basic units of sound (bat and cat differ by one phoneme) - difficult perception because fast
Levels of categories
basic, superordinate, subordinate
Rosch provided evidence for the idea that the basic level is "psychologically privileged" what is special about basic level categories?
because going above it (global) results in a large loss of information and going below it (specific) results in little gain of information
Why are categories often called "pointers of knowledge"?
because once you know that something is in a category, you know a lot of general things about it and can focus your energy on specifying what is special about that particular object
Peggy is participating in a paired-associate learning experiment. During the study period, she is presented with pairs of words such as boat-hat and car-house. While taking the test, she would be presented with
boat_______ - car ________.
Features
breaths, eats, skin, fins, pink
Phonological dyslexia
can read irregular words (yacht) and regular words but can't read non-words (nust)
Surface dyslexia
can read words and non-words but has trouble with irregular words
The prototype approach to categorization states that a standard representation of a category is based on
category members that have been encountered in the past.
parsing
central process for determining the meaning of a sentence.
Categorization task
compare the exemplar to the prototype (canary big overlap=fast // ostrich, small overlap=slow = typicality effect) - not reducible to necessary and sufficient
Theory-based view
concepts are not just represented in terms of visible attributes or apparent similarity (to a prototype), similarity is too flexible, concepts are represented in terms of our theory about them, theory=any explanation, concepts=organized by our theories, theories=determine what counts as attribute or feature, concepts=natural kinds not just represented in terms of features or similarity
Exemplar theory
conceptual category (birds) is represented by memory of all different examples (exemplars) you've seen, we categorize objects based on their similarity to previously stored instances, All instances (exemplars) of a category you have experienced make up your knowledge
Nodes
connected by links (animal, bird, canary), have some level of activation, become active through stimulation from the environment or by other thoughts
Learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network
connection weights.
One of the key properties of the _____ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network.
connectionist
One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that
damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation.
Parietal lobe damage
damage to this part of the brain has a parallel effect in imagery making it difficult to describe relative locations of landmarks, but can describe objects, faces, and animals
Temporal lobe damage
damage to this part of the brain has a parallel effect in imagery making it difficult to report color or describe faces, objects, and animals, but can describe relative locations and landmarks
Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack the feature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. This poses a problem for the approach to categorization.
definitional
Typicality effects
degree to which exemplars are seen as good examples of a category, do not fit with classical view---categories have graded structure
exemplar approach to categorization
determining whether an object is similar to a standard object through an exemplar
Particular language
directs our attention in particular ways (weak version of Whorf's hypothesis)
The definitional approach to categorization
doesn't work well for most natural objects like birds, trees, and plants.
Left hemisphere
dominant hemisphere where language is, 95% of right handed people, 60% of left handed people
Addressing system
each entity has own unique address, random errors
Sometimes a behavioral event can occur at the same time as a cognitive process, even though the behavior isn't needed for the cognitive process. For example, many people look toward the ceiling when thinking about a complex problem, even though "thinking" would likely continue if they didn't look up. This describes a(n)
epiphenomenon.
If you say that "a Labrador retriever is my idea of a typical dog," you would be using the approach to categorization.
exemplar
Research suggests that the ______ approach to categorization works best for small categories (e.g., U.S. presidents).
exemplar
lexical ambiguity
existence of multiple word meanings. Ex: Bug, can refer to an insect, a hidden listening device, or being annoying.
Priming occurs when presentation of one stimulus
facilitates the response to another stimulus that usually follows closely in time.
Phoneme restoration effect
filling in missing phonemes using context
Problems with classical view
fuzzy boundaries, typicality effects
temporary ambiguity
garden path sentences illustrate this because the initial words of the sentence are ambiguous, they can lead to more than one meaning.
Category
group of things that have something in common
Warren and Warren
hear sentences with a cough spliced in to replace the phoneme
syntactic priming
hearing a statement with a particular syntactic construction increases the chances that a sentence will be produced with the same construction.
Organization of language
hierarchical because sentences are composed of words, words are composed of morphemes, and morphemes are composed of phonemes
To explain the fact that some neuropsychological studies show close parallels between perceptual deficits and deficits in imagery, while other studies do not find this parallel, it has been proposed that the mechanism for imagery is located at _____ visual centers and the mechanism for perception is located at _____ visual centers.
higher; both lower and higher
Orthography
how the word is spelled
Syntax
how to combine the word with other words, rules governing sequence of words in a phrase or sentence
Imagery
identify object properties from memory, help with navigation and action on objects
Plasticity
if child has left hemispherectomy before puberty, can acquire language on right side
Spreading activation
if you see a robin your robin node would be activated and this activation would spread to other related nodes (hospital, nurse, doctor)
Congenitally blind subjects perform the same as sighted subjects on these imagery tasks
image rotation, scanning, mainly spatial representations
Parallel distributed processing models
in semantic networks concepts are represented by nodes which are symbols, local representation, concept representation is distributed across nodes, modeled after neuronal networks, start with 3 layers of nodes with connections between layers, (input nodes, hidden nodes, output nodes), random weights, ask question, gives response, give it feedback, model adjusts weights while learning
corpus of language
indicates the frequency with which different words are used and the frequency of different meanings and grammatical constructions in that language. Basically, corpus reflects how people typically use their language.
instrument inferences
inferences about tools or methods
anaphoric inferences
inferences that connect an object or person in one sentence to an object or person in another sentence. Ex: Mike won the show, he has won all three shows he has entered. We infer that "he" is referring to mike.
casual inferences
inferences that the events described in one sentence were caused by events that occurred in a pervious sentence.
The difference between biased and balanced
influences the way people access the meaning of words as they read them
Garden-path sentences
initially suggests an interpretation that turns out to be wrong
visual word paradigm
involves determining how subjects process information as they are observing a visual scene.
lexical decision task
involves reading a list that consists of words and non-words.
Imagine that a young child is just learning about the category "dog." Thus far, she has experienced only two dogs, one a small poodle and the other a large German shepherd. On her third encounter with a dog, she will be LEAST likely to correctly categorize the animal as a dog if that animal
is a dog that does not bark.
Hierarchical nature of language
it consists of a series of small components that can be combined to form larger units. ex: words can be combined to create phrases, which in turn can create sentences, which themselves can become components of a story.
In drawing conclusions about the relationship between imagery and perception, a notable difference between them is that
it is harder to manipulate mental images than perceptual images.
Difficulty of speech perception
lack of invariance
hierarchical organization
larger more general categories are divided into smaller more specific categories creating a number of levels of categories
Balance beam model
learns from task experience, give the balance beam problem as input, tell it which side goes down output, correct developmental pattern, important theoretical aspects no stage transformation
Broca's aphasia
leborgne (tan) severe case - epileptic, lost ability to speak at age 30, could only say "tan tan" but used inflection and gestures, intelligence comprehension and cognition intact
Roger Shepard
look at use of imagery, measure time to make judgments
prototype approach to categorization
membership in a category is determined by comparing the object to a prototype that represents the category
Shepard and Meltzer measured the time it took for participants to decide whether two objects were the same (two different views of the same object) or different (two different objects). These researchers inferred cognitive processes by using
mental chronometry.
The scanning task used by Kosslyn involves
mental images.
Concept
mental representations of categories
Kosslyn's island experiment used the ______ procedure.
mental scanning
How images are generated
more complex images take longer to generate
Olin and Bob are neighbors. Olin loves birds and his father works for the zoo. He has been to a dozen bird sanctuaries, and he and his dad go on bird watching hikes once a month. In contrast, Bob doesn't think much about birds. His only contact with them is in his backyard. It would be correct to say that Olin's standard probably involves
more exemplars than Bob's.
Sentence verification task
must quickly decide whether sentences are true (cats are birds)
Classical view
necessary & sufficient attributes (male, human, adult = bachelor, you either have these features or you don't) - classical view is wrong/rejected, if it were true, all exemplars should be equal
Probabilistic view
no necessary & sufficient attributes define concepts, having certain features makes it just more likely that an instance belongs to a category
Network
nodes and links are in a network
Why definitions don't work for categories?
not all the members of a category have the same features ex: different objects, all possible "chairs"
phonemic restoration effect
occurs when phonemes are perceived in speech when the sound of the phoneme is covered up by an extraneous noise. Ex: Richard Warren (1970) had subjects listen to a sentence, then replaces a phoneme in a word with a cough. They didn't notice that a letter was missing, but still understood. This "filling in" of the missing phoneme is an example of top-down processing.
speech segmentation
our ability to perceive individual words even though there are often no pauses between words in the sound signal.
Categorical perception
our categorization of phonemes shows abrupt boundaries, even when there is no corresponding abrupt change in the stimuli themselves
Murphy and Medin
our theories of the world guide categorization (chair = not defied by appearance but built for sitting)
Unilateral neglect typically occurs after damage to the ______ and results in ______.
parietal lobe ... ignoring one side of visual perceptions and mental images
Temporal lobe
part of the brain that assists with attention and further processing of imagery; shape, color, texture, etc.
Parietal lobe
part of the brain that assists with attention and further processing of imagery; spatial properties, location, size, rotation, etc.
Area V1
part of the brain that is activated during visualization and imagery tasks; important for visual perception and mental imagery, disrupting V1 with magnetic pulses causes problems with vision and with visual imagery
sentence verification technique
participants are presented with statements and asked to answer "yes" if they think the statement is true and "no" if they think it isn't. doing this technique shows that participants respond faster for objects that are high in prototypicality than they did for objects with low prototypicality.
Wernicke's aphasia
patients studied by Wernicke, who had damage to their temporal lobe, produced speech that was fluent and grammatically correct, but tended to be incoherent.
Perky's imagery study (1910) had participants describe images of objects that were dimly projected onto a screen. The significance of Perky's results was that
people were influenced by the projected images when forming their mental images, even when they were unaware that the projected images were present.
Linguistic Relativity weak version
people who speak different languages perceive end experience the world differently relative to their language backgrounds
Functions of concepts
prediction, reasoning, communication
Priming
presentation for one stimulus affects responses to a stimulus that follows
Spreading activation
primes associated concepts.
syntax-first approach to parsing
proposed by Lynn Frazier, states that as people read this sentence, their grouping of words into phrases is governed by a number of rules that are based on syntax.
OVER (MOON, MIAMI) is a representation.
propositional
Right hemisphere
prosody (rhythmic, musical aspects of speech), interpret emotional content
Rosch found that participants respond more rapidly in a same-different task when presented with "good" examples of colors such as "red" and "green" than when they are presented with "poor" examples such as "pink" or "light green." The result of this experiment was interpreted as supporting the _____ approach to categorization.
prototype
Typicality ratings
ratings of how "birdy" a bird is, on a 7-point scale where 7 is the highest
Knowledge network
reaction time goes up for longer associative paths
Acquired dyslexia
reading problem caused by brain damage
saccadic eye movements
referred to how people move their eyes from one place to another when looking at a scene. When the eye briefly stops, is called fixations.
word frequency effect
refers to the fact that we respond more rapidly to high frequency words like "home" than to low frequency words like "hike". Measured by people's eye movements as they are reading.
word superiority effect
refers to the finding that letters are easier to recognize when they are contained in a word than when they appear alone or contained in a non-word.
Concepts
represented by nodes
Syntactic
rules that help with comprehension
McGurk effect
see ga, actual sound ba, hear while watching da
The ______ model includes associations between concepts and the property of spreading activation.
semantic network
garden path sentences
sentences that start off appearing to mean one thing, but turn out to mean another. Ex: After the musician played the piano was wheeled off of the stage.
Berninmo people
show that focal colors (for which they do not have names) are not better remembered, as a "universal physiology" approach to color would suggest
Gelman-Markman Triad task
similar tests using artifacts (human made objects) show more reliance on visible features
Your text describes the case of M.G.S. who underwent brain surgery as treatment for severe epilepsy. Testing of M.G.S. pre- and post-surgery revealed that the right visual cortex is involved in the
size of the field of view
Correct 1.00 points out of 1.00 Not flaggedFlag question Question text Kosslyn interpreted the results of his research on imagery (such as the island experiment) as supporting the idea that the mechanism responsible for imagery involves ______ representations.
spatial
If we were conducting an experiment on the effect knowledge has on categorization, we might compare the results of expert and non-expert groups. Suppose we compare horticulturalists to people with little knowledge about plants. If we asked the groups to name, as specifically as possible, five different plants seen around campus, we would predict that the expert group would primarily label plants on the ______ level, while the non-expert group would primarily label plants on the ______ level.
specific (subordinate); basic
syntax
specifies the rules for combining words into sentences. Ex: changing the sentence "the cat's wont eat" into "the cat's wont eating" is an error of syntax because the grammar is not correct.
Collins and Quillian explained the results of priming experiments by introducing the concept of _____ into their network model.
spreading activation
given-new contract
states that a speaker should construct sentences so that they include two types of information; 1. given information - information the listener already knows 2. new information - information that the listener is hearing for the first time.
late closure
states when a person encounters a new word, the persons parsing mechanism assumes that this word is part of the current phrase, so each new word is added to the current phrase for as long as possible.
Meyer & Schvaneveldt
string of letters and respond yes is both are words no if not (lexical decision task)
Items high on prototypicality have ______ family resemblances.
strong
Mental-rotation task
suggests that mental images preserve spatial information in three dimensions, ** they were very orderly, showed that imagery could be studied objectively
high prototypicality
that a category member closely resembles the category prototype
typicality effect
the ability to judge highly prototypical objects more rapidly. when participants are asked to list as many objects in a category as possible, they tend to list the prototypical members first.
low prototypicality
the category member does not closely resemble a typical member of the category
Content addressable
the content of the memory is the storage address
The connectionist network has learned the correct pattern for a concept when
the error signals are reduced to nearly none and the correct properties are assigned.
meaning dominance
the fact that some meanings of words occur more frequently that others ex: tin (type of metal) has a high dominance because it occurs more frequently than tin (small metal container of food)
Psycholinguistics
the field concerned with the psychological study of language.
interactionist approach to parsing
the idea that information provided by both syntax and semantics is taken into account simultaneously as we read or listen to a sentence
Embodied Cognition
the idea that thinking involves simulation of perceiving and acting and we might be using visual and motor imagery as an essential part of comprehension, thought is not so abstract, but done in the same brain systems as perception and action
Main principle of studying language
the importance of context -another principle is knowledge
Linguistic Relativity strong version
the language you speak determines the way you view and think about the world around you, learning a new language changes the way of thinking
VOT (voice onset time)
the latency between the release of the blockage and the onset of vibration in the vocal cords
Semantics
the meaning of words and sentences (turtle: green animal with hard shell)
semantics
the meanings or words and sentences Ex: changing the sentence "the cat's wont eat" into "the cat's wont bake" is an error of semantics because the meaning doesn't make sense.
Rosch and coworkers conducted an experiment in which participants were shown a category label, like car or vehicle, and then, after a brief delay, saw a picture. The participants' task was to indicate as rapidly as possible whether the picture was a member of the category. Their results showed
the priming effect was most robust for basic level categories.
categorization
the process by which things are placed into groups called categories.
syntactic coordination
the process in which people use similar grammatical constructions.
Knowledge of category is represented by
the prototype (evidence: how prototypes or typical category members affect psychological processes such as category membership judgment, priming, order of generating examples, acquisition by children)
event related potential (ERP)
the rapid electrical response recorded with small disc electrodes placed on a person's scalp.
coherence
the representation of the text in a person's mind that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text.
Phonology:
the sequence of phonemes that make up the word
Phoneme
the shortest segment of speech, that is changed, changes the meaning of the word. the word "bit" contains the phonemes of /b/ /i/ /t/ we can change bit into pit by replacing letter b with p.
Morphemes
the smallest units on language that have a definable meaning or a grammatical function. Ex: Truck consists of many phonemes, but only one morpheme. Truck means "one truck" and Trucks means "more than one truck" this has two morphemes.
common ground
the speakers mutual knowledge, beliefs, and assumptions
Kosslyn's theory of perception and imagery
theory that there is a prime stored representation to create an image and that imagery is a pattern of activation in the visual areas and then attention selects for further processing, activation in visual (occipital) areas
Rule based nature of language
these components can be arranged in certain ways ex: "What is my cat saying" vs "Cat my saying is what"
New Representation of Thought
thoughts are represented in the same perceptual and motor systems as our perceptions and actions in the case of language comprehension
What is the goal of psycholinguistics?
to discover the psychological process by which humans acquire and process language.
What is one of the most important features of categories?
to help us understand individual cases we have never seen before. It helps us also understand behaviors that we might otherwise find baffling
Image-scanning procedure
to study mental imagery, memorize the map and mentally scan from one landmark to another on the imagined map
"Stop consonants"
utterance requires a momentary blockage of the vocal tract
Prototype approach
we categorize items by comparing to the prototype of a category, if an object is similar to the prototype, it will be categorized as an instance of a category (which is more like the prototypical dog), concept is represented by a prototype, prototypes require exemplars and they emerge gradually, the first members are usually the prototypes, and hence those most tightly linked to a category, the last members will be more loosely linked, and hence will be last
Old Representation of Thought
we store ideas as abstract representations in the case of language comprehension
balanced dominance
when a word has more than one meaning but the meanings have about the same dominance. Cast (play cast) and cast (broken arm)
what does it mean when the family resemblance is high for items? low?
when the items characteristics have a large amount of overlap with the characteristics of many other items in the category. Low means little overlap
biased dominance
when words have two or more meanings with different dominances.
One reason why basic level categories may be "psychologically privileged" is that
you lose a lot of details when jumping to a global category, but gain only a few details by jumping to a specific category.