Cognitive Unit 3
Meyer and Schvaneveldt (1971)
"Yes" if both strings are words; "no" if not Some pairs were closely associated Reaction time was faster for those pairs Spreading activation
What is the approximate size of what a human can support as an ingroup? 300 people 150 people 60 people 100 people
150 people
At what age do children start speaking in short sentences of about two words? 2-3 years 3-8 months 18-24 months 8-13 months
18-24 months
How many Phonemes does each of the following words contain: bat, chat, thin
3.
Phonemes vary across language: English: ___ Japanese: ___ Piraha (brazil): ___ Ju: ___
47 24 11 141
English speakers have a lexicon of roughly ____ words
50,000
What percentage of conversations are gossip? 70%-80% 60%-70% 40%-50% 50%-60%
60%-70%
In which of the following scenarios is an expert likely to outperform a novice? A task where knowledge of underlying principles is necessary A task where deeper interpretation interferes with the solution A task where standard responses are incorrect A task where the knowledge base is not as useful
A task where knowledge of underlying principles is necessary
Noam Chomsky criticized this behaviorist approach, asserting instead that the mechanisms for language learning is:
Biologically determined.
anaphoric inference example
Bob and his son went to the store. He gave his child some money, and he bought some candy. who bought the candy? Bob and his son went to the store. He gave his child some money, and he bought some beer. who bought the beer?
Essential sorting process for organizing concepts
Categorization
more coherence...
Coherence is related both to the text, and the person reading ◦ More knowledge will make the text more coherent ◦ A technical manual is easier to read for an expert than a novice Removing the need for inferences makes texts more coherent
Refers to the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon
Grammar
Which of the following statements between Person A and Person B would suggest that there is common ground between the two people? My boss wants me to come into work. I need to go pick up Carl from Sally's house. I'm going to Beyonce's concert tomorrow. My best friend is getting married tomorrow.
I need to go pick up Carl from Sallys house
Storage, integration and organization of information in memory
Knowledge
A communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to organize those words to transmit information from one individual to another
Language
Refers to the words of a given language
Lexicon
smallest unit of language with a definable meaning or grammatical function units of meaning not the same as words not the same as syllables
Morphemes
Which of the following statements is an example of audience design? Frederick ruined my garden again. Sally said she's going to talk to Hanna tomorrow about the event. My cat made a huge mess at home. I need to go pick up Carl from Sally's house.
My cat made a huge mess at home
Was Genie ever able to fully master a language? Yes. She mastered the syntax and semantics Yes. She learned a great deal of vocabulary very quickly No. She struggled with the grammatical aspects No. She learned very little despite the best efforts of the researchers
No. She struggled with the grammatical aspects
Which of the following is FALSE regarding situation models? Situation models can be built through the use of priming People tend to switch accents to something more distinct than what the other people are using People tend to use the same grammar within a conversation People tend to use the same words within a conversation
People tend to switch accents to something more distinct than what the other people are using
basic sound unit of a given language, and different languages have different sets of these.
Phenome
The shortest segment of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of a word. individual sounds
Phonemes
the "typical" category member. the "best" example. DOES NOT actually exist in reality
Prototype approach
B.F. Skinner proposed that language is learned through:
Reinforcement
Where is lexicon stored?
Semantic memory
concepts are arranged in networks that represent the way concepts are organized in the mind. Collin and Quillian (1969) Node= category/concept concepts are linked
Semantic networks
Refers to the process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words
Semantics
connecting objects and people
anaphoric inference
Collins & Loftus (1975)
argues that semantic networks are not hierarchical. memory = complex association network spreading activation model
Being cold-blooded is _____ for being a reptile, but is _____ because fish are cold blooded but are not reptiles. a. not necessary, jointly sufficient b. necessary, not jointly sufficient c. necessary, jointly sufficient d. jointly sufficient, not necessary
b. necessary, not jointly sufficient
Categories are more likely to be: a. clear-cut b. on a continuum c. easily distinguished d. well-defined
b. on a continuum
When a child says "eated' instead of "ate", this is an example of what? overgeneralization saudade semantics morphemes
overgeneralization
the human sentence analyzing mechanism determines meaning of a sentence
parser
Lexical decision task
participants read stimuli and are asked to say as quickly as possible whether the item is a word or not.
Mentally "fill-in" missing phonemes based on context of sentence and portion of word presented
phonemic restoration
Mental Representations
concepts
mental representations we form of categories are called:
concepts
What helps with speech segmentation?
context understanding of meaning understanding of sound and syntactic rules statistical learning
The idea that language determines the way we think, is called? the language-thought principle linguistic determinism phonemes semantics
linguistic determinism
the relative usage of a word in a particular language
word frequency
letters are easier to recognize when they are contained in a word than when they appear alone or are contained in a non-word
word superiority effect
causal inference example
Sharon took aspirin. Her headache went away. ◦ What caused her headache to go away? Sharon took a shower. Her headache went away. ◦ What caused her headache to go away? Sharon took aspirin. World War 2 ended. ◦ What caused World War 2 to end?
the mental representation of the text combined with the reader's background knowledge
Situation Model
The specific words and order in which words are presented
Surface structure
Consists of linguistic sounds or visual symbols that form words, concepts, feelings, or experiences.
Symbols
Refers to the way words are organized in sentences
Syntax
Which of the following statements is true regarding transfer? Novices have an easier time transferring knowledge than experts Transfer is more likely to occur when there are shared rules between the tasks Experts can very easily transfer knowledge across domains Expert and novices perform very differently if given a task outside their domain
Transfer is more likely to occur when there are shared rules between the tasks
participants listened to a recording with a prerecorded cough in it they were told to identify the correct position of the cough who did dis?
Warren (1970)
instrument inference
William sat down in his office above the Globe Theater to begin writing his play. He looked out across the streets of London, then looked down and got to work. ◦ What was William using to write? William sat down in Starbucks to begin writing his play. He looked out across the streets of Chicago, then looked down and got to work. ◦ What was William using to write?
Which of the following is true regarding concepts? a. They allow us to extend our knowledge to an infinite number of scenarios b. they can only be learned by humans c. we learn most of them with careful study and explicit instructions d. they are explicit external representations of categories.
a. They allow us to extend our knowledge to an infinite number of scenarios
A(n) _____ would be an example of a typical member of the fruit category whereas a(n) _____ would be an example of an atypical member of the fruit category. a. apple, tomato b. tomato, cucumber c. apple, orange d. tomato, orange
a. apple, tomato
What is one of Chomsky's findings that disproves Skinner's perspective on language? a. language develops without formal instruction b. language is purely reinforcement based c. language can be learned equally as well throughout the lifetime d. language develops very differently depending on the language and culture
a. language develops without formal instruction
Which of the following is an example of a morpheme? a. me b.barnyard c. butterfly d. unknown
a. me
In the following sentence "Sally sells seashells.", knowing what a seashell is, is an example of ___________ whereas knowing not to say "Sally seashells shore" is an example of _____________. a. semantics; syntax b. phoneme; morpheme c. syntax; semantics d. morpheme; phoneme
a. semantics; syntax
Which of the following is true regarding babies learning language? babies cannot distinguish between their mother's language and another language babies come out of the womb already having preferences for voices babies can only distinguish between sounds that they have heard in the womb or shortly after babies have a hard time distinguishing similar sounds
babies come out of the womb already having preferences for voices
provides adequate information for most purposes.
basic level
Encoding the letters (sounds) leads to word identification
bottom-up
The average American is more likely to use the _____ level, calling something a cat, whereas someone who breeds specific types of cats is more likely to use the ____ level, calling something a Maine Coon or a Tabby. a. basic, superordinate b. subordinate, basic c. basic, subordinate d. superordinate, basic
c. basic, subordinate
Which of the following is an example of a phoneme? a. lie b. pat c. th d. cat
c. th
pitfalls of expertise
cannot make use of increase knowledge interpretation at deeper level may interfere when standard responses are inappropriate
set of objects that can be treated as equivalent in some way
category
inferring events in one clause are caused by events in previous sentences
causal inference
representation of the text in one's mind so that information from one part of the text can be related to information in another part of the text
coherence
The _______ theory states that when posed with an object, we compare it to all other representations of objects that we have in memory, and the object(s) that it most closely resembles is what we categorize it as. a. weighted features b. prototype c. summary representation d. exemplar
d. exemplar
Which of the following categories is NOT likely to be affected by psychological essentialism? a. race b. dogs c. gender d. furniture
d. furniture
Which of the following is true regarding the effects of typicality on cognition? a. atypical members are learned before typical members are b. speed of categorization is faster for atypical items c. references to atypical members are more easily understood in language comprehension d. its easier to learn a category if typical members are provided
d. its easier to learn a category if typical members are provided
The belief that some members of a category have an inherent property that causes them to be in the category and to have the properties associated with it, is called: a. prototype theory b. family resemblance theory c. typicality effect d. psychological essentialism
d. psychological essentialism
Which of the following is correct regarding the consensus on whether we use exemplars or prototypes? a. prototype theory can explain all of the experimental results b. there is evidence that both exemplar and prototype theory are necessary for explaining categorization c. exemplar theory can explain all of the experimental results d. there is more evidence towards exemplar theory but its likely that prototype theory is still necessary
d. there is more evidence towards exemplar theory but its likely that prototype theory is still necessary
deep structure example
dan hit the ball the ball was hit by dan
When people label negative emotional experiences, there is _____________ activation in the _______________. decreased, amygdala increased, amygdala increased, hippocampus decreased, hippocampus
decreased, amygdala
meaning of the text
deep structure
Which of the following is an example of linguistic intergroup bias? describing an ingroup member as being reckless and an outgroup member as being inconsiderate describing an ingroup member as being thoughtful and an outgroup member as being inconsiderate describing an ingroup member as being inconsiderate and an outgroup member as being thoughtful describing an ingroup member as being thoughtful and an outgroup member as being patient
describing an ingroup member as being thoughtful and an outgroup member as being inconsiderate
expertise is _____
domain specific
for transfer to occur, there needs to be _____ that are shared between the two tasks.
elements
Language is a universal need
every human culture has a language deaf children will not invent their own sign language if not taught language always develops in the same age ranges language follows similar structures, regardless of cultures
concept is represented by multiple examples; examples are category members; to categorize, compare the new item to stored items
exemplar approach
someone who is extremely knowledgeable
expert
Kyle is given a somewhat vague and ill-defined problem and unlike his friend Ryan who immediately starts to solve the problem, Kyle decides to add more details and constraints to the problem before starting. Kyle is likely a(n) ________ and Ryan is likely a(n) _________. novice; novice expert; novice novice; expert expert; expert
expert;novice
Which of the following is NOT one of the invariants listed in the chapter? experts have better organization for their knowledge experts' skill is domain specific experts have more knowledge experts excel in nearly all situations
experts excel in nearly all situations
knowledge
experts have more knowledge experts have their knowledge structured in a better way
Why do we categorize concepts?
formal classification, communication, build complex abstract concepts/ideas, prediction, cognitive economy.
Categories can be ___ and ____
formalized and defined.
provides set of rules regarding how components should be arranged
grammar
What is the current consensus on the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? language does determine thought habitual use of language can influence our habit of thought its wrong because English speakers can think of time as being vertical and horizontal its entirely correct because some words do not have translations
habitual use of language can influence our habit of thought
surface structure definition
hospitals are sued by 7 foot doctors iraqi head seeks arms
determining what a text means by using our knowledge to go beyond what the text says
inference
inferring tools or methods
instrumental inference
syntax and semantics are taken into account at the same time, as we code a sentence
interactionist approach
Prototypes may work best for ______ (REPTILES)
larger categories
Hierarchical network
levels of categories
presence of two or more possible meanings for a single word.
lexical ambiguity
the vocabulary of a person, language, or branch of knowledge
lexicon
Morpheme examples:
milk = milk blackboard = black + board pumpkin = pumpkin dogs = dog + s unforgettable = un + forget + able
Compared to novices, experts have ________. more knowledge better structure more knowledge and more cross-referencing more cross referencing and better structure
more knowledge and more cross-referencing
Phonemes are combined to form ____, which are smaller units of language that convey some type of meaning.
morphemes
how are conversations different from text?
multiple people dynamic-- constantly changing rapid-- you cant take your time to interpret
Consistent with the examples provided in the reading, if an expert and novice are asked to memorize surface features of a problem, the ________ will do better because __________. expert; novices are more hindered by irrelevant information expert, novices pay more attention to the deeper structure novice; experts are more hindered by irrelevant information
novice; experts pay more attention to the deeper structure
If given a card sorting task for a specific topic, ________ will sort the cards based on surface features and _______ will sort the cards based upon the principles used to solve the problems. novices; experts novices; novices experts; novices experts; experts
novices; experts
The typicality effect
prototypical category members are more affected by a priming stimulus.
problem solving
representing a problem problem-solving strategies decision quality
meanings of words and sentences
semantics
How is language defined?
shared symbolic system of communication governed by rules (grammar) Hierarchical
connectionist model
similiar to spreading activation model except uses changes in the strength of links to show semantic distance. also has inhibitory links
exemplars may work best for ______ (US PRESIDENTS)
small categories
Speakers and listeners understand the connection between:
sound/symbol and meaning
knowledge is on a ______
spectrum
parsing out individual words from a sentence
speech segmentation
Sally is an expert mathematician. If given a math problem, she is more likely to use a _____________ strategy and if given a chemistry problem she is more likely to use a ____________ strategy. working forward; working backward working backward; working forward working forward; working forward working backward; working backward
working forward; working backward
Which of the following statements regarding strategy use is true? strategy use depends on how much knowledge the person has and the type of problem experts have more sophisticated strategies and they execute them better experts always use a working forward strategy even though it can be riskier novices always use a working backward strategy because its a safer approach
strategy use depends on how much knowledge the person has and the type of problem
experts focus on ____ features of problems novices focus on ____ features
structural, surface
two different ____ structures can have the same _____ structure
surface, deep
rules for combining words into sentences
syntax
Spreading activation
the arousal of a node. when activated, activity spreads out along connected links, concepts that receive activation are primed and more easily accessed from memory.
In Bartlett's 1932 study involving the story "War of the Ghosts", what is the main finding? the story was changed over time to make it more interesting only non-stereotypical content was remembered people hearing the story had an easier time recalling the culturally distinct elements the story was changed over time to be more congruent with British culture
the story was changed over time to be more congruent with British culture
In some instances, computer algorithms are much better at determining an outcome than an expert is. What is a suggested reason for this? This is not true. Experts are always better than computer algorithms. the task doesn't match the experts' knowledge humans cannot consider multiple factors like computers can Experts become too focused on extraneous details
the task doesn't match the experts' knowledge
the context surrounding a word leads to identification of a word
top-down
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis would predict that the Dani people of Papua New Guinea would be able to conceptualize ______ colors. According the text, the Dani people can conceptualize _____ colors. eleven; two two; eleven eleven; eleven two; two
two;eleven
What was the main finding from Lyubomirsky, Sousa, and Dickerhoof (2006)? writing and talking about negative life events improved well-being people were more likely to remember the non-stereotypical content people were more likely to remember the stereotypical content just thinking about negative life events improves psychological well being
writing and talking about negative life events improved well-being