Cognitive Unit 3

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Meyer and Schvaneveldt (1971)

"Yes" if both strings are words; "no" if not Some pairs were closely associated Reaction time was faster for those pairs Spreading activation

What is the approximate size of what a human can support as an ingroup? 300 people 150 people 60 people 100 people

150 people

At what age do children start speaking in short sentences of about two words? 2-3 years 3-8 months 18-24 months 8-13 months

18-24 months

How many Phonemes does each of the following words contain: bat, chat, thin

3.

Phonemes vary across language: English: ___ Japanese: ___ Piraha (brazil): ___ Ju: ___

47 24 11 141

English speakers have a lexicon of roughly ____ words

50,000

What percentage of conversations are gossip? 70%-80% 60%-70% 40%-50% 50%-60%

60%-70%

In which of the following scenarios is an expert likely to outperform a novice? A task where knowledge of underlying principles is necessary A task where deeper interpretation interferes with the solution A task where standard responses are incorrect A task where the knowledge base is not as useful

A task where knowledge of underlying principles is necessary

Noam Chomsky criticized this behaviorist approach, asserting instead that the mechanisms for language learning is:

Biologically determined.

anaphoric inference example

Bob and his son went to the store. He gave his child some money, and he bought some candy. who bought the candy? Bob and his son went to the store. He gave his child some money, and he bought some beer. who bought the beer?

Essential sorting process for organizing concepts

Categorization

more coherence...

Coherence is related both to the text, and the person reading ◦ More knowledge will make the text more coherent ◦ A technical manual is easier to read for an expert than a novice Removing the need for inferences makes texts more coherent

Refers to the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon

Grammar

Which of the following statements between Person A and Person B would suggest that there is common ground between the two people? My boss wants me to come into work. I need to go pick up Carl from Sally's house. I'm going to Beyonce's concert tomorrow. My best friend is getting married tomorrow.

I need to go pick up Carl from Sallys house

Storage, integration and organization of information in memory

Knowledge

A communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to organize those words to transmit information from one individual to another

Language

Refers to the words of a given language

Lexicon

smallest unit of language with a definable meaning or grammatical function units of meaning not the same as words not the same as syllables

Morphemes

Which of the following statements is an example of audience design? Frederick ruined my garden again. Sally said she's going to talk to Hanna tomorrow about the event. My cat made a huge mess at home. I need to go pick up Carl from Sally's house.

My cat made a huge mess at home

Was Genie ever able to fully master a language? Yes. She mastered the syntax and semantics Yes. She learned a great deal of vocabulary very quickly No. She struggled with the grammatical aspects No. She learned very little despite the best efforts of the researchers

No. She struggled with the grammatical aspects

Which of the following is FALSE regarding situation models? Situation models can be built through the use of priming People tend to switch accents to something more distinct than what the other people are using People tend to use the same grammar within a conversation People tend to use the same words within a conversation

People tend to switch accents to something more distinct than what the other people are using

basic sound unit of a given language, and different languages have different sets of these.

Phenome

The shortest segment of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of a word. individual sounds

Phonemes

the "typical" category member. the "best" example. DOES NOT actually exist in reality

Prototype approach

B.F. Skinner proposed that language is learned through:

Reinforcement

Where is lexicon stored?

Semantic memory

concepts are arranged in networks that represent the way concepts are organized in the mind. Collin and Quillian (1969) Node= category/concept concepts are linked

Semantic networks

Refers to the process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words

Semantics

connecting objects and people

anaphoric inference

Collins & Loftus (1975)

argues that semantic networks are not hierarchical. memory = complex association network spreading activation model

Being cold-blooded is _____ for being a reptile, but is _____ because fish are cold blooded but are not reptiles. a. not necessary, jointly sufficient b. necessary, not jointly sufficient c. necessary, jointly sufficient d. jointly sufficient, not necessary

b. necessary, not jointly sufficient

Categories are more likely to be: a. clear-cut b. on a continuum c. easily distinguished d. well-defined

b. on a continuum

When a child says "eated' instead of "ate", this is an example of what? overgeneralization saudade semantics morphemes

overgeneralization

the human sentence analyzing mechanism determines meaning of a sentence

parser

Lexical decision task

participants read stimuli and are asked to say as quickly as possible whether the item is a word or not.

Mentally "fill-in" missing phonemes based on context of sentence and portion of word presented

phonemic restoration

Mental Representations

concepts

mental representations we form of categories are called:

concepts

What helps with speech segmentation?

context understanding of meaning understanding of sound and syntactic rules statistical learning

The idea that language determines the way we think, is called? the language-thought principle linguistic determinism phonemes semantics

linguistic determinism

the relative usage of a word in a particular language

word frequency

letters are easier to recognize when they are contained in a word than when they appear alone or are contained in a non-word

word superiority effect

causal inference example

Sharon took aspirin. Her headache went away. ◦ What caused her headache to go away? Sharon took a shower. Her headache went away. ◦ What caused her headache to go away? Sharon took aspirin. World War 2 ended. ◦ What caused World War 2 to end?

the mental representation of the text combined with the reader's background knowledge

Situation Model

The specific words and order in which words are presented

Surface structure

Consists of linguistic sounds or visual symbols that form words, concepts, feelings, or experiences.

Symbols

Refers to the way words are organized in sentences

Syntax

Which of the following statements is true regarding transfer? Novices have an easier time transferring knowledge than experts Transfer is more likely to occur when there are shared rules between the tasks Experts can very easily transfer knowledge across domains Expert and novices perform very differently if given a task outside their domain

Transfer is more likely to occur when there are shared rules between the tasks

participants listened to a recording with a prerecorded cough in it they were told to identify the correct position of the cough who did dis?

Warren (1970)

instrument inference

William sat down in his office above the Globe Theater to begin writing his play. He looked out across the streets of London, then looked down and got to work. ◦ What was William using to write? William sat down in Starbucks to begin writing his play. He looked out across the streets of Chicago, then looked down and got to work. ◦ What was William using to write?

Which of the following is true regarding concepts? a. They allow us to extend our knowledge to an infinite number of scenarios b. they can only be learned by humans c. we learn most of them with careful study and explicit instructions d. they are explicit external representations of categories.

a. They allow us to extend our knowledge to an infinite number of scenarios

A(n) _____ would be an example of a typical member of the fruit category whereas a(n) _____ would be an example of an atypical member of the fruit category. a. apple, tomato b. tomato, cucumber c. apple, orange d. tomato, orange

a. apple, tomato

What is one of Chomsky's findings that disproves Skinner's perspective on language? a. language develops without formal instruction b. language is purely reinforcement based c. language can be learned equally as well throughout the lifetime d. language develops very differently depending on the language and culture

a. language develops without formal instruction

Which of the following is an example of a morpheme? a. me b.barnyard c. butterfly d. unknown

a. me

In the following sentence "Sally sells seashells.", knowing what a seashell is, is an example of ___________ whereas knowing not to say "Sally seashells shore" is an example of _____________. a. semantics; syntax b. phoneme; morpheme c. syntax; semantics d. morpheme; phoneme

a. semantics; syntax

Which of the following is true regarding babies learning language? babies cannot distinguish between their mother's language and another language babies come out of the womb already having preferences for voices babies can only distinguish between sounds that they have heard in the womb or shortly after babies have a hard time distinguishing similar sounds

babies come out of the womb already having preferences for voices

provides adequate information for most purposes.

basic level

Encoding the letters (sounds) leads to word identification

bottom-up

The average American is more likely to use the _____ level, calling something a cat, whereas someone who breeds specific types of cats is more likely to use the ____ level, calling something a Maine Coon or a Tabby. a. basic, superordinate b. subordinate, basic c. basic, subordinate d. superordinate, basic

c. basic, subordinate

Which of the following is an example of a phoneme? a. lie b. pat c. th d. cat

c. th

pitfalls of expertise

cannot make use of increase knowledge interpretation at deeper level may interfere when standard responses are inappropriate

set of objects that can be treated as equivalent in some way

category

inferring events in one clause are caused by events in previous sentences

causal inference

representation of the text in one's mind so that information from one part of the text can be related to information in another part of the text

coherence

The _______ theory states that when posed with an object, we compare it to all other representations of objects that we have in memory, and the object(s) that it most closely resembles is what we categorize it as. a. weighted features b. prototype c. summary representation d. exemplar

d. exemplar

Which of the following categories is NOT likely to be affected by psychological essentialism? a. race b. dogs c. gender d. furniture

d. furniture

Which of the following is true regarding the effects of typicality on cognition? a. atypical members are learned before typical members are b. speed of categorization is faster for atypical items c. references to atypical members are more easily understood in language comprehension d. its easier to learn a category if typical members are provided

d. its easier to learn a category if typical members are provided

The belief that some members of a category have an inherent property that causes them to be in the category and to have the properties associated with it, is called: a. prototype theory b. family resemblance theory c. typicality effect d. psychological essentialism

d. psychological essentialism

Which of the following is correct regarding the consensus on whether we use exemplars or prototypes? a. prototype theory can explain all of the experimental results b. there is evidence that both exemplar and prototype theory are necessary for explaining categorization c. exemplar theory can explain all of the experimental results d. there is more evidence towards exemplar theory but its likely that prototype theory is still necessary

d. there is more evidence towards exemplar theory but its likely that prototype theory is still necessary

deep structure example

dan hit the ball the ball was hit by dan

When people label negative emotional experiences, there is _____________ activation in the _______________. decreased, amygdala increased, amygdala increased, hippocampus decreased, hippocampus

decreased, amygdala

meaning of the text

deep structure

Which of the following is an example of linguistic intergroup bias? describing an ingroup member as being reckless and an outgroup member as being inconsiderate describing an ingroup member as being thoughtful and an outgroup member as being inconsiderate describing an ingroup member as being inconsiderate and an outgroup member as being thoughtful describing an ingroup member as being thoughtful and an outgroup member as being patient

describing an ingroup member as being thoughtful and an outgroup member as being inconsiderate

expertise is _____

domain specific

for transfer to occur, there needs to be _____ that are shared between the two tasks.

elements

Language is a universal need

every human culture has a language deaf children will not invent their own sign language if not taught language always develops in the same age ranges language follows similar structures, regardless of cultures

concept is represented by multiple examples; examples are category members; to categorize, compare the new item to stored items

exemplar approach

someone who is extremely knowledgeable

expert

Kyle is given a somewhat vague and ill-defined problem and unlike his friend Ryan who immediately starts to solve the problem, Kyle decides to add more details and constraints to the problem before starting. Kyle is likely a(n) ________ and Ryan is likely a(n) _________. novice; novice expert; novice novice; expert expert; expert

expert;novice

Which of the following is NOT one of the invariants listed in the chapter? experts have better organization for their knowledge experts' skill is domain specific experts have more knowledge experts excel in nearly all situations

experts excel in nearly all situations

knowledge

experts have more knowledge experts have their knowledge structured in a better way

Why do we categorize concepts?

formal classification, communication, build complex abstract concepts/ideas, prediction, cognitive economy.

Categories can be ___ and ____

formalized and defined.

provides set of rules regarding how components should be arranged

grammar

What is the current consensus on the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? language does determine thought habitual use of language can influence our habit of thought its wrong because English speakers can think of time as being vertical and horizontal its entirely correct because some words do not have translations

habitual use of language can influence our habit of thought

surface structure definition

hospitals are sued by 7 foot doctors iraqi head seeks arms

determining what a text means by using our knowledge to go beyond what the text says

inference

inferring tools or methods

instrumental inference

syntax and semantics are taken into account at the same time, as we code a sentence

interactionist approach

Prototypes may work best for ______ (REPTILES)

larger categories

Hierarchical network

levels of categories

presence of two or more possible meanings for a single word.

lexical ambiguity

the vocabulary of a person, language, or branch of knowledge

lexicon

Morpheme examples:

milk = milk blackboard = black + board pumpkin = pumpkin dogs = dog + s unforgettable = un + forget + able

Compared to novices, experts have ________. more knowledge better structure more knowledge and more cross-referencing more cross referencing and better structure

more knowledge and more cross-referencing

Phonemes are combined to form ____, which are smaller units of language that convey some type of meaning.

morphemes

how are conversations different from text?

multiple people dynamic-- constantly changing rapid-- you cant take your time to interpret

Consistent with the examples provided in the reading, if an expert and novice are asked to memorize surface features of a problem, the ________ will do better because __________. expert; novices are more hindered by irrelevant information expert, novices pay more attention to the deeper structure novice; experts are more hindered by irrelevant information

novice; experts pay more attention to the deeper structure

If given a card sorting task for a specific topic, ________ will sort the cards based on surface features and _______ will sort the cards based upon the principles used to solve the problems. novices; experts novices; novices experts; novices experts; experts

novices; experts

The typicality effect

prototypical category members are more affected by a priming stimulus.

problem solving

representing a problem problem-solving strategies decision quality

meanings of words and sentences

semantics

How is language defined?

shared symbolic system of communication governed by rules (grammar) Hierarchical

connectionist model

similiar to spreading activation model except uses changes in the strength of links to show semantic distance. also has inhibitory links

exemplars may work best for ______ (US PRESIDENTS)

small categories

Speakers and listeners understand the connection between:

sound/symbol and meaning

knowledge is on a ______

spectrum

parsing out individual words from a sentence

speech segmentation

Sally is an expert mathematician. If given a math problem, she is more likely to use a _____________ strategy and if given a chemistry problem she is more likely to use a ____________ strategy. working forward; working backward working backward; working forward working forward; working forward working backward; working backward

working forward; working backward

Which of the following statements regarding strategy use is true? strategy use depends on how much knowledge the person has and the type of problem experts have more sophisticated strategies and they execute them better experts always use a working forward strategy even though it can be riskier novices always use a working backward strategy because its a safer approach

strategy use depends on how much knowledge the person has and the type of problem

experts focus on ____ features of problems novices focus on ____ features

structural, surface

two different ____ structures can have the same _____ structure

surface, deep

rules for combining words into sentences

syntax

Spreading activation

the arousal of a node. when activated, activity spreads out along connected links, concepts that receive activation are primed and more easily accessed from memory.

In Bartlett's 1932 study involving the story "War of the Ghosts", what is the main finding? the story was changed over time to make it more interesting only non-stereotypical content was remembered people hearing the story had an easier time recalling the culturally distinct elements the story was changed over time to be more congruent with British culture

the story was changed over time to be more congruent with British culture

In some instances, computer algorithms are much better at determining an outcome than an expert is. What is a suggested reason for this? This is not true. Experts are always better than computer algorithms. the task doesn't match the experts' knowledge humans cannot consider multiple factors like computers can Experts become too focused on extraneous details

the task doesn't match the experts' knowledge

the context surrounding a word leads to identification of a word

top-down

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis would predict that the Dani people of Papua New Guinea would be able to conceptualize ______ colors. According the text, the Dani people can conceptualize _____ colors. eleven; two two; eleven eleven; eleven two; two

two;eleven

What was the main finding from Lyubomirsky, Sousa, and Dickerhoof (2006)? writing and talking about negative life events improved well-being people were more likely to remember the non-stereotypical content people were more likely to remember the stereotypical content just thinking about negative life events improves psychological well being

writing and talking about negative life events improved well-being


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