com 230 3 theory reviews

Aristotle identified different speaking situations for citizens to consider when conversing on various topics. He denoted _____ types of rhetoric or oratory.

3

aristotle--speeches should contain how many parts?

3

Cultivation Theory does not speak to what one will ______ as a result of watching violent television; instead, it assumes that watching violent TV makes one _______.

do, afraid

theories of media effects--One of the most immediate effects of viewing violence is:

fear

defined as the truthfulness or reliability of the story.

fidelity

While a syllogism explicitly states the major premise, minor premise, and conclusion for the audience, an enthymeme leaves room for the audience to:

fill in the blanks

involve learning facts, such as how many employed males are involved in law enforcement and what proportion of marriages end in divorce.

first order effects

Cultivation, either as mainstreaming or as resonance, produces effects on two levels:

first order effects, second order effects

refers to speaking in courtrooms.

forensic rhetoric

Aristotle identified different speaking situations for citizens to consider when conversing on various topics. He denoted three types of rhetoric or oratory:

forensic rhetoric, epideictic/ceremonial oratory, deliberative rhetoric

refers to the learned behaviors that constitute femininity and masculinity. It is changeable and reflects the preferences of society for certain role behaviors.

gender

caused people to view men and women as being very different from one another.

gender polarization lens

cultivation theory--______ began the ______ in 1967, conducting regular, periodic examinations of _______ and the "conceptions of social reality that viewing cultivates in child and adult audiences."

gerbner, cultural indicators project, tv programming

style--Aristotle notes that strange words, or ________, should be avoided.

glosses

The second assumption of the Narrative Paradigm asserts that people make decisions about which stories to accept and which to reject on the basis of what makes sense to them, or:

good reasons

The narrative paradigm suggests that we are more persuaded by a ______ than a _________.

good story, good argument

uses and grats--Schramm argued that audience members weigh the level of reward (______) they expect from a given medium or message against the effort they must make to secure that reward: _________. This was called the fraction of selection.

gratification, expectation of reward/effort required

Uses and Gratifications Theory (UGT) argues that people actively seek out specific media and specific content to generate specific:

gratifications

occurs when speakers lump listeners into a big group, failing to recognize individual differences.

intergroup overaccommodation

theories of media effects--aggression is the ______ behind to violent behavior.

internal motivation

narrative paradigm--People believe stories insofar as the stories seem:

internally consistent and truthful

aristotle--speeches should have 3 parts:

introduction, body, conclusion/epilogue

defined as the construction or development of an argument that is relevant to the purpose of a speech.

invention

aristotle discussed 5 canons of rhetoric:

invention, arrangement, style, delivery, memory

CAT--The manner in which we _______ the speech and behaviors of another person will determine how we ________ a conversation.

perceive, evaluate

refers to whether the violence is seen as real or make-believe.

perceived reality

refers to the process of attending to and interpreting messages.

perception

narrative paradigm--Not all stories are equally effective, and the deciding factor in choosing among stories is _______ rather than some abstract argument or reason.

personal preference

Contemporary texts on public speaking rely on the same principles of _______ Aristotle pioneered in his work.

persuasion

Fisher argues that rational argument and stories both have _____ value.

persuasive

aristotle--The conclusion or epilogue should summarize the speaker's ______ and arouse _______ in the audience.

points, emotions

Brown and Levinson's (1978) Politeness Theory states that people will use a _______ in a conversation based on their perceptions of ________.

politeness strategy, face threat

the desire to be liked and admired by significant others.

positive face

2 types of identified universal face needs:

positive face, negative face

involves rewarding the response

positive reinforcement

MGT--The dominant group is the group that holds the ______ in the culture

power

uses and grats--information about how media will help an individual accomplish something

surveillance

A major premise in conjunction with a minor premise leads to a logical conclusion which is explicitly articulated to the listener.

syllogism

can be defined as a set of propositions that are related to one another and draw a conclusion from the major and minor premise.

syllogism

aristotle is associated with:

the rhetoric

Aristotle's _____ consists of three books: one focusing on the _____, one on the _____, and one on the ______.

the rhetoric, speaker, audience, speech itself

The failure of traditional uses and gratifications researchers to consider the possibility of important media effects led the authors of the original work to chastise their colleagues by noting that a "vulgar gratificationism" (Blumler, 1985) should be purged from UGT. 1. The originators of UGT believed that ______ in which media consumers live shapes them just as surely as they shape it, and content does have _______.

the world, intended meaning

Fisher intentionally calls his approach a paradigm rather than a _______ because the term paradigm captures the breadth of his vision.

theory

cultivation theory--Television shapes our society's way of:

thinking and relating

Catharsis theory assumes that individuals experience ________ impulses that they try to _______.

threatening, repress

Face-Negotiation Theory was developed by _____ and combines principles of _______ and _______.

ting toomey, politeness theory, facework theory

criticisms of the narrative paradigm:

too broad, failing to be useful

aristotelian theory--communication is viewed as a ______ process.

transactional

cultivation theory--Gerbner agrees with Fisher's narrative paradigm but asserts that most of the stories in modern society now come from _________.

tv

mean world index predicts that the amount of _______ is the best predictor of people's answers, overwhelming other kinds of distinctions among different people.

tv viewing

cultivation theory tests the impact of:

tv viewing on viewers

theories of media effects--There is a correlation between the hours of _______ and the prevalence of symptoms of _______.

tv watched, psychological trauma

MGT explains the phenomenon of muting women AND ________ in the status quo.

advocating change

Formal syllogisms with explicitly stated arguments may:

offend the audience

One of the most important aspects of The Rhetoric is the definition of rhetoric as:

the available means of persuasion

cultivation theory--In 1982, Gerbner and associates showed that "crime in prime time is at least ______ times as rampant as in the real world."

10

Fisher describes the process of good reason as consisting of two series of ______ questions that the listener asks about the narrative.

5

uses and grats--Individual audience members can bring different levels of ______ to their use of media and are driven to accomplish ______ via media.

activity, goals

theories of media effects--definition of violence excludes:

accidental injury, vandalism, psychological or verbal aggression

_________ is defined as the ability to adjust, modify, or regulate one's behavior in response to another. It is typically done (3) ________.

accommodation, unconsciously

uses and grats sees people as:

active agents

UGT views people as _______ because they are able to ________ various types of media to accomplish ______

active, examine and evaluate, goals,

uses and grats--The audience is ______ and its media use is ________.

active, goal oriented

uses and grats--Blumler, Katz, and Gurevitch's notion that people can and do ________ has its underpinnings in the work of other researchers.

actively participate in mass communication

refers to the audience's freedom and autonomy in the mass communication situation.

activeness

refers to what the media consumer does.

activity

Uses and gratifications also distinguishes between _______ and ________ to better understand the degrees of audience activity.

activity, activeness

Uses and gratifications also distinguishes between activity and activeness to better understand the degrees of audience activity: ________ refers to what the media consumer does. _______ refers to the audience's freedom and autonomy in the mass communication situation.

activity, activeness

Different categories of stimuli differentially produce fear responses in viewers of different ______ . a. While preschoolers are more frightened by monsters, upper elementary school children are more scared of attacks and natural disasters. b. Researchers have studied the long-lasting effects of fear responses by asking individuals about films they found extremely frightening. c. Not all researchers believe that individuals give accurate self reports of fear responses. In lieu of relying on self-reports of fear responses, brain imaging studies have been used.

ages

catharsis--Repressing these impulses produces _____, which can be managed in ______ ways.

anxiety, 2

refers to the process of minimizing the amount of blame that is communicated and maximizing the amount of praise that is sent. The focus is on positive rather than negative aspects of another.

approbation facework

_______ is generally credited with drawing people's attention to public speaking.

aristotle

_______ level might be important because those who are already physiologically aroused are _______ to engage in violence after seeing violent media than someone who is _______.

arousal, more likely, not aroused

pertains to a speaker's ability to organize a speech.

arrangement

_______ argued that people in all walks of life--attorneys, legislators, teachers, clergy, and media writers--will all benefit in some way from The Rhetoric.

cooper

theories of media effects--modeling occurs in 3 steps: (1) The behavior of the model must be ______. (2) The behavior must be ______. (3) Whether the behavior is ________ will depend on a number of factors.

attended, retained, produced by the viewer

aristotle--the introduction should gain the audience's ______, suggest a _______ with the audience, and provide an overview of the speech's ________.

attention, connection, purpose

uses and gratifications theory--Early perspectives on the relationship between media and audience members positioned audience members as passive recipients of media messages. In response, Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch (1974) presented a systematic and comprehensive articulation of the role of the _______ in the mass communication process.

audience

uses and grats--Blumler (1979) offers several suggestions about the kinds of ____________.

audience activity associated with media consumption

aristotelian theory--The process of evaluating an audience and its background (e.g., sex, age, educational level, occupation, group affiliations) is known as:

audience analysis

involve no attempt to acknowledge someone's face needs.

bald on record

4 politeness strategies:

bald on record, positive politeness, negative politeness, indirect/off record

____________ represented early attempts to test and refine social learning theory.

bandura's bobo doll studies

a. In these studies, young children watched someone else behave aggressively toward a large plastic doll. Then, the researchers observed the children's behavior toward the doll. These studies demonstrated that children imitated behavior that they had previously observed. b. Although some criticize these studies for being too artificial, there is evidence that modeling occurs outside of the laboratory. c. For example, research suggests that violence rose after the introduction of television in various countries.

bandura's bobo doll studies

theories of media effects--Researchers have defined violence as:

behavior causing intentional physical harm to another individual

narrative paradigm--Stories persuade us, move us, and form the basis for our:

beliefs and actions

uses and grats--_________ offers several suggestions about the kinds of audience activity associated with media consumption.

blumler

aristotle--The _______ should give all of the arguments, supporting details, and examples needed to make each point.

body

rhetoric--Speakers must follow certain guidelines or principles, sometimes called:

canons

describes the emotional release that comes from venting the impulse.

catharsis

assumes that individuals experience threatening impulses that they try to repress.

catharsis theory

cultivation theory--Because it is accessible and available to everyone, television is the _______.

central cultural arm of society

uses and grats--Many researchers believe the future will _______ the way we watch television and use media in general.

change

refers to the believability of the characters in the story.

characterological coherence

_______, the researcher who adapted MGT for the field of communication, observes that the _______ of a particular culture does not serve all its speakers equally, for not all speakers contribute in an equal fashion to its formulation.

cheris kramarae, language

theories of media effects--Although _________ has been shown to have the most violence, violence is prevalent in programming such as commercials, music videos, and news stories. A large percentage of video games also contain violence.

children's programming

refers to the internal consistency of a narrative.

coherence

Face-Negotiation Theory is one of the few communication theories to explicitly acknowledge that people from different cultures perceive and manage ________ differently.

conflict

theories of face--Cultures differ in the ways that they approach _________. The United States is typically ________ while other cultures adopt different approaches (e.g., relationship-orientated).

conflict management, solution oriented

1. Ting-Toomey (1994) views ______ as potentially damaging to face and reducing the amount of relational closeness between people. 2. ______ teaches us how to manage conflict.

conflict, culture

the rhetoric--aristotelian theory is guided by 2 general assumptions: 1. effective public speakers must __________. 2. effective public speakers use _______.

consider their audience, 3 means of persuasion/proofs

Modeling has received _____ in tests of media violence theories; whereas, catharsis _______ has.

consistent support, seldom

Also known as cultivation analysis, Gerbner's theory predicts and explains the long-term formation and shaping of perceptions, understandings, and beliefs about the world as a result of ________.

consumption of media messages

narrative paradigm--Fisher suggests that people are influenced by the _____ in which they are embedded.

context

a strategy in which individuals adapt to each other's communicative behaviors.

convergence

CAT--Speech and behavioral similarities and dissimilarities exist in all _________.

conversations

the percentage of difference in response between light and heavy television viewers

cultivation differential

Gerbner argues that a ______ exists between _________.

cultivation differential, light and heavy viewers and perceptions of violence

Research on CAT has focused primarily on accommodations made when conversing with members of _______ groups.

culturally diverse

Self-identity is important in interpersonal interactions, with individuals negotiating their identities differently across:

cultures

syllogism is a _______ argument.

deductive

type of speaking designed to determine an audience's course of action.

deliberative rhetoric

refers to the nonverbal presentation of a speaker's ideas.

delivery

occurs when a speaker consciously or unconsciously assigns the listener to a lower-status role, thus making the listener appear to be dependent on the speaker.

dependency overaccommodation

pairing is an important part of ________ theory.

desensitization

This theory predicts that we become less sensitive, more jaded, and less aroused by violence the more we are exposed to it.

desensitization theory

cultivation theory--Television is essentially and fundamentally ______ from other forms of mass media.

different

uses and grats--Herzog (1944) sought to classify reasons people engage in ________.

different forms of media behavior

catharsis--2 ways of reducing anxiety caused by trying to repress threatening impulses: 1. Repressed impulses and anxiety can be dealt with _______. 2. We can also deal with these impulses ________.

directly by overt sexual or violent behavior, indirectly by watching others act sexually or violently

theories of media effects--Acts of violence may be observed _______; whereas, aggression must be _______ from those acts.

directly, inferred

occurs when watching violent media reduces the normal inhibitions most people have against performing violent behavior.

disinhibition

a strategy used to accentuate the verbal and nonverbal differences between communicators.

divergence

uses and grats--an escape from daily routines or daily problems

diversion

McQuail et al. (1972) offer several way of classifying audience needs and gratifications. a. ______, or an escape from daily routines or daily problems. b. A ______ whereby people substitute the media for companionship. c. _______, or ways the media are used by an individual to reinforce her/his values. d. _______, or information about how media will help an individual accomplish something.

diversion, personal relationship, personal identity/individual psychology, surveillance

MGT--Women perceive the world differently than men do because of women's and men's different experiences and activities rooted in the:

division of labor

Scholars suggest that audiences favor messages where they are:

empowered to supply the conclusion

can be defined as a syllogism based on probabilities, signs and examples.

enthymeme

Scholars suggest that audiences favor messages where they are empowered to supply the conclusion. this means they prefer:

enthymemes

refers to speeches given in public arenas with the goal of praising, honoring, blaming, or shaming.

epideictic/ceremonial oratory

refers to the perceived character, intelligence, and goodwill of speakers as revealed through their speeches.

ethos

aristotelian theory--Effective public speakers use three means of persuasion, or proofs:

ethos, logos, pathos

refers to the process of judging a conversation.

evaluation

Face restoration occurs after the loss of face has happened. Examples include:

excuses and justifications

The management of conflict is mediated by:

face and culture

may relate to either one's own face or the face of another. This is associated with the question, "Do I want attention drawn toward myself or toward another?"

face concern

Ting-Toomey contends that face can be interpreted in two primary ways:

face concern, face need

refers to an inclusion-autonomy dichotomy. That is, "Do I want to be associated with others (inclusion) or do I want dissociation (autonomy)?"

face need

According to Goffman, _______ is the image of the self that people display in their interactions with others. It is a ________.

face, metaphor for self image

the actions taken to deal with the face wants of one and/or the other; the verbal and nonverbal strategies we use to maintain, defend, or upgrade our own social self-image and attack or defend the social image of others.

facework

a. Fisher describes the process of good reason as consisting of two series of five questions that the listener asks about the narrative. b. The first five questions comprise a) logic of reasons. i. Are the statements in the narrative that claim to be factual, really ______? ii. Have any ______ been omitted from the narrative or distorted in its telling? iii. What are the _______ that exist in the narrative? iv. How ______ are the arguments in the story to any decision the listener may make? v. How well does the narrative address the ________ issues of this case?

factual, relevant facts, patterns of reasoning, relevant, important and significant

cultivation theory--_______ viewers tend to believe the mainstreamed reality that the world is a more _______ place than it really is (e.g., all politicians are corrupt, teen crime is at record high levels).

heavy, dangerous

uses and grats--Focusing on why women were attracted to radio soap operas, _______- identified three major types of gratifications: experiencing emotional release, engaging in wishful thinking, and obtaining advice.

herzog

uses and grats--__________ sought to classify reasons people engage in different forms of media behavior.

herzog

Cultivation analysis is

heuristic

Social learning theory is _______, having been widely applied in the fields of communication, psychology, and education.

heuristic

strengths of narrative paradigm:

heuristic

criticisms--3 criteria can be applied to UGT:

heuristic, criticized for utility and logical consistency

1. Face-Negotiation Theory has _______ value in that it has generated considerable interest among intercultural scholars studying conflict and face management across cultures. 2. Some of Ting-Toomey's subsequent research has provided refinements and therefore improved the _______ of the theory.

heuristic, logical consistency

CAT has _______ value, having been invoked in a number of studies and applied to a variety of communication contexts. B. Some question its ________. Some scholars contend that a few of the central features of the theory warrant further examination.

heuristic, logical consistency

strengths of the rhetoric:

heuristic, test of time

uses and grats/needs and motivation theory--maslow posited that people actively seek to satisfy a:

hierarchy of needs

CAT--The primary language employed in a conversation will likely be reflective of the person with the:

higher status

narrative paradigm--good reasons are determined by issues of:

history, biography, culture, character

_________ developed Communication Accommodation Theory to explain the adjustments in speech, vocal patterns, and gestures that people make to accommodate others.

howard giles

a position stating that television doesn't have to have a single major impact but influences viewers through steady limited effects.

ice age analogy

uses and grats--suggests that audience members construct their own meaning from content and that this meaning influences what they think and do. They often actively avoid certain types of media influence (e.g., some people buy products on the basis of quality and value, rather than in response to advertising campaigns).

imperviousness to influence

CAT 1. Interactants bring a variety of experiences and backgrounds to an _________. 2. These varied experiences will influence the extent to which a person is willing to _________ to others.

interaction, accommodate

To transform a logic of reasons into a logic of good reasons, the second set of questions introduces the 2 concept of values into the process of assessing practical knowledge: i. What are the ______ values contained in the narrative? ii. Are the values appropriate to the _____ that is relevant to the narrative? iii. What would be the _____ of adhering to the values embedded in the narrative? iv. Are the values confirmed or validated in ______? v. Are the values of the narrative the basis for _______?

implicit and explicit, decision, effects, lived experience, ideal human conduct

The failure of traditional uses and gratifications researchers to consider the possibility of _________ led the authors of the original work to chastise their colleagues by noting that a "_______" (Blumler, 1985) should be purged from UGT.

important media effects, vulgar gratificationism

MGT suggests that speakers are rendered _______ when there are no words available to describe their thoughts.

inarticulate

Catharsis theory has received ______ support at best and, thus, has failed ________.

inconsistent, test of time

While modeling predicts an _______ in violent behavior after watching violent media, catharsis predicts a _______ in violent behavior.

increase, decrease

media effects--reinforcement refers to any event that follows a response and _________ of that response occurring again.

increases likelihood

The Rhetoric is considered by historians, philosophers, and communication experts to be one of the most ______ pieces of writing in the Western world.

influential

aristotle's work remains:

influential

Traditionally, men have controlled what _______ is to be included in history books. As a result women's roles in history have often gone unrecognized.

information

interactants try to collaborate with others to find a solution to a problem in order to satisfy expectations.

integrating

uses and grats--occurs when people's prior motivations determine their consumption of media content (e.g., when people want to be entertained, they tune in to an HBO comedy special).

intentionality

uses and gratifications theory--Early perspectives on the relationship between media and audience members positioned audience members as passive recipients of media messages. In response, ________ presented a systematic and comprehensive articulation of the role of the audience in the mass communication process.

katz, blumler, and gurevitch

A second set of uses and gratifications premises made clear the belief that people's use of media and the gratifications they seek from it are inextricably intertwined with the world in which they live. _______ et al. (1974) originally wrote that "______" in which people find themselves can be "involved in the generation of media-related needs" in five ways.

katz, social situations

Age, gender, and the context of violence may also influence the effects of violent content on individuals. However, _______ is known about these influences.

less

theories of media effects--There is much ________ violence in the real world.

less

gratification=

level of reward

cultivation theory--influence of television is:

limited

The rational world paradigm emphasizes _____ above all else and denigrates the role of ______ in rhetoric.

logic and reasoning, stories

primary method for assessing narrative fidelity:

logic of good reasons

Fisher describes the process of good reason as consisting of two series of five questions that the listener asks about the narrative. The first five questions comprise a:

logic of reasons

critiques of the rhetoric:

logical consistency

the _______ of cultivation analysis has been called into question.

logical consistency

UGT--Regarding _______, McQuail (1984) believes that the theory suffers from a lack of ________.

logical consistency, theoretical coherence

the logical proof that speakers employ in their arguments, rationalizations, and discourse. This includes the use of logical claims and clear language.

logos

________ et al. (1972) offer several way of classifying audience needs and gratifications.

macquail

cultivation theory--As a result of heavy viewing, people's social realities move toward the ________, or a culturally dominant reality that is more similar to television's reality than to any measurable, objective external reality.

mainstream

occurs when, especially among heavy viewers, television's symbols dominate other sources of information and ideas about the world.

mainstreaming

Cultivation, either as ______ or as ______, produces effects on ______ levels.

mainstreaming, resonance, 2

refers to the degree of congruence between one story and other stories that seem related to it.

material coherence

Another product of cultivation theory is the ______, which consists of a series of three statements: (1) "Most people are just looking out for ______," (2) "You can't be too careful in _______," and (3) "Most people would ________ if they got the chance."

mean world index, themselves, dealing with people, take advantage of you

. Cultivation theory predicts different responses to the mean world index statements from heavy and light viewers, with heavy viewers seeing the world as a ______ place than light viewers do.

meaner

cultivation theory--During the late 1960s and early 1970s, the federal government was concerned about ______'s influence on society, especially their contribution to rising levels of ______ among young people. Gerbner was involved in two studies examining the potential impact of media on _______.

media, violence, violent behavior

Aristotle did not spend significant time delineating the importance of _______ in speech presentation. Today, it involves having a basic understanding of ________ used in speech making.

memory, material and techniques

To demonstrate television's causal effect on culture, cultivation researchers follow a four-step process. 1. Researchers conduct a ______ consisting of detailed content analyses of television programming in order to demonstrate its most recurring and consistent images, themes, values, and portrayals. 2. Researchers formulate questions about viewers' _______. a. For example, "In any given week, what are the chances that you will be involved in some kind of violence? About 1 in 10 or about 1 in 100?" 3. Researchers survey the audience by asking the questions developed in the second step and ask these viewers about their ______. 4. Researchers compare the ________.

message system analysis, social realities, levels of tv consumption, social realities of light and heavy viewers

style--To bridge the gap between the unfamiliar and the familiar, Aristotle introduces the notion of ______, or a figure of speech that helps to make the unclear more understandable.

metaphors

________ has received consistent support in tests of media violence theories; whereas, _______ seldom has.

modeling, catharsis

theories of media effects--Media effects may occur through the process of _______, part of _________.

modeling, social learning theory

Personality characteristics of the viewer may also influence the effects of watching violent media. Those who are ______ toward violence are more likely to _________ seen in the media.

more inclined, model violent behaviors

cultivation theory--Television does not so much persuade us as paint a ________ of what the world is like.

more or less convincing picture

aristotelian theory--Speakers should think about the audience as a group of individuals with _______.

motivations and desires

Harassment has a _______ effect on women.

muting

A CO style promotes a ______ by seeking "middle-of-the-road" solutions.

mutual face need

Muted Group Theory (MGT) focuses on the power to:

name experiences

includes any verbal or nonverbal account with a sequence of events to which listeners assign a meaning.

narration

key concepts in the narrative paradigm:

narration, narrative rationality, fidelity

narrative paradigm--fisher's main point is that all communication is:

narrative

refers to the standards for judging which stories to believe and which to disregard.

narrative rationality

uses and grats--The media compete with other sources for:

need satisfaction

Uses and Grats is an extension of _______ developed by ________.

needs and motivation theory, abraham maslow

the desire to be autonomous and unconstrained.

negative face

occurs when a particular behavior is strengthened by stopping or removing some sort of negative stimuli.

negative reinforcement

Researchers have investigated the application of uses and gratifications theory to a variety of ________, including the cell phone, video games, and the Internet.

new media

occurs when the process of modeling actually teaches a new behavior.

observational learning

theories of media effects--modeling can take 2 forms:

observational learning, disinhibition

Aristotle believed that speakers should use _______ for their speeches in order to connect with their listeners.

organizational patterns

used to describe a speaker who overcompensates for differences between communicators.

over accommodation

syllogisms and enthymemes--People don't like being told what to think; they like to feel a sense of _______ of the opinions they have.

ownership

This occurs when we begin to associate violence with pleasure.

pairing

Because Fisher's narrative paradigm contrasts with the rational world paradigm, the narrative paradigm can be called a _______, or a significant change in the way people think about the world and its meanings.

paradigm shift

Desensitization and catharsis have been lauded for being:

parsimonious

AV and OB styles are both _______ in their attempts to manage conflict.

passive

uses and gratifications theory--Early perspectives on the relationship between media and audience members positioned audience members as ________ of media messages.

passive recipients

refers to the (9) emotions that are drawn out of the listeners.

pathos

the rhetoric--________ has the ability to affect individuals beyond the listening audience and is a critical skill in a democratic society.

public speaking

involves punishing the response

punishment

Cultivation theory suggests that mass communication, especially television, cultivates certain beliefs about _____ that are held in common by mass communication ______. This represents a ______ argument.

reality, consumers, causal

When acting violent appears to benefit the character, it is ______ in the context of the story. Reinforced violence is more likely to________ than nonreinforced or punished violence.

reinforced, desensitize or be modeled

media effects--refers to any event that follows a response and increases likelihood of that response occurring again.

reinforcement

theories of media effects--_________ of violence is also important.

reinforcement

cultivation theory--The amount of TV viewing is in ______ terms: Heavy viewers are those who watch the most in a given sample, and lights viewers are those who watch the least.

relative

occurs when things on television are congruent with viewers' actual everyday realities. In other words, people's objective external reality resonates with that of television.

resonance

refers to the process whereby speech is trivialized. 1. Pejorative labels have been assigned to describe women's talk (e.g., gossip, chattering, nagging, and whining).

ridicule

______ also silence women. 1. Two examples are the wedding ceremony and the bride taking the groom's last name.

rituals

uses and grats--________ found that motivations for television use clustered into several categories: To pass time, for companionship, excitement, escape, enjoyment, social interaction, relaxation, information, and to learn about specific content.

ruben

Certain variables may affect modeling and desensitization. In other words, violent media do not affect everyone in all circumstances in the ________ way.

same

uses and grats--______ argued that audience members weigh the level of reward (gratification) they expect from a given medium or message against the effort they must make to secure that reward: expectation of reward/effort required. This was called the _______.

schramm, fraction of selection

involve "hypotheses about more general issues and assumptions" that people make about their environments."

second order effects

uses and grats--individual audience members' use of media may reflect their existing interests and preference (e.g., a person who likes jazz will listen to a radio jazz program).

selectivity

uses and grats--People have enough ______ of their own media use, interests, and motives to be able to provide researchers with an ________ of that use.

self awareness, accurate picture

occurs when a speaker overadapts to another who is perceived as being "limited" in some way.

sensory overaccommodation

refers to biological characteristics associated with being male or female as determined by the presence of XX or XY chromosomes.

sex

Researchers studying MGT differentiate between:

sex and gender

researchers using pairing/desensitization have been concerned with:

sexual violence

MGT allows an individual to understand any group that is ________ by the inadequacies of their language.

silenced

style--Speaking in terms that are too ______ will also turn off an audience.

simplistic

ice age analogy states that television doesn't have to have a _____ major impact but influences viewers through _______.

single, steady limited effects

cultivation theory--The observable, measurable, and independent contributions of television to the culture are relatively:

small

CAT is rooted in:

social identity theory

This theory states that a person's social identity is primarily determined by the groups to which he or she belongs. a. We are motivated to join those groups that are most appealing to us. b. These groups often become central to our social identity, causing us to make comparisons between the in-group and the out-groups.

social identity theory

People use the divergence strategy for different reasons. a. It is a way for members of various cultural communities to maintain their own _______. b. It frequently occurs in conversations in which there is a ______ between communicators with regard to their roles (e.g., doctor-patient, parent-child, interviewer-interviewee). c. Divergence may occur because the "other" involved in a conversation is viewed as being a member of an undesirable ________. The purpose of divergence is to contrast self-images of interactants.

social identity, power differential, out group

CAT--Language and behaviors impart information about ________ and __________.

social status, group belonging

refers to the acceptance of others as members of an in-group. Differences are minimized and commonalities are highlighted through informal language and sharing of experiences.

solidarity facework

Giles adapted Social Identity Theory to focus on the influence of in-groups on individuals':

speech style

MGT points out problems with the _______ and suggests ways to remediate these problems.

status quo

CAT--While convergence is typically considered to be a positive strategy, it may be misused as a result of _______ of others.

stereotyping

narrative paradigm--The world is experienced by people as a set of:

stories from which to choose

Fisher asserts that story, or _______, is imbued in all human communication endeavors because all arguments include "ideas that cannot be verified or proved in any absolute way. Such ideas rise in metaphor, values, gestures, and so on."

story

narrative paradigm--humans are _______.

storytellers

The narrative paradigm, as described by Walter Fisher, promotes the belief that humans are _____ and that ______, ______, and _______ ground our beliefs and behaviors.

storytellers, values, emotions, aesthetic considerations

Collins (1993) suggests that women engage in _______ as a method for assisting one another in finding the right words to encode their thoughts.

storytelling

Kissling's (1991) research uncovered a concept known as _______ that describes the verbal threats of men and their nonverbal control of public places.

street harassment

perceived reality refers to whether the violence is seen as real or make-believe. Realistic violence tends to have __________ on viewers than unrealistic portrayals of violence.

stronger negative effects

rests on the degree to which the elements of the story flow smoothly.

structural coherence

narrative paradigm--coherence is based on 3 specific types of consistency:

structural, material, characterological

aristotle--The use of language to express ideas in a certain manner is called:

style

refers to the extent to which one respects another's autonomy and allows that person the freedom to behave without imposing restrictions.

tact facework

3 types of facework:

tact, solidarity, approbation

uses and grats--The initiative in linking need gratification to a specific media choice rests with the audience member. 1. This assumption suggests that, because people are active agents, they _______. 2. The implication is that audience members have a great deal of _______ in the mass communication process.

take initiative, autonomy

social situations can be involved in the generation of media-related needs in 5 ways: 1. Social situations can produce ______, leading to pressure for their easement through the consumption of media. 2. Social situations can create an_______, information about which may be sought in the media. 3. Social situations can impoverish real-life opportunities to _______, and the media can serve as ______ or supplements. 4. Social situations often elicit specific ______, and their affirmation and reinforcement can be facilitated by the consumption of related media materials. 5. Social situations can provide realms of _______, which must be met to sustain membership in specific social groups.

tensions and conflicts, awareness of problems that demand attention, satisfy certain needs, substitutes, values, expectations of familiarity with media

Bandura's Bobo doll studies represented early attempts to ________ social learning theory.

test and refine

Two main concerns with cultivation theory are relevant to the _________- criterion.

test of time

uses and grats--Value judgments of media content can only be assessed by:

the audience

uses and grats--The initiative in linking need gratification to a specific media choice rests with:

the audience member

cultivation theory--Regardless of the influence and pervasiveness of social media, ______ still holds a central place in people's experiences. Cultivation Theory (CT), began as a way to test the _____ that all this television viewing had on viewers, particularly with regard to _____.

tv, impact, violence

cultivation theory--goal of gerbner's violence index was to correlate annual rises in the amount of violent ______ content with annual increases in the amount of real-world _______.

tv, violent crime

The second stage of Uses and Gratifications research began when researchers created _________ representing all the reasons people had for media use

typologies

Cultivation theory underscores the ______ of television compared to print media, movies, and radio.

uniqueness

narrative paradigm--Narratives are _______, found in all cultures and time periods.

universal

MGT--Men are in charge of naming and labeling social life, often leaving women's experiences:

unnamed

Cultivation analysis is also criticized because its claims are not always _________ in explaining the phenomenon of interest.

useful

In terms of _______, UGT has been criticized because some of its central tenets may be questionable; in particular, the notion of the active audience has been questioned.

utility

The _________ of social learning theory has been questioned since the theory assumes that a viewer can learn from one exposure to a model. For example, complex tasks require more exposure than simple tasks.

utility

uses and grats--suggests that media have uses for people and people can put media to those uses (e.g., people listen to the car radio to find out about traffic or read fashion magazines to keep abreast of styles).

utility

uses and grats--Blumler (1979) offers several suggestions about the kinds of audience activity associated with media consumption. 1. ______ suggests that media have uses for people and people can put media to those uses (e.g., people listen to the car radio to find out about traffic or read fashion magazines to keep abreast of styles). 2. ______ occurs when people's prior motivations determine their consumption of media content (e.g., when people want to be entertained, they tune in to an HBO comedy special). 3. _______ means that individual audience members' use of media may reflect their existing interests and preference (e.g., a person who likes jazz will listen to a radio jazz program). 4. __________ suggests that audience members construct their own meaning from content and that this meaning influences what they think and do. They often actively avoid certain types of media influence (e.g., some people buy products on the basis of quality and value, rather than in response to advertising campaigns).

utility, intentionality, selectivity, imperviousness to influence

VII. Critique of MGT A. The ______ of the theory has been questioned. 1. It overly essentializes men and women. It assumes that all men are the same and all women are the same. 2. It exaggerates women's mutedness. Some women do speak out in public forums (e.g., Hillary Rodham Clinton, Condoleeza Rica). B. The theory fails the ______. 1. The theory has not received much empirical support in the several decades since its development, and many feel that its assumptions are dated. C. The theory is _______, challenging us to think about biases that exist in our language system.

utility, test of time, provocative

uses and grats--The media compete with other sources for need satisfaction. This assumption suggests that media and their audiences do not exist in a ______. Rather, both are part of a ________, and the relationship between media and audiences is influenced by that society.

vacuum, larger society

To transform a logic of reasons into a logic of good reasons, the second set of questions introduces the 2 concept of _______ into the process of assessing practical knowledge.

values

The most recent stage of Uses and Gratifications research has focused on linking specific reasons for media use with _______ such as needs, goals, benefits, and the consequences of media use.

variables

theories of media effects--A large percentage of television shows and movies show some sort of:

violence

cultivation theory--Gerbner's task, as part of the studies, was to produce an annual _______, a yearly content analysis of a sample week of prime-time network television content that would show, season to season, how much violence was actually present on television.

violence index

theories of media effects--A majority of studies on media violence show negative effects of watching _________.

violent entertainment

Aspects of the _____________________________ are important. We're more likely to imitate or be disinhibited by observing the behavior of attractive, respected, or prestigious models. The more we identify with the model, the more likely we are to imitate it.

violent model

According to the predictions of this theory, people see a violent act in the media and then later behave more ______ than they otherwise would.

violently

The narrative paradigm, as described by ______, promotes the belief that humans are storytellers and that values, emotions, and aesthetic considerations ground our beliefs and behaviors.

walter fisher

Instead of asking, "What do media do to people?" UGT researchers ask, "_______"

what do people do with the media?

good reasons--ppl make decisions about which stories to accept and which to reject on the basis of:

what makes sense to them

1. Individuals present an image of ______ in interactions with others. 2. We hold a number of ______, and they are negotiated in interactions.

who they are, self identities

aristotle--style includes:

word choice, word imagery, word appropriateness