Combo with "Diversity Chapter 11" and 6 others

Asian Culture

Asian cultures tend to stress group over individual Stress sensitivity to the opinions and judgments of others and to the importance of avoiding public embarrassment and not giving offense Traditional Asian cultures were male dominated Experiences in the United States have modified these patriarchal values and traditional traits

CHAPTER 4

CHAPTER 4

CHAPTER 5

CHAPTER 5

CHAPTER 7

CHAPTER 7

Chinese

Consistent split labor market theory, native-born workers, organized labor, and white owners of small businesses felt threatened by the Chinese and supported the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) Conflicts such as the anti-Chinese campaign are intense They confound racial/ethnic antagonisms with social class conflict Ban on Chinese immigration in effect until WWII

Gender Relations 161

Constraints were triple for female slaves: "Black in a white society, slave in a free society, women in a society ruled by men" Domestic and field chores Used for breeding, white male rape and abuse Sex-segregated work groups produced opportunity to develop same-sex bonds and relationships Used to resist the system, e.g., induced abortions

modern institutional discrimination

Hiring solely on educational criteria Redlining Industrial flight Standardized testing

Prejudice

Ignoble savage Indians as bloodthirsty, ferocious, and inhumanly cruel capable of any atrocity Nobel savage Indians in complete harmony with nature and symbols of goodwill and pristine simplicity

CHAPTER 5

I. Chapter Overview A. Dominant-minority group relations change as the subsistence technology changes. Industrialization began in the early 1800s and led to capital intensive work, created new minority groups, adapted new forms of exploitation and oppression, and provided new opportunities for social mobility. B. Deindustrialization began in the mid-20th Century, led to a decline in manufacturing, a decrease in manual labor jobs, and expansion of the service and information sectors and white-collar jobs. C. These changes in subsistence technology affected all aspects of society, including dominant-minority group relations. II. Industrialization and the Shift from Paternalistic to Rigid Competitive Group Relations A. As the industrial economy grew, the close, paternalistic control of minority groups became irrelevant. As industrialism progressed, paternalism gave way to rigid competitive group relations under which minority group members are freer to compete for jobs and other commodities. B. As competition increases within the rigid competitive system, threatened members of the dominant group become more hostile and attacks on minority groups tend to increase. C. In the rigid competitive system, the dominant group seeks to preserve its advantage by handicapping the minority group's ability to compete effectively. III. The Impact of Industrialization on the Racial Stratification of African Americans: From Slavery to Segregation A. Reconstruction. 1. The period of Reconstruction from 1865-the 1880s was a respite in the history of oppression and exploitation of African Americans. African Americans registered to vote in large numbers, were elected to political offices, attended schools, purchased houses, and founded businesses. 2. Reconstruction began to end when the federal government demobilized its armies of occupation and turned attention to other matters. Once reconstruction ended, black southerners fell into a new system of exploitation and inequality. 3. Reconstruction did not overturn two legacies of slavery. a. Slavery left black southerners impoverished, illiterate and uneducated, and with few resources. b. Slavery left a strong tradition of racism in the white community. B. De Jure Segregation 1. The Origins of De Jure Segregation (Jim Crow) - exist within the basic class structure and agrarian economy of the South that remained intact after the Civil War. Landowners still needed labor to farm their land. 2. To solve their labor supply problems, plantation elite instituted sharecropping or tenant farming. In this system, sharecroppers worked the land in return for payment from sales once the crop was sold at market. The landowner supplied the sharecroppers with housing, food, and clothing on credit. These debts were deducted from the tenant's share in the profit. Under this system, sharecroppers had few opportunities to improve their situations and were often bound to the land until they could pay their debts. 3. In some sectors of the economy, the status of African Americans fell lower than it had been under slavery. At the height of Jim Crow, African Americans were denied the opportunity for a decent education and excluded from politics. Laws and customs further restricted the choices of African Americans. 4. Populism spread around the country as the 19th century drew to a close. This anti-elitist movement was a reaction to changes in agriculture caused by industrialization. It attempted to unite poor whites and blacks in the rural South against the elite classes. But the elite fanned the flames of racial hatred to divide the people along racial lines. 5. Literacy tests, poll taxes, and property requirements further disenfranchised members of the black community. These tactics were effective and by the early 20th century, the political power of the southern black community was virtually nonexistent. C. Reinforcing the System. 1. The subordination of the African American community was reinforced and supplemented by an elaborate system of racial etiquette. Blacks were expected to be humble and deferential in all interactions with whites. 2. Anyone who ignored these rules of "good manners" risked reprisal, physical attaches, or death. D. Increases in Prejudice and Racism. 1. As the system of racial advantage formed and solidified, levels of prejudice and racism increased. 2. As under slavery, the new system needed justification and rationalization and anti-black sentiment, stereotypes, and ideologies of racial inferiority grew stronger to provide this justification. IV. The "Great Migration" A. Life in the North. 1. Although African Americans still lacked resources, they had freedom of movement not afforded to them under slavery. Many "voted with their feet" by moving north. 2. Life in the North was better for the vast majority of black migrants and many aspects of African American culture--literature, poetry, and music--flourished. 3. Northern black communities still faced discrimination in housing, education, and jobs. B. Competition with White Ethnic Groups 1. Competition with white ethnic groups led to hostile relations between black southern migrants and white ethnic groups, especially the lower- and working-class segments of those groups. 2. Being the last migrants to arrive in major cities, African Americans had no newly arriving immigrants to help improve their status (as had been the case for Irish, Germans, Italians, and Poles). 3. American cities developed concentrations of low-income blacks who were economically vulnerable and politically weak. V. The Origins of Black Protest A. Booker T. Washington was the most prominent African American leader prior to World War I. His non-confrontational advice to African Americans in the South was to be patient, accommodate to the Jim Crow system, and improve their education and skill level. He worked behind the scenes to end discrimination and implement racial integration. B. W.E.B. Du Bois was Washington's most vocal critic. He advocated the immediate pursuit of racial equality and an attack on de jure segregation. He helped found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. C. Marcus Garvey argued that white-dominated U.S. society was hopelessly racist and would never support racial equality and integration. He advocated separatist goals, including a return to Africa. He founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association. VI. Applying Concepts A. Acculturation and Integration. 1. During the era of southern segregation and migration to the North, assimilation was not a major factor in the African American experience. Rather, it could be described best as a system of pluralism and inequality. 2. During segregation, a small black middle class emerged. A network of black colleges and universities emerged to educate the children of this middle class. B. Gender and Race 1. As sharecropping and segregation began to shape race relations in the South, women often had to return to the fields or domestic work for families to survive. 2. In cities of the North, African American women's experience paralleled that of immigrant women from Europe. The men often moved north first and sent for the women after they had some measure of economic stability. 3. Discrimination in the North created problems of unemployment for African American men. Women found work in low-paying, less desirable areas such as domestic work. 4. In both the North and South, African American women worked outside the home in larger proportions than did white women. 5. Although African American men earned the right to vote in 1870, women did not until the 19th Amendment passed in 1920. VII. Comparative Focus: South African Apartheid A. Apartheid is the system of legally-sanctioned racial segregation, most famously constructed in South Africa, intended to control black labor and eliminate political and economic threats from the group. Apartheid means "separate" or "apart" in Afrikaans. B. The Dutch were the first to arrive in South Africa in the 1600s. Interracial conflict was bloody and the initial contact period resembled both the European contact with Native Americans and the early days of the establishment of black slavery in North America. C. South Africa became a British colony in the 1800s, leading to a split between those of Dutch and English descent and the Boer War in 1899. Generally, the Dutch descendants have been more opposed to racial change. D. Apartheid was constructed under the leadership of the National Party, the primary political vehicle of the Afrikaans, or Dutch. It resembled the Jim Crow system of segregation in the US, but was even more repressive, elaborate, and unequal. E. But the coming of apartheid reverses the relationship between modernization and control of minority groups in the US. As the US industrialized, group relations evolved from paternalistic (slavery) to rigid competitive forms (de jure segregation). In South Africa after 1948, group relations became more rigid and the structures of control became more oppressive. F. This difference is likely due to: the lack of internal opposition among whites to apartheid; the greater powerlessness of South African blacks; and the greater relative size of the black South African population. G. Apartheid lasted 40 years and fell due to internal protests, internal weaknesses and contradictions, and international pressure. VIII. Industrialization, the Shift to Postindustrial Society, and Dominant-Minority Group Relations: General Trends A. Urbanization made close, paternalistic controls of minority groups irrelevant and created the potential for organization. B. Occupational Specialization. 1. One of the first results of industrialization was an increase in occupational specialization and the variety of jobs in the workforce. 2. The complexity of the industrial job structure made it difficult to maintain rigid, caste-like divisions of labor between dominant and minority groups. 3. As the more repressive systems of control weakened, job opportunities for minority group members sometimes increased. However, conflict between groups increased as well. C. Bureaucracy and Rationality. 1. As Industrialization continued, privately owned corporations and businesses had workforces numbering in the hundreds of thousands. To coordinate these workforces, bureaucracy became the dominant form of organization in the economy. 2. The stress on rationality and objectivity can counteract the more blatant forms of racism and increase the opportunities for minority group members. D. Growth of White-Collar Jobs and the Service Sector 1. Extractive or primary occupations are those that produce raw materials such as food and agricultural products. These jobs require little education, are unskilled, and offer little pay. 2. Manufacturing or secondary occupations transform raw materials into finished products ready for sale in the marketplace. These jobs require high skill levels and are paid better than primary occupations. 3. Service or tertiary occupations provide services. Work in this sector grew as urbanization increased. E. The Growing Importance of Education 1. Education became an increasing important prerequisite for employability as America moved into the postindustrial era. 2. Opportunities for high-quality education are not distributed equally across the population. Access to education remains a key issue for minority groups. F. A Dual Labor Market. 1. The changing composition of the labor force and increasing importance of educational credentials has split the U.S. labor market into two segments or types. a. Primary labor market includes jobs in large, bureaucratic organizations. These jobs offer higher pay, more security, opportunities for advancement, and benefits. b. Secondary labor market jobs are low-paid, low-skill, insecure jobs. G. Globalization. 1. Over the past century, the U.S. has become an economic, political, and military world power with interest around the glows. 2. Our worldwide ties have created new minority groups through population movement and have changed the status of others. 3. Dominant-minority relations in the U.S. have been increasingly played out on an international state as the world has essentially "shrunk" in size and become more interconnected by international organizations. 4. Part of the pressure for the U.S. to end blatant systems of discrimination such as de jure segregation came from the desire to maintain a leading position in the world. IX. Post-Industrial Society and the Shift from Rigid to Fluid Competitive Relationships A. Gender Inequality in a Globalizing, Postindustrial World 1. In the US, the transition to a postindustrial society has changed gender relations and the status of women on a number of levels. Women and men are now equal in terms of levels of education, and the shift to fluid competitive group relations has weakened the barriers to gender equality along with the barriers to racial equality. 2. The changing role of women is also shaped by other characteristics of a modern society: smaller families, high divorce rates, and rising numbers of single mothers who must work. 3. Many women workers enter the paid labor force to compensate for the declining earning power of men. 4. Occupational segregation is one important reason for the continuing gender gap in income. But this gender segregation is declining. 5. Global Trends - The weakening of gender roles has increased women's vulnerability throughout the world. Reconciling family demands with occupational ones has become an issue throughout the world. B. Modern Institutional Discrimination. 1. Virtually all American minority groups lag behind national averages in income, employment, and other measures of equality despite the greater fluidity of group relations, greater openness in the U.S. stratification system, and declines in overt prejudice. 2. Past-in-present discrimination continues to be an issue: the consequences of previous overt discrimination, such as seniority, hinders the progress of American minority groups. 3. The forms of institutional discrimination that persist are more subtle than those defined in the Jim Crow System. They are often unintentional or unconscious. Modern institutional discrimination is not necessarily linked to prejudice, and the decision makers who implement it may sincerely think of themselves as behaving rationally and in the best interest of their organizations. 4. It is more difficult to identify, measure, and eliminate institutional discrimination. One highly debated method is through affirmative action, but in the face of recent court decisions it would not be surprising to see all affirmative action programs end in the next 5 to 10 years. If they do, one of the few tools available to combat modern institutional discrimination will be eliminated. X. Social Change and Minority Group Activism A. The changes in the situation of African Americans and other minority groups did not "just happen" as society modernized. Although the opportunity to pursue favorable change was the result of broad structural changes in American society, the realization of these opportunities came from the efforts of the many who gave their time, their voices, their resources, and sometimes their lives in pursuit of racial justice in America. XI. Current Debates: Reparations

CHAPTER 9

I. Chapter Overview A. This chapter focuses on the perception of Asian Americans as model minorities - successful, affluent, highly educated people who do not suffer from the problems usually associated with minority group status. B. Asians and Pacific Islanders are tiny fractions of the total U.S. population. Even when aggregated, they account for slightly less than 5% of the total population. C. Most Asian American groups have grown dramatically in recent decades, largely because of high rates of immigration since the 1965 changes in U.S. immigration policy. D. This rapid growth is projected to continue for decades to come, and the impact of Asian Americans on everyday life and American culture will increase accordingly. II. Origins and Cultures A. Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders have brought a wealth of traditions to the United States. They speak many different languages and practice religions as diverse as Buddhism, Confucianism, Islam, Hindu, and Christianity. B. Although no two of these cultures are the same, some general similarities can be identified. 1. Asian cultures tend to stress group membership over individual self-interest. 2. Asian cultures stress sensitivity to the opinions and judgments of others and to the importance of avoiding public embarrassment and not giving offense. 3. Asian cultures emphasize proper behavior, conformity to convention and the judgments of others, and avoiding embarrassment and personal confrontations ("saving face"). 4. Traditional Asian cultures were male-dominated, and women were consigned to subordinate roles. III. Contact Situations and the Development of the Chinese American and Japanese American Communities A. Chinese Americans 1. Early Immigration and the Anti-Chinese Campaign. Chinese immigrants were "pushed" to leave their homeland by the disruption of traditional social relations, caused by the colonization of much of China by more industrialized European nations, and by rapid population growth. 2. Noel argues that racial or ethnic stratification will result when a contact situation is characterized by three conditions: ethnocentrism, competition, and a differential in power. a. Once all three conditions were met on the West Coast, a vigorous campaign against the Chinese began, and the group was pushed into a subordinate, disadvantaged position. b. An anti-Chinese campaign of harassment, discrimination, and violent attacks began. As the West Coast economy changed, the Chinese came to be seen as a threat, and elements of the dominant group tried to limit competition. 3. In 1882, the U.S. Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act banning virtually all immigration from China. a. Conflicts such as the anti-Chinese campaign can be especially intense because they confound racial and ethnic antagonisms with disputes between different social classes. b. The ban on immigration from China remained in effect until World War II, when China was awarded a yearly quota of 105 immigrants in recognition of its wartime alliance with the United States. 4. Population Trends and the "Delayed" Second Generation a. Following the Chinese Exclusion Act, the number of Chinese in the United States actually declined. b. After 1882, it was difficult for anyone from China, male or female, to immigrate, and the Chinese community in the United States remained overwhelmingly male for many decades. c. The scarcity of Chinese women in the United States delayed the second generation. d. The delayed second generation may have reinforced the exclusion of the Chinese American community that began as a reaction to the overt discrimination of the dominant group. 5. The Ethnic Enclave a. The Chinese became increasingly urbanized as the anti-Chinese campaign and rising racism took their toll. b. Chinatowns had existed since the start of the immigration and now took on added significance as safe havens from the storm of anti-Chinese venom. c. The social structure was based on a variety of types of organizations, including family and clan groups and huiguan, or associations based on the region or district in China from which the immigrant had come. d. Despite these internal conflicts, American Chinatowns evolved into highly organized, largely self-contained communities complete with their own leadership and decision-making structures. 6. Survival and Development a. The Chinese American community survived despite the widespread poverty discrimination, and pressures created by the unbalanced sex ratio. b. The patterns of exclusion and discrimination that began during the 19th century anti-Chinese campaign were common throughout the nation and continued well into the 20th century. c. As the decades passed, the enclave economy and the complex subsociety of Chinatown evolved. However, discrimination combined with defensive self-segregation ensured the continuation of poverty, limited job opportunities, and sub-standard housing. 7. The Second Generation. a. Whereas the immigrant generation generally retained their native language and customs, the second generation was much more influenced by the larger culture. b. This group was mobile and Americanized, and with educational credentials comparable to the general population, they were prepared to seek success outside Chinatown. c. In another departure from tradition, the women of the second generation also pursued education; Chinese American women also became more diverse in their occupational profile as the century progressed. 8. An American Success Story? a. The men and women of the second generation achieved considerable educational and occupational success and helped to establish the idea that Chinese Americans are a "model minority." b. Second-generation Chinese Americans earned less, on the average, and had less favorable occupational profiles than comparably educated white Americans, a gap between qualifications and rewards that reflects persistent discrimination. c. Thus, Chinese Americans can be found at both ends of the spectrum of success and affluence, and the group is often said to be "bipolar" in its occupational structure. B. Japanese Americans - Immigration from Japan began to increase shortly after the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 took effect, in part to fill the gap in the labor supply created by the restrictive legislation. 1. The Anti-Japanese Campaign: The contact situation for Japanese immigrants resembled that of the Chinese. a. They immigrated to the same West Coast regions as the Chinese, entered the labor force in a similar position, and were a small group with few power resources. b. Japanese immigration was partly curtailed in 1907 when a "gentlemen's agreement" was signed between Japan and the United States limiting the number of laborers Japan would allow to emigrate. c. The anti-Japanese movement also attempted to dislodge the group from agriculture. Many Japanese immigrants were skilled agriculturists, and farming proved to be their most promising avenue for advancement. d. The Japanese were excluded from the mainstream economy and confined to a limited range of poorly paid occupations. Thus, there were strong elements of systematic discrimination, exclusion, and colonization in their overall relationship with the larger society. 2. The Ethnic Enclave a. The immigrant generation, called the Issei (from the Japanese word ichi, meaning "one"), established an enclave in agriculture and related enterprises, a rural counterpart of the urban enclaves constructed by other groups we have examined. b. Japanese Americans in both the rural and urban sectors maximized their economic clout by doing business with other Japanese-owned firms as often as possible. These networks helped the enclave economy to grow and also permitted the Japanese to avoid the hostility and racism of the larger society. However, these very same patterns helped sustain the stereotypes that depicted the Japanese as clannish and inassimilable. 3. The Second Generation (Nisei) a. Unable to find acceptance in Anglo society, the second generation—called the Nisei—established clubs, athletic leagues, churches, and a multitude of other social and recreational organizations within their own communities. b. Many Nisei were forced to remain within the enclave, and in many cases, jobs in the produce stands and retail shops of their parents were all they could find. Their demoralization and anger over their exclusion were eventually swamped by the larger events of World War II. 4. The Relocation Camps a. President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which led to the relocation of Japanese Americans living on the West Coast. By the late summer of 1942, more than 110,000 Japanese Americans, young and old, male and female—virtually the entire West Coast population—had been transported to relocation camps where they were imprisoned behind barbed-wire fences patrolled by armed guards. b. The strain of living in the camps affected Japanese Americans in a variety of ways. c. Finally, in 1944, the Supreme Court ruled that detention was unconstitutional. d. The World War II relocation devastated the Japanese American community and left it with few material resources. 5. Japanese Americans After World War II: In 1945, Japanese Americans faced a world very different from the one they had left in 1942. a. In the camps, the Issei had lost power to the Nisei. The English-speaking second generation had dealt with the camp administrators and held the leadership positions. b. The Issei-dominated enclave economy did not reappear after the war. c. By 1960, Japanese Americans had an occupational profile very similar to that of whites except that they were actually overrepresented among professionals. Within these limitations, the Nisei, their children (Sansei), and their grandchildren (Yonsei) have enjoyed relatively high status, and their upward mobility and prosperity has contributed to the perception that Asian Americans are a "model minority." C. Comparing Minority Groups 1. Unlike the situation of African Americans in the 1600s and Mexican Americans in the 1800s, the dominant group had no desire to control the labor of these groups. 2. Unlike Native Americans, Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans in the early 20th century presented no military danger to the larger society so there was little concern with their activities once the economic threat had been eliminated. 3. Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans had the ingredients and experiences necessary to form enclaves. V. Contemporary Immigration from Asia A. Asian immigrants are "bipolar" - including people from both the top and the bottom of the occupational and educational hierarchies. B. Among the contemporary immigrants are the Hmong, a group of refugees from the hills of Laos and other Southeast Asian countries, mostly as a result of the Vietnam War. C. The Hmong have very traditional beliefs and values, which often put them at odds with contemporary modern American society. VI. Contemporary Relations A. Prejudice and Discrimination 1. American prejudice against Asians first became prominent during the anti-Chinese movement of the 19th century. 2. In more recent decades, the average social distance scores of Asian groups have fallen even though the ranking of the groups remained relatively stable. 3. Although prejudice against Asian and Pacific Island groups may have weakened overall, there is considerable evidence that it remains a potent force in American life. 4. The continuing force of anti-Asian prejudice is marked most dramatically, perhaps, by hate crimes against members of the group. B. Comparative Focus: Japan's "Invisible" Minority 1. Minority groups are disadvantaged and visible. The Buraku of Japan are an exception because they are virtually indistinguishable from the general population - there is no physical, cultural, religious, or linguistic difference. 2. They were created during feudal times with the caste system based on occupation. They did work that brought them into contact with death and were forbidden to marry outside their caste. 3. The Buraku continue to suffer from discrimination and rejection. They are a small group but have a protest organization. 4. Social practices (e.g., parents screening the family history of a child's fiancé) prevent integration and maintain their visibility. Buraku are also committed to their group identity. C. Assimilation and Pluralism 1. Acculturation - the extent of acculturation of Asian Americans is highly variable from group to group. a. Japanese Americans represent one extreme. They have been a part of American society for more than a century, and the current generations are highly acculturated. b. At the other extreme are groups such as Vietnamese Americans, who are still in the first generation and have scarcely had time to learn the American culture and the English language. c. The great variability both within and between Asian American groups makes it difficult to characterize their overall degree of acculturation. 2. Secondary Structural Assimilation a. Asian Americans are highly urbanized, a reflection of the entry conditions of recent immigrants as well as the appeal of ethnic neighborhoods, such as Chinatowns, with long histories and continuing vitality. b. The pattern of schooling for these groups is very different from other U.S. racial minority groups. c. If we look at the occupations and income for Asian Americans as a single category, the picture of success and equality is sustained. d. The ability of Asian Americans to pursue their group interests has been sharply limited by a number of factors, including their relatively small size, institutionalized discrimination, and the same kinds of racist practices that have limited the power resources of other minority groups of color. 3. Primary Structural Assimilation - Studies of integration at the primary level generally find high rates of interracial friendship choices and intermarriage. VII. Comparing Minority Groups: Explaining Asian American Success A. Asian American and European White Ethnics 1. Chinese and Japanese immigrants arrived in America at about the same time as immigrants from southern and eastern Europe. 2. Some important differences between the two immigrant experiences are clear, the most obvious being the greater racial visibility of the Asians and Pacific Islanders. 3. Another important difference relates to position in the labor market. Immigrants from southern and eastern Europe entered the industrializing East Coast economy, where they took industrial and manufacturing jobs. 4. In contrast, Chinese and Japanese immigrants on the West Coast were forced into ethnic enclaves and came to rely on jobs in the small business and service sector and, in the case of the Japanese, in the rural economy. B. Asian Americans and Colonized Racial Minority Groups 1. Some Asian groups (e.g., Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans) rank far above other racial minority groups on all the commonly used measures of secondary structural integration and equality. 2. A more structural approach to investigating Asian success begins with a comparison of the history of the various racial minority groups and their modes of incorporation into the larger society. a. Many of the occupational and financial advances made by Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans have been due to the high levels of education achieved by the second generations. b. The efforts to educate the next generation were largely successful. 3. At the time that native-born Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans reached educational parity with whites, the vast majority of African Americans, Native Americans, and Mexican Americans were still victimized by Jim Crow laws and legalized segregation and excluded from opportunities for anything but rudimentary education. 4. The structural explanation argues that the recent upward mobility of Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans is the result of the methods by which they incorporated themselves into American society, not so much their values and traditions.

Nisei

Organizations reflected Americanization—Japanese American Citizens League High educational achievement did not translate into better jobs and higher salaries because of intense discrimination and racism Their demoralization and anger eventually swamped by the larger events of WWII

Anti Japanese

The anti-Japanese campaign Attempted to dislodge Japanese from agriculture Although small presence, their relative success stimulated discriminatory legislation in the Alien Land Act (1913) Dodged the discriminatory legislation by putting titles of land in the names of their American-born children who were citizens by law

page 182

The northern states industrialized first Economic diversity was one of the underlying causes for the Civil War Wage vs. slave labor Black-white relations in the South entered a new era after the Civil War

caste system

closed stratification system no mobility between social positions

Shift of subsistence technology

1. decrease in blue collar jobs 2. expansion in service economy

Red Power

1960s and 1970s movement that also stressed self-determination and pride in race and cultural heritage Washington "fish-in," 1965 American Indian Movement, 1968 Alcatraz Island Occupation, 1969 Trail of Broken Treaties, 1972 Wounded Knee Occupation, 1973 Since the early 1970s, lawsuits and court cases have predominated over dramatic direct confrontations

Jobs and Genders

204-205

termination

A policy by which all special relationships between the federal government and american indians would be abolished

paternalism

A society with a small elite class and a plantation-based economy will often develop a form of minority relations called paternalism

Assimilation and Pluralism

Acculturation The extent of acculturation of Asian Americans is highly variable from group to group Japanese most acculturated Chinese highly variable in acculturation

Applying concepts

Acculturation and integration During this era, black-white relations are best described as structural pluralism  Separate African American sub society and subculture Across the nation, black Americans developed their own institutions and organizations Similar to European immigrants of the era

The Great MIgration 186

African Americans did have one option that had not been available under slavery: Freedom of movement It has been said that African Americans voted against southern segregation with their feet By moving out of the South and from rural to urban areas, black political power began to grow Eventually provided the crucial resources that fueled the Civil Rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s

End

Although the opportunity to pursue favorable change was the result of broad structural changes in American society, the realization of these opportunities came from the efforts of the many who gave their time, their voices, their resources, and sometimes their lives in pursuit of racial justice in America Racial/Ethnic minority groups in the vanguard for change and equality

Gender Relations INdians 164

American Indian societies were generally patriarchal But in many tribes, women held positions of great responsibility and controlled wealth Gender relations affected differently for different tribes In some cases, the relative status and power of women rose (e.g., Navajo tribe) In others, women were affected adversely (e.g., Great Plains tribes)

Industrialization shift 181

An industrial economy requires a workforce that is geographically and socially mobile, skilled, and literate With industrialization comes urbanization Paternalistic relations are difficult to maintain Paternalism gives way to rigid competitive group relations

Assimilation 160

Apologists argue that slavery operated as a "school for civilization" Slavery has been likened to a "perverted patriarchy" Brainwashed, emasculated, and dehumanized slaves, stripping them of their heritage and culture Despite abuses, African slaves coped and retained a sense of self firmly anchored in their traditions, kinship, and culture

Language

Assimilation and pluralism A sizable minority of American Indians (28%) speaks a tribal language as well as English Of the ten largest tribes, 20% speak a tribal language in addition to English Most Navaho and Pueblo speak a tribal language at home and sizable proportions speak English less than "very well"

Bureaucracies

Bureaucracies became the dominant form of organization in the economy Large-scale, impersonal, formal and rational organizations Tend to recruit, reward, and promote employees on the basis of competence and performance Rather than along ethnic lines

Texas

By 1835, legal and illegal Anglo-American immigrants outnumbered Tejanos 6 to 1 Competition for land and labor led to the U.S. annexation of Texas in 1845 Full-scale war ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 With the Gadsden Purchase of 1853, the United States acquired the territory known as the Southwestern United States

Mexican Americans 167

By the early 1800s, four areas of Mexican settlement had developed in the area that would eventually become Texas, California, New Mexico, and Arizona  Sparsely settled Economy based on farming and herding Social and political life organized around family and the Catholic Church Dominated by an elite class of landowners

CHAPTER 9

CHAPTER 9

Chinese

Chinese Americans The ethnic enclave Social structure based on different types of organizations—families, clans, and huiguans Numerous disputes over control of resources—"Tong Wars" Despite conflicts, Chinatowns were organized, self-contained communities with their own leadership structures—Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association

Colonized minority groups

Colonized minority groups: Forced into minority status by dominant group  Subjected to massive inequalities and attacks on their cultures Assigned to positions from which assimilation is extremely difficult and perhaps even forbidden  Identified by highly visible racial or physical characteristics

White ethnic groups and Blacks 189

Competition with white ethnic groups Threat to European immigrants' status—"scabs" Defensive strategies developed to limit blacks' inclusion Hostility among the lower- and working-class segments Black migrants helped white upward mobility

.

Cultural explanation attributes success to the "good values" of traditional Asian cultures Highly compatible with U.S. middle-class Protestant value systems Presumably helped Asian Americans gain acceptance and opportunities

Comparing Minority Groups

Each of these three groups became involuntary players in the growth and development of the United States All three were overpowered and relegated to an inferior, subordinate status against their will, and were coercively acculturated in the context of paternalistic relations in an agrarian economy Meaningful integration was not a real possibility, and in Gordon's (1964) terms, we might characterize these situations as "acculturation without integration" or structural pluralism Blauner's concept of colonized minority groups seems far more descriptive

Chinese

Ethnocentrism based on racial, cultural, and language differences present from the beginning At first, competition muted by an abundance of jobs Economic changes and increased Anglo migration transformed Chinese labor into a threat to the dominant group Chinese lacked power resources as they were a small group, and not permitted to become citizens

Indian Reorganization Act (IRA)

Federal legislation passed in 1934 that was intended to give the Native americans more autonomy tribes could expand landholdings

Origin of slavery in america 148

First Africans were probably indentured servants By 1660s first slave laws were enacted By the 1750s, slavery had been clearly defined in law and in custom

JObs

Growth of white-collar jobs and the service sector Extractive (or primary) occupations are those that produce raw materials, such as food and agricultural products, minerals, and lumber Manufacturing (or secondary) occupations transform raw materials into finished products ready for sale in the marketplace Service (or tertiary) occupations don't produce "things," but, rather, provide services

Blauner Hypothesis 153

Identifies two different initial relationships—colonization and immigration Minority groups created by colonization will experience more intense prejudice, racism, and discrimination than those created by immigration The disadvantaged status of colonized groups will persist longer and be more difficult to overcome than the disadvantaged status faced by groups created by immigration

Japanese

Immigration curtailed with 1907 "gentlemen's agreement," but loophole allowed females to immigrate until the 1920s

Immigration

Immigration from Asia has increased since 1960s, and currently accounts for about 30-35% of all immigrants It is a "bipolar" stream, with immigrants representing both the higher and lower ends of the educational and occupational spectrum A large source of these modern Asian immigrants is Southeast Asia

American Indians 162

In 1607, anywhere from 1 million to 10 million Native Americans By 1890, the number had fallen to less than 250,000 due more to diseases and the destruction of food supplies, rather than to warfare The result of the contact situation for Native Americans very nearly approached genocide

American Indians, Noel Hypothesis 163

In 1763, the British Crown ruled that the various tribes were to be considered "sovereign nations with inalienable rights to their land" In other words, each tribe was to be treated as a nation-state, and had to be compensated for any loss of land

The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act 1975

Increased educational aid to reservations Increased tribal control over reservation administration Primarily benefited larger well-established tribal administrative and governing structures Allowed American Indian tribes to plot their own courses free of paternalistic regulation Provided the tools and resources to address their problems and improve their situations

Japanese after WWII

Japanese Americans after WWII Nisei unwilling to rebuild community like before Prejudice declined in 1950s and job market opened, Nisei educationally prepared to take advantage By 1960, occupational profile similar to whites Overrepresented among professionals, with tendency for "safe" careers not requiring extensive

Arizona And New Mexico

Lower levels of postwar Anglo migration Only in New Mexico did Mexican Americans retain some political power and economic clout Even though the contact situation for Mexican Americans was highly variable by region, the ultimate result was minority group status

Blauner HYpothesis mexicans

Mexican Americans and the Blauner Hypothesis: Colonized minority group Mexican American culture and language suppressed Property rights were abrogated and their status lowered Subjected to coercive acculturation In close proximity to their homeland and maintained close ties with villages and families Mexican immigration since the mid-nineteenth-century war has kept the Spanish language and Mexican heritage alive

Noel HYpothesis Mexicans

Mexican Americans and the Noel Hypothesis: American southerners readily transferred their prejudiced views to Mexicans who were a mixed race of European, Indigenous, and African stock Anglo-Americans used their superior numbers and military power to acquire control Of the political and economic structures Expropriate the resources of the Mexican American community - both land and labor

occupational specialization

More jobs available in the production, transport, and sale of goods and services Created more opportunities for minority groups

Immigrant minority groups

Mostly voluntary participants in the host society and have some control over their position  Do not occupy such markedly inferior positions and retain enough internal organization to pursue self-interests Commonly experience easier movement to equality as groups are racially similar

Enclave and middle man minorities

Originate as immigrant groups who bring some resources with them to carve out economic niches  Yet racially distinguishable, so certain kinds of opportunities may be closed Occupy an intermediate status between the more assimilated white ethnic groups and the colonized racial minorities

CHAPTER 10

Outline I. Chapter Overview II. Current Immigration The 2nd wave of mass immigration (since the 1960s) is larger and more global than the 1st wave. The 2nd wave may prove to be equally transformative as the 1st wave. III. New Hispanic Groups: Immigrants from The Dominican Republic, El Salvador, and Colombia A. Immigration from Latin America, the Caribbean, and South America has been considerable, even excluding Mexico. Latino immigrants, not counting Mexico, have been 20-25% of all immigrants since the 1960s. These sending nations are economically less developed, and most have long-standing relations with the US. But the motivation of the immigrants and the immigration experience has varied from group to group. B. Most of these immigrants (legal and unauthorized alike) are more educated, urbanized, and skilled than the average citizens in their home nation. C. Dominicans - The Dominican Republic has a largely agricultural economy, with high unemployment and poverty and low education. Dominican immigrants are limited by a language barrier, but are usually willing to work for lower wages, concentrated in the service sector, maintain strong ties with home, and provide a major source of income for families left behind. Some studies suggest they are the most impoverished immigrant group. D. Salvadorans - like the Dominican Republic, El Salvador is relatively poor, with 50% below poverty and high unemployment and low education. Much of the pressure to immigrate is economic. Many of the Salvadorans in the US are actually political refugees from the civil war in the 1980s. Reagan's refusal to grant refugee status to Salvadorans meant many were returned and a high number of undocumented Salvadoran immigrants. E. Colombians - Colombia is somewhat more developed than most other Central and South American nations but has suffered from more than 40 years of internal turmoil, civil war, and government corruption. It is a major center for drug production and the drug industry and profits are complexly intertwined with domestic strife. Colombian immigrants must deal with the stereotype of Colombians as gangsters and drug smugglers. They are actually closer to US levels of education and income than other Latino groups. IV. Non-Hispanic Immigrants from the Caribbean A. Haitians 1. Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere. 2. Haitian immigration was virtually nonexistent until the 1970s and 1980s, when thousands began to flee the brutal political repression of the Duvalier dictatorship. But the US government defined Haitians as economic refugees ineligible for asylum, unlike Cubans, and there was an intense campaign to keep Haitians out. 3. Possible explanations for the negative receptions include: low human capital; Creole language and low English language ability; race. 4. The Haitian second generation has experienced a low level of academic achievement and a tendency to identify with the African American community, suggesting their assimilation will be segmented. B. Jamaicans 1. The Jamaican economy is more developed than Haiti's, but it has faltered in recent decades. 2. Immigrant stream tends to be more skilled and educated, representing a "brain drain." 3. Jamaican immigrants speak English, but are black so face racism in the US. 4. On the average, they are significantly higher than Haitians (and native-born African Americans) in socio-economic standing but poverty and institutionalized discrimination limit the mobility of a segment of the group. V. Contemporary Immigration from Asia - Four Case Studies A. Asian Indians - low level of economic development means that many of the educated elite search for career opportunities abroad. Indian immigrants tend to be a select well educated, skilled, and English speaking group. Indians are now the third-largest Asian American group today (behind Chinese and Filipinos). B. Koreans - a relatively small group until the 1950s. Recent Korean immigrants consist mostly of families and include many highly educated people and many are Christians, which makes them appear more acceptable to the dominant group. They have formed an enclave. C. Filipino Americans - The Philippines have been heavily influenced by American culture and English is one of two official languages so Filipino immigrants often speak English. Like Chinese Americans, Filipino Americans are "bipolar" in educational and occupational profiles. D. Vietnamese - a flow of refugees from Vietnam began in the 1960s due to the war in Southeast Asia. After 1975, the refugee population included people from diverse educational and occupational backgrounds. E. Middle Eastern and Arab Americans 1. The Middle Eastern community in the US has been constructed around an ethnic, small-business enclave. The populations have grown rapidly in the past several decades, but still remains a tiny percentage of the total population. 2. They rank relatively high in income, occupation, and education. 3. Arab Americans and Middle Easterners are diverse and vary along a number of dimensions: religion, language, and race. 4. 9-11 and Arab Americans - anti-Arab prejudice has intensified in recent decades and, although anti-Arab passions have cooled somewhat, profiling, long-term detention, surveillance, and other policies violate the basic civil liberties of Arab Americans and others. They are victimized by a strong stereotype. 5. Relations between Arab Americans and the larger society are certainly among the tensest and most problematic of any minority group. F. Immigrants from Africa 1. Immigration from Africa has been quite low over the past 50 years, but the number of native Africans in the US has more than doubled since 1990. 2. Sub-Saharan Africa is a broad category, so here the focus is on Nigerians and Ethiopians. 3. Nigerians and Ethiopians compare favorably to national norms in education, suggesting they are another example of "brain drain." 4. Nigerians also compare favorably in terms of occupation and income. Ethiopians have lower English fluency and a more mixed background. Although they compare favorably with national norms in education, they have much higher rates of poverty and lower levels of income. This suggests Ethiopians are less able to translate their educational credentials into higher ranked occupations. G. Summary: Modes of Incorporation 1. Recent immigrant groups can occupy very different positions in US society. 2. 3 main modes of incorporation for immigrants in the US: a. Immigrants and the Primary Labor Market - desirable jobs with greater security, higher pay and benefits, and the immigrants entering this sector tend to be highly educated, skilled professionals and businesspeople. Immigrants with professional backgrounds tend to attract less notice and fewer racist reactions then their more unskilled counterparts. b. Immigrants and the Secondary Labor Market - this mode of incorporation is more typical for immigrants with lower levels of education and fewer job skills. Jobs are less desirable and command lower pay, little security, and few benefits. They are often in the informal economy and unregulated. c. Immigrants and Ethnic Enclaves - some immigrant groups establish ethnic enclaves, especially those that can bring financial capital and business experience. The enclave provides contacts, financial and other services, and social support for the new immigrants of all social classes. VI. Immigration: Issues and Controversies A. The Attitudes of Americans 1. Overall, native-born Americans (even those with immigrant parents) have never been particularly open to newcomers and U.S. history is replete with movements to drastically reduce immigration or eliminate it completely. 2. Concerns that Americans have about immigrants include economic interests that include loss of jobs for native-born workers and under-representation in taxation. There seems to be a correlation between pessimism about the economy and perception of immigrants as threats. 3. However, some surveys reflect that attitudes are somewhat more open now than in the past. Surveys have also found that attitudes are more positive for respondents who have had personal contacts with immigrants. Support for decreasing immigration is strongest among people who feel that their own personal financial situation has gotten worse. B. The Immigrants 1. Immigrants are more likely than the native-born to see immigration as a positive force and are more likely to say that immigrants work hard and pay their fair share of taxes. 2. Immigrants indicate they are very grateful for economic opportunities available in the United States, with 84% agreeing that there are more opportunities to get ahead here than in their country of origin. 3. However, the immigrants were ambivalent about U. S. culture and values with 47% stating that the family was stronger in their home country and only 28% saw the U.S as having stronger moral values than their country of origin. C. Costs and Benefits 1. Many studies, especially those done at the national level, find that immigrants are not a burden and that low-skilled immigrants tend to find jobs in areas of the economy in which few U.S. citizens work or in the enclave economies of their own groups, taking jobs that would not have existed without the enclave. However, there does seem to be a negative consequence for earlier immigrants and for African Americans. 2. Another concern is the strain that immigrants place on taxes and services such as schools and welfare programs. However, some studies have shown that immigrant's use of such services as unemployment compensation, Medicare, food stamps, Aid to Families with Dependent Children, and Social Security is actually lower than their proportional contributions. This is especially true for undocumented immigrants. The key determinant for welfare use has been shown to be refugee status. 3. The fears and concerns about the economic impact of immigrants are not unfounded, but they may be confounded with and exaggerated by prejudice and racism directed at newcomers and strangers. 4. Immigration is generally a positive force in the economy and immigrants, legal and illegal, continue to find work with Anglo employers and niches in American society in which they can survive. D. Undocumented Immigrants 1. In a 2010 survey, 61% of the respondents were concerned with the burden of undocumented immigrants on social programs, 55% believing current immigrants encourage the arrival of others, and 53% were concerned with the effect on American salaries.." 2. In 2000, it was estimated that there were 8.5 million people living in United States illegally, more than double the number in 1992. In 2007, the number of illegal immigrants was estimated at 12 million. 3. Of the attempts to curtail illegal immigration, the best known occurred in 1994 when California voters passed Proposition 187, which would have denied educational, health, and other services to illegal immigrants. Prop. 187 was later declared unconstitutional and never implemented. 4. It seems unlikely that much can be done (within the framework of a democratic, humane society) to curtail the flow of people. VII. Is Contemporary Assimilation Segmented? A. The Case for Segmented Assimilation 1. Sociologist Douglas Massey argues for segmented assimilation in that current immigrants differ from the earlier immigrants in three ways: a. Immigration was restricted after the 1920's so immigrants grew to adulthood without continuing contact with the old country in the form of newer immigrants. b. The speed and ease of modern transportation and communication will help to maintain cultural and linguistic diversity. c. A large percentage of the descendants of contemporary immigrants face permanent membership in a growing underclass population. d. Recent data on second generation immigrants supports the segmented assimilation perspective. B. The Case against Segmented Assimilation 1. Two recent studies find that most contemporary immigrant groups are acculturating and integrating at the "normal" 3 generation pace. 2. Contemporary immigrant groups are narrowing the income gap over time, although many groups (e.g., Dominicans, Mexicans, Haitians, and Vietnamese) are handicapped by very low levels of human capital at the start. Wage differentials decrease with generational passage and educational attainment. VIII. Recent Immigration in Historical Context A. In the 19th century, population moved largely from Europe to the Western Hemisphere. Over the past 50 years, the movement has been from South to North. This pattern reflects the simple geography of industrialization and opportunity and the fact that the more developed nations are in the Northern Hemisphere. B. The direction of immigrant travel reflects contemporary global inequalities: labor continues to flow from the less developed nations to the more developed nations like the United States. IX. New Immigrants and Old Issues A. The issues of "traditional" minority groups - African Americans and American Indians - have not been resolved. Many of the current issues facing these groups are issues of class as well as race. While it is probably true that American society is more open and tolerant than ever before, we must not mistake a decline in blatant racism or a reduction in overt discrimination for its demise. Rather there is evidence that racism and discrimination have not declined but merely changed form. B. Gender issues and sexism remain on the national agenda. Minority women remain the victims of a double jeopardy and are among the most vulnerable and exploited segments of the society. C. These problems of exclusion and continuing prejudice and sexism are exacerbated by a number of trends in the larger society (e.g., shift in subsistence technology away from manufacturing to the service sector). D. The new immigrant groups have abundant problems of their own and need to find ways to pursue their self interest in their new society. X. Current Debates: Is Immigration Harmful or Helpful to the United States? XI. Main Points XII. Study Site on the Web XIII. For Further Reading XIV. Questions for Review and Study XV. Internet Research Project

CHAPTER 3 outline

Outline I. Chapter Overview II. Prejudice and Discrimination A. Merton's Four Relationships Between Prejudice and Discrimination in Individuals B. The Affective Dimension 1. Prejudice is partly a set of feelings or emotions that people attach to groups, including their own. 2. Scapegoat Hypothesis - links prejudice to frustration or aggression, suggesting people "take it out" on less powerful substitute targets such as minority groups. 3. Theory of the Authoritarian Personality - links prejudice to early childhood experiences and personality structure, suggesting stern, highly punitive styles of parenting produce prejudice. C. The Cognitive Dimension: Stereotypes 1. Stereotypes are generalizations about groups of people that are exaggerated, overly simplistic, and resistant to disproof. 2. Selective perception is the tendency to see only what one expects to see, which strengthens stereotypes. 3. The Content of American Stereotypes - when asked to characterize entire groups of people, even highly educated college students do so. D. Cognitive and Affective Dimensions of Stereotypes 1. Two general stereotypes of minority groups: extreme inferiority (to rationalize extreme inequality); relative success viewed in negative terms (in situations of less extreme differences). E. Intersections of Race, Gender, and Class 1. Affective and cognitive dimensions of prejudice vary by race, gender, and class. Stereotypes and feelings attached to black males, for example, differ from those attached to black females. III. Sociological Causes of Prejudice A. The Role of Group Competition 1. The one common factor that seems to account for the origin of all prejudices is competition between groups. 2. Robber's Cave - Sherif's 1950s experiment at a summer camp for 11-12-year-old boys. He divided the boys into 2 groups and set up activities on a competitive basis. Prejudice grew intense and declined when the groups had to work cooperatively. This experiment illustrates that competition over resources and status and the desire to defend against perceived threats from other groups are primary motivations for the construction of prejudice and structures of inequality benefiting the dominant group. 3. Theoretical Perspectives on Group Competition and Prejudice: Power/Conflict Models a) Marxist Analysis - elites who control the means of production in a society also control the ideas and intellectual activity of the society. Elites who subordinate a minority group will develop and institutionalize ideologies to justify the arrangement. b) Split Labor Market Theory - the labor market is split into higher priced labor and cheaper labor. Higher priced labor attempts to exclude cheaper labor through prejudice and is the beneficiary of prejudice, not capitalists. c) Group Interests - Herbert Blumer's theory is that prejudice develops due to groups feeling threatened by those below them. Historically it was seen overtly during the Civil Rights movement, but in modern times is far more subtle. d) Summary and Limitations -Marxism, Split Labor Market theory, and Group Interests conclude that prejudice emerges in a struggle to control or expand a group's share of scarce resources and prejudice persists because some group gains from it. But no theory can account for prejudice in all its forms. Culture, socialization, family structure, and personality development also play a role in the origins of prejudice. IV. The Persistence of Prejudice A. The Vicious Cycle - Myrdal suggests prejudice is reinforced by everyday observation of the inferior status of the minority group, which motivates further discrimination, which reinforces inferior status and validates prejudice. B. Prejudice in Children 1. Socialization - research suggests people are born without bias and have to be taught whom to like and dislike. By age 3 or younger, children recognize the significance and permanence of racial groups and can accurately classify people. Children learn prejudice even when it is not overtly or directly taught. 2. Intellectual capabilities - children are actively engaged in their learning and their levels of prejudice reflect their changing intellectual capabilities. Children as young as 5 or 6 months can make distinctions between categories or people, which suggests it is not just due to socialization. Distinctions may help children organize and understand the world and this need for primitive categorization may decline with increased intellectual capability. Levels of Prejudice in children may reflect an interaction between mental capacities and environment, rather than simple socialization. C. Social Distance Scales: The Cultural Dimensions of Prejudice 1. Social Distance - the degree of intimacy a person is willing to accept in his or her relations with members of other groups. Bogardus developed seven degrees of social distance, used as a scale. 2. Supports the view that prejudice is cultural, but this research has limitations. D. Situational Influences 1. Distinction between thought (prejudice) and action (discrimination). The situation shapes the relationship between prejudice and discrimination. E. Summary and Limitations 1. Prejudice persists in part because it becomes part of the culture and is passed to younger generations. 2. But cultural causes alone are insufficient - not all members of a society have similar levels of prejudice or socialization experiences; socialization is not a passive process; we also learn egalitarian norms and values; attitudes about other groups are multiple and flexible, changing with time and place. V. Recent Trends: Traditional Prejudice and Modern Racism A. Traditional Prejudice: Changing Attitudes? 1. The decline of traditional prejudice has been explained through a few specific causes a. The Role of Education - education levels have increased, but this could be due to correlation, how the questions are asked, or learning to hide true feelings. b. The Contact Hypothesis i. equal status contact hypothesis - according to Pettigrew (1998), inter-group contact will tend to reduce prejudice when four conditions are filled: the groups must have (a) equal status and (b) common goals and must (c) interact intensively in noncompetitive, cooperative tasks and (d) have the active endorsement of authority figures. ii. The Robbers Cave experiment supports but cannot prove the equal status contact hypothesis. More recent studies have generally supported contact hypothesis. iii. Comparative Focus: the Contact Hypothesis and European Prejudice - research in Europe supports contact hypothesis. iv. Recent Trends in Intergroup Contact - the jigsaw method v. Limitations of the Contact Hypothesis - reduction in prejudice is often situation specific (not generalized to other situations) B. Modern Racism: The New Face of Prejudice? - the idea that prejudice in the US is not declining but is just changing forms to a more subtle, complex, and indirect way of expressing negative feelings toward minority groups and opposition to change in dominant-minority relations. Attitudes associated with modern racism are consistent with the traditional assimilation model and human capital theory. It blames the victim, deflects attention from oppression and discrimination, stereotypes minority groups and encourages negative attitudes without the traditional image of innate inferiority. VI. Has Sexism Modernized? A. Researchers have found substantial similarities between modern racism and sexism. Gender inequality remains pervasive and is perpetuated in part by attitudes of modern sexism that allow people to express opposition to the changing role of women without appearing to be blatantly or overtly sexist. VII. Hate Crimes A. Hate crimes contradict the idea that prejudice is declining or becoming subtler. B. It is difficult to establish trends in incidents of hate crimes due to reporting and recording differences. C. Most reported hate crimes were racially motivated, with blacks as the target group. D. Potential causes of hate crimes: perceived threats, frustration, fear, anger, scapegoating, structural changes in the economy VIII. The Sociology of Prejudice A. Prejudice has its origins in competition between groups; is more a result of competition than a cause is created at a point in history to mobilize feelings and energy for competition and rationalize inequality; is absorbed into the cultural heritage and passed on to later generations, where it helps shape perceptions and reinforce inferiority. B. Prejudice caused by scapegoating or authoritarian personality structures will not be affected by changes in the social environment, education, or intergroup contact. C. Culture-based or traditional prejudice can be just as vicious and extreme as personality-based prejudice. D. Inter-group conflict produces vicious prejudice and discrimination, but the problems are inequality and scarce resources, not prejudice. E. Reducing prejudice will not necessarily change the situation of minority groups. Inequality and institutional discrimination are the main problems. F. Individual prejudice and discrimination are not the same as racism and institutional discrimination. IX. Current Debates: A Post-Racial America?

CHAPTER 7

Outline I. Chapter Overview II. Size of the Group A. There were almost 4.5 million people who claim at least some American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry, but only about 2.3 million if we confine the group to people who select one race only. By either count, the group is a tiny minority (about 1%) of the total US population. The population of American Indians has been growing rapidly over the past several decades, in part due to higher birth rates, but mainly a result of changing definitions of race in the larger society and greater willingness of people to claim Indian ancestry. III. American Indian Cultures A. American Indian and Anglo-American relationships have been shaped by the vast differences in culture, values, and norms between the two groups. These differences have hampered communication in the past and continue to do so in the present. B. The most obvious difference between American Indian and Western cultures lies in their respective conceptions of the relationship between human beings and the natural world. In the traditional view of many American Indian cultures, the universe is a unity. Humans are simply a part of a larger reality, no different from or more important than other animals, plants, trees, and the earth itself. C. The concept of private property was not prominent in American Indian cultures. D. American Indian cultures and societies also tended to be more oriented toward groups than toward individuals. The interests of the self were subordinated to those of the group, and child-rearing practices strongly encouraged group loyalty. E. Many American Indian tribes were organized around egalitarian values. Virtually all tribes had a division of labor based on gender, but women's work was valued, and they often occupied far more important positions in tribal society than was typical for women in Anglo-American society. F. These different values, compounded by the power differentials that emerged, often placed American Indians at a disadvantage when dealing with the dominant group. IV. Relations with the Federal Government After the 1890s A. Reservation Life. 1. Reservations were not run by the tribes but by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), an agency of the federal government. 2. The BIA controlled all aspects of daily life such as the reservation budget, the criminal justice system, and the schools. It even determined tribal membership. 3. The traditional leadership structures and political institutions of the tribes were ignored as the BIA executed its duties with little regard for, and virtually no input from, the people it supervised. 4. Coercive Acculturation: The Dawes Act and Boarding Schools. a. American Indians on the reservations were subjected to coercive acculturation or forced Americanization. The key piece of U.S. Indian policy was the Dawes Allotment Act of 1887. b. The intention of the act was to give each Indian family the means to survive like their white neighbors. However, by allotting land to families and individuals, the legislation sought to destroy the kinship, clan, and tribal social structures and replace them with Western systems that emphasized individualism and the profit. c. The BIA also sent American Indian children to boarding schools sometimes hundreds of miles away from parents and kin. When school was not in session, children were often boarded with local white families, usually as unpaid domestic helpers or farm hands. d. Consistent with the Blauner (1972) hypothesis, tribal languages, dress, and religion were forbidden. Children at these schools were required to speak English, convert to Christianity, and become educated in the ways of Western civilization. B. The Indian Reorganization Act 1. The Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) of 1934 broke with the federal policies of the past. It rescinded the Dawes Act (1887) and the policy of individualizing tribal lands. 2. It provided means by which the tribes could expand their land holdings. 3. It dismantled much of the coercive Americanization in the school system. 4. Financial aid in various forms and expertise were made available for the economic development of the reservations. 5. It proposed an increase in American Indian self-governance and a reduction of the paternalistic role of the BIA and other federal agencies. 6. It had variable effects on American Indian women. In tribes that were male dominated, the IRA gave women new rights to participate in politics. In other cases, new political structures simply replaced traditional forms. 7. Many of the IRA's intentions were never realized, and the empowerment of the tribes was not unqualified. C. The Termination Policy D. Relocation and Urbanization 1. In 1953, Congress passed a resolution calling for an end to the reservation system. The proposed policy was called termination. It rejected the IRA and proposed a return to the system of private land ownership imposed on the tribes by the Dawes Act (1887). Tribes opposed the policy strongly. 2. Under termination, treaty obligations between the federal government and the tribes would end. Tribes would no longer exist as legally recognized entities, and tribal lands and other resources would be placed in private hands. 3. About 100 tribes were terminated. In most cases, the process was administered hastily, and fraud, misuse of funds, and other injustices were common. 4. Around the same time, programs were established to encourage American Indians to move to urban areas as government support for economic development on the reservation declined. 5. Over half of all American Indians are now urbanized, and since 1950, Indians have urbanized faster than the general population. Still, American Indians are the least-urbanized minority group. E. Self-Determination 1. The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act (1975) increased aid to reservation schools and American Indian students and increased tribal control over the administration of the reservations. 2. The Self-Determination Act (1975) primarily benefited larger tribes and those that had well-established administrative and governing structures. V. Protest and Resistance A. Early Efforts 1. As BIA-administered reservations and coercive Americanization came to dominate tribal life in the 20th century, new forms of Indian activism appeared. 2. The movement has focused on several complementary goals: protecting Native American resources and treaty rights, striking a balance between assimilation and pluralism, and finding a relationship with the dominant group that would permit more life chances without sacrificing tribal identity and heritage. 3. The pan-tribal National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) was founded in 1944 and stressed the importance of preserving the old ways and tribal institutions as well as protecting Indian welfare. B. Red Power 1. By the 1960s and 1970s, American Indian protest groups were finding ways to express their grievances and problems to the nation. The Red Power movement, encompassed a coalition of groups, most of which stressed self-determination and pride in race and cultural heritage. 2. Red Power protests included a "fish-in" in 1965 after the state of Washington had tried to limit the fishing rights of several different tribes. The tribes depended on fishing for subsistence argued that their right to fish had been guaranteed by treaties signed in the 1850s. 3. In 1969, American Indians occupied Alcatraz Island, acting on an old law that granted them the right to reclaim abandoned federal land. Alcatraz was occupied for nearly four years and generated a great deal of publicity for the Red Power movement and the plight of American Indians. 4. In 1972, AIM organized a march on Washington, D.C., called the Trail of Broken Treaties." The intent of the marchers was to dramatize the problems of the tribes. 5. Since the early 1970s, the level of protest activity has declined, just as it has for the black protest movement. Lawsuits and court cases have predominated over dramatic, direct confrontations. 6. Part of the significance of the Red Power movement was that it encouraged both pan-tribal unity and a continuation of tribal. VI. The Continuing Struggle for Development in Contemporary American Indian-White Relations A. Natural Resources 1. Land allotted to American Indian tribes in the 19th century sometimes turned out to be rich in resources (e.g., oil, natural gas, uranium) that became valuable in the 20th century. The challenge faced by American Indians is to retain control of these resources and to develop them for the benefit of the tribes. 2. Some tribes have succeeded in developing their resources for their own benefit. On many other reservations, however, resources lie dormant, awaiting tribal leadership, expertise, and development capital. 3. Tribes are banding together to share expertise and negotiate more effectively with the larger society. Twenty-five tribes founded the Council of Energy Resource Tribes (CERT) in 1975 to coordinate and control the development of the mineral resources on reservation lands. B. Attracting Industry to the Reservation 1. Many efforts to develop the reservations have focused on creating jobs by attracting industry through incentives such as low taxes, low rents, and a low-wage pool of labor. With some exceptions, these efforts have not been particularly successful and opportunities for building economic power or improving the standard of living from these jobs are limited. 2. Most wage-earning jobs on the reservation are with the agencies of the federal government (e.g., the BIA) or with the tribal government. Tourism is large and growing, but the jobs available in that sector are typically low wage and seasonal. 3. As of 1990, the median family income for the Navajo was $13,940—about one-third the median family income for white Americans in that year—and nearly half the tribe lived below the poverty line. 4. Only about half of all Navajo have high school degrees, and fewer than 5% have college degrees. 5. Some tribes have achieved relative prosperity by bringing jobs to their people. C. Broken Treaties 1. Treaties signed with the federal government in the 19th century offer another potential resource. Many tribes are seeking compensation for the wrongs of the past. D. Gaming and Other Development Possibilities 1. The gambling industry is another potential resource for American Indians, the development of which was made possible by federal legislation passed in 1988. 2. Profits from the casino are used to benefit tribal members. For example, by repurchasing tribal lands, or by providing housing assistance, medical benefits, educational scholarships, and public services. Profits also go to purchase other businesses such as restaurants and manufacturing plants. 3. Some tribes have sought to capitalize on their freedom from state regulation and taxes such as selling products such as cigarettes, tax-free. 4. American Indians have an opportunity to dramatically raise their standards of living thanks to increased autonomy, treaty rights, natural resources, and gambling. However, American Indians continue to be limited by poverty and powerlessness, prejudice, and discrimination. VII. Contemporary American Indian-White Relations A. Prejudice and Discrimination 1. One stereotype, especially strong during periods of conflict, depicts Indians as bloodthirsty, ferocious, and inhumanly cruel savages. Another is of Native Americans as "the noble redman" who lives in complete harmony with nature and symbolizes goodwill and simplicity. 2. American Indians are often portrayed as bucks and squaws with headdresses, bows, tepees, and other such "generic" Indian artifacts. These portrayals obliterate the diversity of American Indian culture and lifestyles. 3. American Indians are often referred to in the past tense, as if their present situation were of no importance or as if they no longer existed. 4. Many history books begin the study of American history in Europe or with the "discovery" of America, omitting the millennia of civilization prior to the arrival of European explorers and colonizers. 5. Controversies surround nicknames for athletic teams (the Washington Redskins, the Cleveland Indians, and the Atlanta Braves) and the use of American Indian mascots, tomahawk "chops," and other practices offensive to many American Indians. Protests against these nicknames and uses have been attacked, ridiculed, and ignored. 6. A decrease in anti-Indian prejudice over time can be seen through social distance scale results although the results do not necessarily reflect trends in the general population. 7. Research is unclear about the severity or extent of discrimination against American Indians. Opportunities to develop human capital are much less available to American Indians than to the rest of the population. Too little evidence exists about individual discrimination or more overt forms of exclusion to make clear conclusions. B. Assimilation and Pluralism 1. Acculturation Despite more than a century of coercive Americanization, many tribes have been able to preserve much of their traditional cultures. Religions and value systems, political and economic structures, cuisine, and recreational patterns have all survived the military conquest and the depredations of reservation life; each pattern has been altered, however, by contact with the dominant group. American Indians have been considerably more successful than African Americans in preserving their traditional cultures. 2. Secondary Structural Assimilation a. Residential Patterns. Since the Indian Removal Act of 1830, American Indians have been concentrated in the western two thirds of the nation. Residential segregation is much lower for American Indians than for African Americans. b. School Integration and Educational Attainment. Although the percentage of high school graduates has increased dramatically over the past three decades, levels of education are still lower than for the nation as a whole. One positive development is the increase in tribally controlled colleges, mostly 2-year community colleges, which have been built since the 1960s. c. Political Power. The ability of American Indians to exert power as a voting bloc is limited because they are a tiny percentage of the electorate. Their political power is also limited by their lower average levels of education, language differences, lack of economic resources, and fractional differences within and between tribes and reservations. d. Jobs and Income. The overall unemployment rate for all American Indians is about double the rate for whites. For Indians living on or near reservations, it is much higher. Income data reflect the higher levels of unemployment and lower levels of education. In 1997, the percentage of American Indians living in poverty had fallen to 25% but was still almost three times the poverty rate for whites. 3. Primary Structural Assimilation. Rates of intermarriage for American Indians are high compared with other groups. The higher rate of marriage outside the group for Native Americans is partly the result of their small size. It also indicates the extent of acculturation and integration for American Indians. C. Comparing Minority Groups. 1. Comparing the experiences of American Indians to other groups will further our understanding of the complexities of dominant-minority relationships and permit us to test the explanatory power of the concepts and theories in this text. 2. American Indians and African Americans had different stereotypes attached to them during the early years of European colonization. The stereotypes are consistent with the outcomes of the contact period. The supposed irresponsibility of blacks under slavery helped justify their subordinate, highly controlled status, and the alleged savagery of American Indians helped to justify their near extermination by white society. 3. Both American Indians and African Americans were colonized minority groups, but their contact situations were governed by different dynamics (competition for labor vs. land) and a different dominant group agenda (the capture and control of a large, powerless work force vs. the elimination of a perceived military threat) 4. Differing contact situations shaped subsequent relationships with the dominant group and the place of the groups in the larger society. While African Americans spent much of the 20th century struggling for inclusion and equality, Native Americans fought to maintain or recover their traditional cultures and social structures. VIII. Progress and Challenges A. Linear or simplistic views of assimilation do not fit the current situation or the past experiences of American Indians very well. American Indians can be found at every degree of acculturation and integration, and the group seems to be moving toward assimilation in some ways and away from it in others. B. American Indians have struggled from conquest and colonization, an experience made more difficult by the loss of their land and other resources and by attacks on their culture and language. C. The key to further progress for many American Indians is economic development on reservation lands and the further strengthening of the tribes as functioning social units. D. Urban Indians confront the same patterns of discrimination and racism that confront other minority groups of color. Members with lower levels of education and job skills face the prospects of becoming a part of a permanent urban underclass. IX. Comparative Focus: Australian Aborigines and American Indians A. Australia came under European domination in the late 1700s, nearly 2 centuries after the beginning of Anglo-American Indian relations. B. But shared features include: the colonial power was Great Britain; first contact occurred in preindustrial era; the indigenous peoples of both North America and Australia were thinly spread across vast areas and were greatly inferior to the British in their technological development; European diseases reduced both indigenous populations; both groups were seen as "savages" by the colonizers; and coercive acculturation was attempted. C. The contemporary situation of Australian Aborigines has many parallels with American Indians as well. The groups are largely rural and live on less desirable land; there is a huge gap between the indigenous population and the rest of society on every statistic that measures quality of life, equality, and access to resources; similar issues animate both groups and the overall pictures are both mixed. D. Both groups validate the Blauner and Noel hypotheses: they are colonized minority groups and victims of European domination.

Chapter 4 Overview

Outline I. Chapter Overview II. The Origins of Slavery in America A. This chapter develops a theoretical model of the process that leads to the creation of a minority group. 1. The nature of dominant-minority group relations at any point in time is largely a function of the characteristics of the society as a whole. As Lenski notes, the subsistence technology of a society acts as a foundation, shaping and affecting every other aspect of the social structure, including minority group relations. 2. The contact situation - the conditions under which groups first come together - is the single most significant factor in the creation of minority group status. B. The Labor Supply Problem 1. Agriculture was labor intensive and depended almost entirely on human effort. The plantation system, based on cultivating and exporting crops, developed as colonial society grew, but profit margins were small. 2. As the plantation system developed, the supply of indentured servants from the British Isles dwindled. Attempts to use American Indians failed--either due to their dwindling numbers or their ability to resist enslavement. 3. The slave trade from Africa to Spanish and Portuguese colonies of South America was able to expand to fill the needs of the British colonies. C. The Contact Situation 1. The conditions under which groups first come into contact determine the fate of the minority group and shape intergroup relations for many years to come. 2. The Noel Hypothesis - if two or more groups come together in a contact situation characterized by ethnocentrism, competition, and a differential in power, then some form of racial or ethnic stratification will result. a. Ethnocentrism - the tendency to judge other groups, societies, or lifestyles by the standards of one's own culture. b. Competition - struggle for a scarce commodity. c. Differential power - unequal ability to achieve goals in the face of opposition, which depends on size, degree of organization, and resources. 3. The Blauner Hypothesis identifies two different initial relationships--colonization and immigration--and hypothesizes that minority groups created by colonization will experience more intense prejudice, racism, and discrimination, and experience this disadvantage longer, than those created by immigration. 4. The Creation of Slavery in the United States The Noel hypothesis helps explain why colonists enslaved black Africans instead of white indentured servants of American Indians. a. All three groups were the objects of ethnocentric feelings on the part of the elite groups that dominated colonial society. b. Competition existed between colonists and all three groups. c. American Indian tribes were well-organized and able to resist colonists attacks. White indentured servants were preferred over black indentured servants and this gave them bargaining power. Africans, however, had become indentured by force and coercion and had no bargaining power. This differential in power between Africans and colonists explains why they were enslaved instead of the other groups. D. Paternalistic Relations 1. Key features of paternalism include: vast power differentials and inequalities between dominant and minority groups, elaborate and repressive systems of control over the minority group, castelike barriers between groups, elaborate and highly stylized codes of behavior and communication between groups, and low rates of overt conflict. 2. Life as a slave. E. The Dimensions of Minority Group Status 1. Power, inequality, and institutional discrimination - the key concepts for understanding the creation of slavery. 2. Prejudice and racism - individual prejudice and ideological racism are not as important as causes for the creation of minority group status, but are more the results of systems of racial inequality. 3. Assimilation - debates about the impact of slavery continue today, but it is clear that African Americans were extensively and coercively acculturated. African Americans were a colonized group with little choice but to adjust to the conditions established by the traditional elite. Black slaves developed new cultural forms and social relationships within the confines that affected them. 4. Gender relations - stratified both whites and blacks and members of various classes by gender. White women were subordinate to white men. African American women were at the bottom of the hierarchy based on their minority status as slaves and as women. The system of gender relations affected women slaves differently from men slaves. Women slaves were raped and otherwise abused by white men in the dominant group. III. The Creation of Minority Status For American Indians and Mexican Americans A. American Indians 1. There were--and are--hundreds of different tribes or nations, each with its own language, culture, territory, and history. 2. Many American Indian tribes no longer exist or are vastly diminished in size. It is estimated that American Indian populations have declined by 75% or more since the start of the 300-year long "contact situation." 3. American Indians and the Noel and Blauner Hypotheses a. Competition was over land, not labor, so as US society grew stronger it pushed American Indians to near extinction. Each tribe was considered a sovereign nation and had to be compensated for land, but treaties and policies were often ignored. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 forced all Eastern tribes to move west of the Mississippi and reservations were usually on undesirable or worthless land. b. They were a colonized minority group who faced high levels of prejudice, racism, and discrimination. They were controlled by paternalistic systems (i.e., the reservations) and in many ways were coercively acculturated. According to Blauner, the negative consequences of their colonized status will persist long after the contact situation has ended. 4. Gender relations among American Indian societies varied. a. Some American Indian societies were highly stratified while others stressed equality and the sharing of resources. b. It was not unusual for women in many tribes to play key roles in religion, politics, warfare, and the economy. Some became respected warriors and chiefs. c. The contact situation affected gender relations differently. In some cases, the relative status and power of women rose while in some cases women were adversely affected. B. Comparative Focus: Hawaii 1. Interesting contrast with American Indians - contact was not immediately followed by conquest and colonization and Hawaiian society was large, highly developed, and had military strength to protect itself. Thus, 2 of the 3 conditions in the Noel hypothesis were not present in early European-Hawaiian contact. 2. Today, Native Hawaiians retain minority group status, but they compare favorably with American Indians and black Americans in terms of education, income, and poverty, which is consistent with the Noel and Blauner hypotheses. C. Mexican Americans 1. Texas a. Some of the first effects of U.S. expansion to the West were felt in Texas in the early 1800s. Anglo-Americans began to immigrate to Texas in large numbers, tempted by its farmland. b. When the U.S. annexed Texas in the 1840s, war broke out and Mexico was defeated. It ceded much of the Southwest to the U.S. c. Without moving, the Mexican population of this region became a conquered people and a minority group. 2. California a. The Gold Rush of 1849 spurred a massive population movement from the East. Laws encouraged Anglos to settle on land traditionally held by Californios, or the native Mexicans in the state. b. Laws passed in the 1850s made it increasingly difficult for Californios to retain their property and power as Anglo-Americans became the dominant group as well as the majority of the population. 3. Arizona and New Mexico a. The Anglo immigration into Arizona and New Mexico was less voluminous than that into Texas and California. b. In Arizona, most of the Mexican population were immigrants seeing work on farm, ranches, and in mines and railroads. c. In New Mexico, Mexican Americans retained some political power and economic clout, mostly because of the relatively large size of the group and their ability to mobilize for political action. d. The contact situation for Mexican Americans was highly variable by region. 4. Mexican Americans and the Noel and Blauner Hypotheses. a. The causal model we have applied to slavery and the domination of American Indians also helps us explain why and how Mexican Americans became a minority group. b. Ethnocentrism, competition for land, and a power differential between groups existed, although these factors differed in different locations. For example, in Texas and California the subordination of the Mexican American population followed quickly after a rapid influx of Anglos and the military defeat of Mexico. D. Gender Relations 1. Prior to the arrival of Anglo-Americans, Mexican society in the Southwest was patriarchal and maintained a clear gender-based division of labor. 2. Poverty and economic insecurity placed the family structures under strain. The economics of conquest led to increased matriarchy and more working mothers. 3. For Mexican American women, the consequences of contact were variable, but like black female slaves, they became the most vulnerable part of the social system. IV. Comparing Minority Groups A. American Indians and black slaves were the victims of the explosive growth of European power in the Western Hemisphere that began with Columbus's voyage in 1492. B. Europeans needed labor to fuel plantations and slaves were the most logical, cost-effective means to solving the labor supply problems. C. European immigrants desired land belonging to American Indians. Once their land was expropriated, American Indians were not seen as much of a concern. American Indians were seen as an unsuitable source of labor. D. Mexican communities in the Southwest were a series of outpost settlements, remote and difficult to defend. Mexican citizens in this area were conquered through war and other types of aggression and became an exploited minority group. E. Each of these groups became involuntary players in the growth and development of European and, later, American economic and political power. All three were overpowered and relegated to an inferior and subordinate status. F. All three groups were acculturated within the context of paternalistic relations in an agrarian economy. Assimilation has little relevance in these situations and structural integration was not a real possibility; rather these situations might be viewed as acculturation without integration. V. Comparative Focus: Mexico, Canada, and the United States A. The Spanish 1. The first European nation to invade the Western Hemisphere, they conquered much of Central and South America. 2. They tended to absorb rather than destroy the social systems and cultures of those they conquered. For example, the tax system and racial classification system, with the idea of white, mestizo (mixed European-Indian), and mulatto (mixed European-African). B. The French 1. They colonized Canada about the same time the English colonized America. 2. They developed lucrative trade in trapping and fur trade, allying themselves with some American Indian tribes. 3. There was significant intermarriage between French and Native Americans, resulting in the Métis mixed-race group. C. The English 1. They encountered smaller, less developed tribes than the Aztecs and the competition was for land because the economy of the English colonies was agriculture. 2. Therefore, the English tended to confront and exclude American Indians, rather than have to adapt their societies to fit those of the American Indians like the Spanish and French. D. Key differences in the contact situation 1. Slavery evolved differently in the various colonies depending on the contact situation. 2. The relative level of modernization of the colonizer also helps explain the divergent development of group relations. Spain and France were more traditional and feudalistic, so these colonists were limited by these ancient customs. The English were freer to design their social structure to suit their own needs (e.g., slavery). 3. The racial and class characteristics differed in the three contact situations. VI. Current Debates: How Did Slavery Affect the Origins of African American Culture? A. Slavery created African American culture. B. African American culture was created by an interplay of elements from Africa and America. C. The experiences of female slaves have been under-researched and under-reported.

CHAPTER 11

Outline I. Overview of the Chapter II. Some Americans Revisited "Once I thought to write a history of the minority groups in America. Then, I discovered that the minority groups were American history." Oscar Handlin 1951 III. The Importance of Subsistence Technology A. Perhaps the most important sociological idea we have developed is that dominant- minority relations are shaped by large social, political, and economic forces and change as these broad characteristics change. B. To understand the evolution of America's minority groups is to understand the history of the United States, from the earliest colonial settlement to the modern megalopolis. C. Subsistence technology is the most basic force shaping a society and the relationships between dominant and minority groups in that society. In the colonial United States, minority relations were bent to the demands of a land-hungry, labor-intensive agrarian technology, and the early relationships between Africans, Europeans, and Native Americans flowed from the colonists' desire to control both land and labor. D. By the mid-1800s, two centuries after Jamestown was founded, the same dynamics that had enslaved African Americans and nearly annihilated Native Americans made a minority group out of Mexican Americans. E. The agrarian era came to an end in the 19th century as the new technologies of the industrial revolution increased the productivity of the economy and eventually changed every aspect of life in the United States. The paternalistic, oppressive systems used to control the labor of minority groups in the agrarian system were abolished and replaced by competitive systems of group relations. These newer systems evolved from more rigid forms to more fluid forms as industrialization and urbanization progressed. F. Rapid industrialization combined with the opportunities available on the frontier made the United States an attractive destination for immigrants from Europe, Asia, Latin America, and other parts of the world. Immigrants helped supply the armies of labor required by industrialization. F. Racial minority groups, particularly African Americans, Mexican Americans, and Puerto Ricans, began to enter the urban working class after European American ethnic groups had started to move up in the occupational structure, at a time when the supply of manual, unskilled jobs was dwindling. Thus, the processes that allowed upward mobility for European Americans failed to work for the racial minority groups, who confronted urban poverty and bankrupt cities in addition to the continuing barriers of racial prejudice and institutional discrimination. G. The emerging information-based, high-tech society is unlikely to offer many opportunities for people with lower educational backgrounds and occupational skills. It seems fairly certain that members of the racial and colonized minority groups will be participating in the mainstream economy of the future at lower levels than the dominant group and the descendants of European and Asian immigrants. H. Upgraded urban educational systems, job training programs and other community development programs might alter the grim scenario of continued exclusion. Public opinion about matters of race and discrimination makes it unlikely that such programs will be created. Those segments of the African American, Hispanic American, and Asian American communities currently mired in the urban underclass will continue to compete with the newer immigrants for jobs in the low-wage, secondary labor market or in alternative opportunity structures, including crime. IV. The Importance of the Contact Situation, Group Competition and Power. A. The contact situation—the conditions under which the minority group and dominant group first come into contact with each other--is significant. Blauner's distinction between immigrant and colonized minority groups is fundamental, a distinction so basic that it helps to clarify minority group situations centuries after the initial contact period. B. Noel's hypothesis states that if three conditions are present in the contact situation— ethnocentrism, competition and the differential in power—ethnic or racial stratification will result. The relevance of ethnocentrism is largely limited to the actual contact situation, but the other two concepts help to clarify the changes occurring after initial contact. C. We have examined numerous instances in which group competition—or even the threat of competition—increased prejudice and led to greater discrimination and more repression (e.g., the opposition of the labor movement--dominated by European American ethnic groups--to Chinese immigrants. D. Some parallels exist between campaigns for exclusion in the past and current ideas about ending or curtailing immigration. Some part of the current opposition to immigration is motivated by a sense of threat and the fear that immigrants are a danger not only to jobs and the economy but to the cultural integrity of U.S. society. E. Noel's third variable, the differential in power, determines the outcome of the initial contact situation and which group becomes dominant and which becomes a minority. 1. Following the initial contact, the superior power of the dominant group helps it sustain the inferior position of the minority group. 2. Minority groups by definition have fewer power resources, but they characteristically use what they have to improve their situation. 3. Minority status being what it is, each of the groups we have discussed still controls relatively few power resources and is limited in its ability to pursue its own self-interest. Many of these limitations are economic and related to social class. 4. The relative powerlessness of minority groups today is a legacy of the contact situations that created the groups in the first place. In general, colonized groups are at a greater power disadvantage than immigrant groups. F. Contact situations set agendas for group relations that have impact centuries after the initial meeting. Competition and differences in power resources will continue to shape inter- and intra-group relations into the future. G. Jobs will continue to be primary objects of competition, but there will be plenty of other issues to divide the nation, including crime and the criminal justice system, welfare reform, national health care policy, school busing, bilingual education, immigration policy, and multicultural curricula in schools. V. Diversity Within Minority Groups A. Minority group members vary from each other by age, sex, region of residence, levels of education, urban versus rural residence, political ideology, and other variables. B. The cultures examined in this text have strong patriarchal traditions. Women of the dominant group as well as minority women have had much less access to leadership roles and higher-status positions and have generally occupied a subordinate status. The experiences of minority group women and the extent of their differences from minority group men and dominant group women are only now being fully explored. 1. Minority group women are doubly oppressed as they are limited by both their minority and gender statuses. They are among the most vulnerable and exploited segments of the society. The result is, predictably, their economic and social status at the bottom of the social structure. 2. Gender differentiation cuts through minority groups in a variety of ways. Specific issues might unite minority women with women of the dominant group (e.g., sexual harassment), and others might unite them with the men of their minority group (e.g., the enforcement of civil rights legislation). 3. Solving the problems faced by minority groups will not resolve the problems faced by minority women; neither will resolving the problems of gender inequality alone. VI. Assimilation and Pluralism A. The diversity and complexity of minority group experiences in the United States are not well characterized by the traditional or "melting pot" views of assimilation. Without support is the notion that there is always a simple, ordered relationship between the various stages of assimilation: acculturation, integration into public institutions, integration into the private sector, and so forth. B. The desirability of assimilation has been subject to debate. Since the 1960s, many minorities have questioned the wisdom of becoming a part of a sociocultural structure that was constructed by the systematic exploitation of minority groups. C. African Americans are highly acculturated. Black Americans share language, values and beliefs, and most other aspects of culture with white Americans of similar class and educational background. In terms of integration, in contrast, African Americans present a mixed picture. 1. For middle-class, more educated members of the group, American society offers more opportunities for upward mobility and success than ever before. 2. A large percentage of African Americans remain mired in urban poverty, and for them, affluence, security, and power are just as distant D. Native Americans are less acculturated than African Americans, and there is evidence that Native American culture and language may be increasing in strength and vitality. Native Americans remain the most isolated and impoverished minority group in the United States. E. Hispanic Americans are also generally less acculturated than African Americans. Hispanic traditions and the Spanish language have been sustained by the exclusion and isolation of these groups within the United States and have been continually renewed and revitalized by immigration. However, much variation exists for different groups (e.g., Cuban Americans, Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans). F. The extent of assimilation among Asian Americans is highly variable. Some groups have virtually completed the assimilation process and are remarkably successful. Other Asian American groups consist largely of newer immigrants with occupational and educational profiles that resemble colonized minority groups. Still other Asian American groups have used their cohesiveness and solidarity to construct ethnic enclaves in which they have achieved relative economic equality by resisting acculturation. G. Only European American ethnic groups seem to approximate the traditional model of assimilation. Pluralism of the 1960s and 1970s suggests that ethnic traditions and ethnic identity, in some form, may withstand the pressures of assimilation for generations to come. Culturally and racially, these groups are the closest to the dominant group. H. Assimilation is far from accomplished. Group divisions that remain are real and consequential; they cannot be willed away by pretending we are all "just American." Group membership continues to be important because it continues to be linked to fundamental patterns of exclusion and inequality. The group divisions forged in the past and perpetuated over the decades by racism and discrimination will remain to the extent that racial and ethnic group membership continues to be correlated with inequality and position in the social class structure. VII. Minority Group Progress and The Ideology of American Individualism A. Evidence of progress is easy to find for some groups; we need look only to the relative economic, educational, and income equality of European American ethnic groups and some Asian American groups. The United States has become more tolerant and open, and minority group members can be found at the highest levels of success, affluence, and prestige. B. The demise of blatant bigotry is a positive change. C. Negative intergroup feelings and stereotypes have not so much disappeared as merely changed form. The old racist feelings are now expressed in what is called modern or symbolic racism. D. The most serious problems facing contemporary minority groups, however, are structural and institutional, not individual or personal. E. Some of the more effective strategies for pursuing equality require strong in-group cohesion and networks of cooperation, not heroic individual effort. Immigration to this country is and always has been a group process that involved extensive, long-lasting networks of communication and chains of population movement, usually built around family ties and larger kinship groups. VIII. A Final Word A. Since the middle of the 20th century, minority groups have demanded greater openness, fairness, equality, respect for their traditions, and justice. Increasingly, the demands have been made on the terms of the minority groups, not on those of the dominant group. B. U.S. society as a whole has rejected the oppressive racism of the past. However, minority group progress has stalled well short of equality, however, and the patterns of poverty, discrimination, marginality, hopelessness, and despair continue to limit the lives of millions. C. Problems of equality and access will not solve themselves or fade away, but will continue to manifest themselves through protest activities, rancorous debates, diffused rage, and pervasive violence. D. The United States is one of many nations in the world today that are ethnically and racially diverse. As the globe continues to shrink and networks of communication, immigration, trade, and transportation continue to link all peoples into a single global entity, the problems of diversity will become more international in their scope and implications. E. The United States is neither the most nor least diverse country in the world. It is neither the most nor the least successful in confronting the problems of prejudice, discrimination, and racism. However, the multigroup nature of our society, along with the present influx of immigrants from around the globe, does present an opportunity to improve on our record and make a lasting contribution.

Chinese

Population trends and the "delayed" second generation Chinese Exclusion Act reduced number of Chinese End of the nineteenth-century sex ratio 25:1 favoring males Not until 1920s when second generation developed The decades-long absence of a more Americanized, English-speaking generation increased the isolation of Chinese Americans

Gender relations Mexicans

Prior to contact, patriarchal society with gender-based division of labor Consequences of contact variable for Mexican American women, but ultimately resulted in a loss of status Migrant work required men's absence from home Economic insecurity strained family structures Women became especially vulnerable

Contd

Secondary structural assimilation Political power limited by same kinds of factors and racist practices limiting other groups Contrary to "quiet" minority perception, long history of political action, including a civil rights movement in the 1960s and 1970s Prominent in Hawaiian politics for decades, but increasingly involved in West Coast politics—Governor Gary Locke

Cali

The California Gold Rush of 1849 spurred a massive population movement from the East  The rapid growth of an Anglo majority after statehood in 1850 doomed efforts to create a bilingual, multiethnic state Like in Texas, Anglo-Americans used violence, biased laws, discrimination, and other means to exploit and repress Mexicans in California

Hmong

The Hmong, made up of immigrants from Laos and other Southeast Asian, are a newer group that have immigrated as a result of the Vietnam War They have a very traditional culture, and often find themselves in opposition to the modernized culture of the United States

Noel Hypothesis

The Noel Hypothesis  If two or more groups come together in a contact situation characterized by ethnocentrism, competition, and a differential in power, then some form of racial or ethnic stratification will result (Noel, 1968, p. 163) If the contact situation has all three characteristics, some dominant-minority group structure will be created

Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)

The agency of the US government that has primary responsibility for the administration of American Indian reservations

Dual labor market

The growing importance of education Dual labor market Primary labor market—higher pay, more security, better opportunities for advancement, health and retirement benefits, and other amenities Secondary labor market—includes low-paid, low-skilled, insecure jobs with little opportunity for promotion or upward mobility

Labor Supply problem 151

The labor supply problem Agricultural work at this time was labor intensive The plantation system developed Based on cultivating and exporting crops such as sugar, tobacco, and rice On large tracts of land  Using a large, cheap labor force Dwindling supply of white indentured servants Attempts to enslave Native Americans failed Slaves imported from Africa became the most logical, cost-effective way to solve labor needs The colonists created slavery to cultivate their lands and generate profits, status, and success

Comparing Minority groups

Unlike African Americans and Mexican Americans, the dominant group had no desire to control the labor of these groups Unlike American Indians, Chinese and Japanese presented no military danger so there was little concern once economic threat eliminated Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans had the ingredients and experiences necessary to form enclaves

Key features of Paternalism

Vast power differentials and huge inequalities between dominant and minority groups Elaborate and repressive systems of control over the minority group Caste-like barriers between groups Elaborate and highly stylized codes of behavior and communication between groups Low rates of overt conflict

urbanization

Weakened dominant group controls Created large-scale mobilization and organization

Black Protest

With increased freedom, a diverse national black leadership developed Booker T. Washington—Accommodation W. E. B. DuBois—NAACP and civil rights Marcus Garvey—Separatism

Alien Land ACt

aliens who were ineligible for citizenship to be also ineligible to own land

Differential in power

allows the dominant group to succeed in establishing a superior position 1. size of group 2. resources 3.raw numbers, disipline, degree of organization

model minority group

asian americans. exaggerates the relative affluence of these groups and is sometimes used a rhetorical device for criticizing other minority groups such as african americans.

huiguan

associations based on the region or district in china from which the immigrant had come

the contact situation

conditions under which groups first come together most significant factor in creation of minority group status long lasting consequences for: racial/ethnic stratification levels of racism and prejudice assimilation and pluralism every other aspect of dom-minority relationship

indentured servants

contract laborers who are obligated to serve a master for a number of years

plantation system

cultivating and exporting crops on large tracts of land with cheap labor force

Dawes Allotment Act of 1887

impose white definitions of land ownership and transform American Indians into farmers by dividing their land among the families of each tribe; to give means to survive

Issei

japanese immigrant generation athat made enclave in agriculture related enterprises, rural

subsistence technology

means by which the society satisifies basic needs such as food and shelter shapes and effects societal structure

modern institutional discrimination

more subtle and covert form of institutional discrimination that is often unintentional and unconscious

abolitionism

movement to abolish slavery

past-in-present discrimination

patterns of inequality or unequal treatment in the present that are caused by some pattern of discrimination in the past Much more difficult to identify, measure, and eliminate Controversial strategies to rectify Affirmative action

reconstruction

period of southern race reltions following the civil war. 1865 to 1880s and witnessed many racial reforms, all reversed because of de jure segregation or the Jim Crow era Brief respite for African Americans Fifteenth Amendment Education became possible Creation of a middle class Too brief to overcome centuries of exploitation Prejudice and racism ingrained in southern culture

Discussion Question

pg 192

affirmative action

programs designed to counter the effects of institutional discrimination and the legacy of minority group inequality

tongs

secret societies in chinese culture caused tong wars

deindustrialization

shift from a manufacturing economy to service oriented, information processing economy

chattel

slaves personal property

competition

struggle over a scare commodity

rigid competitive group system

system group relations in which the dominant group seeks to exclude minority groups or limit their ability to compete for scarce resources such as jobs minority groups freer to lower class segments of group attacks on minority groups increase

sharecropping 184

system of farming often used in the south during de jure segregation. the sharecropper worked the land, which was usually owned by someone else in return for share of profits during harvest time. place to live and credit for food and clothing

fluid competitive system

system of group relations in which a minority group members are freer to compete for jobs and other scarce resources; advanced industrialization No formal or legal barriers to competition Because fluid competitive systems are more open and the position of the minority group is less fixed The fear of competition is more widespread for the dominant group, and intergroup conflict increases

de jure segregation or jim crow system

system of rigid competitive race relations that followed reconstruction in the south. the system lasted from the 1880s until the 1960s and was characterized by laws mandating racial separation and inequality. Sharecropping Black sharecroppers found it difficult to keep unscrupulous white landowners honest Few opportunities to improve their situations and could be bound to the land until their "debts" were paid off African Americans once again locked into a subservient status

relocation camps

the camps in which japanese americans were held during WW2 In 1948, legislation authorized compensation but claims settled for less than one tenth the actual economic loss In 1988, reparations of about $20,000 to each of the 60,000 remaining survivors of the camps  The law acknowledged the grave injustice to Japanese Americans

apartheid

the policy of extreme racial segregation formerly followed in south africa

ethnocentrism

the tendency to judge other groups, societies, or lifestyles by the standards of one's own culture