Comm 120: Midterm Review

Know what Johnson means by the social construction of difference (Johnson, p. 17-21)

" No one is white before he/she came to America... It took generations and a vast amount of coercion, before this became a white country"-James Baldwin. Baldwin is pointing to the basic aspect of social reality: most of what e experience as "real" is a cultural creation. In other words, it is made up, even though we do not experience it that way. Ex. Race. Baldwin is not denying the reality that skin pigmentation varies from one person to another. He is saying that unless you live in a culture that recognizes such differences as significant, they are socially irrelevant, in a way, do not exist. The Irish for example, were long considered by the foment white Anglo-Saxon Protestants of England and the United States to be members of a nonwhite "race" as were Italians, Jews, Greeks, and people from a number of Eastern European countries. Reducing people to a single dimension of who they are separates and excludes them, marks them as "other" as different from normal (white, heterosexual, male, non disabled) and therefore as inferior. What makes socially constructed reality so powerful is that we rarely id ever experience it as that. More important, the name-whether it be skin color or disability-quickly takes on a life of its own as we forget about the social process that created it and treating it as "real" in and of itself Racial classification has had little to do with objective characteristics and everything to do with preserving white power and wealth Chinese were imported as cheap labors during the 19th century, the California Supreme Court declared them not white. Mexicans, however, many of whom owned large amounts of land in California and did business with white were considered white. When the stakes are privilege and power, dominate groups are quite willing to ignore such inconsistencies so long as the result is a continuation of their privilege.

Understand the six assumptions of social construction from lecture

(1) Everything could be otherwise (2) Meanings are relational (3) Language (re)generates meaning (4) Constructions are consequential (5) If language is creative, it is also destructive (or at least disruptive) (6) We are never stuck

Influences on perception, Interplay, p. 114-123

1. Access to Information 2. Physiological Influence -The Senses -Age -Health and Fatigue - Biological Cycles -Hunger -Neurobehavioral challenges 3. Psychological Influences -Mood -self concept 4. Social Influences -Sex and Gender Roles -Occupational Roles -Relational Roles 5. Cultural Influences

Recognize definitions and examples of CPM's key concepts of collective and personal boundary, boundary coordination, boundary permeability, boundary linkage, boundary ownership, and boundary turbulence (lecture and Griffin p. 155-159)

1. Collective privacy boundary: An intersection of personal privacy boundaries of co-owners of private information, all of whom are responsible for the information. 2. Personal privacy Boundary : 3. Boundary coordination: 4. Boundary permeability: The extent to which a boundary permits private information to flow to third parties 5. Boundary linkage: An alliance formed by co-owners of private information as to those else should be able to know. 6. Boundary ownership: the rights and responsibility that co-owners of private information have to control its spread. 7. Boundary turbulence: Disruption of privacy management and relational trust that occurs when collective privacy boundaries are synchronized.

What are the four aspects of the nature of language?

1. Language is Symbolic 2. Language is Rule-Governed 3. Language is subjective 4.Language and Worldview

Know the possible impacts of language listed below (Interplay, p. 147-158):

1. Naming and Identity 2. Affiliation 3. Power and Politeness 4. Sexism and Racism 5. Precision and vaguness 6. Ambiguous Language 7. Abstraction 8. Euphemisms 9. Relative Language 10. Static Evaluation 11. The language of Responsibility 12. It statements 13. But statements 14. I, you, and we language

Steps in the perception process, Interplay, p. 110-114 NOTE: I mentioned in class that Interplay and I have different views about negotiation. I will not ask any questions that make you distinguish between these views

1. Selection-something that is louder, larger, or brighter stands out 2. Organization-arrange it in a way that is meaningful way to make sense of the world. -Physical constructs-beautiful or old -Role constructs-student, attorney -Interaction constructs-friendly, helpful -Psychological -confident, insecure, happy 3. Interpretation- attaching meaning to sense data. Partners in bad relationship blame the other when something goes wrong 4. Negotiation-process by which communicators influence each other's perceptions through communication. Step mothers and mother in laws see themselves as helpful but might be portrayed as meddlesome in the narratives of step daughters and daughter in laws.

What are the six common tendencies in perception?(pg 123)

1. We make snap judgements 2. We cling to first impressions 3. We judge ourselves more charitably than we do others 4. We are influenced by our expectations 5. We are influenced by the obvious 6. We assume others like us

How communication is conceptualized in attribution theory (Spitzber, p. 41-42)

1.Attributions as Explanations underlying social communicative actions -Communication behaviors can be seen as occurring for different reasons and we provide attributions to explain those communicative actions. Ex. Bippus found that more internal attributions for humor were associated wot more negative outcomes (conflict, escalation, progress, and fake loss) . Humor thought to be bad and humor that was attributed to the speaker's personality was particularly damaging to the relationship 2.Attributions as leading to Communicative actions and outcomes -When we provide attributions for others' communication (or other behavior), it may affect how er view the other person and his or her behavior. Even more notably, it may also affect our communication toward the,. Ex. MacGeorge investigated the ways in which people offer social support to one another in times of crisis and found that when the crisis was attributed as more stable, more a product of the person's effort, and the person as more responsible, it induced greater anger and reduced sympathy for the affected person's plight. 3.Attributions as the actual meanings given to a behavior Ex. Some communication researchers have looked at dialogue to investigate how attributions reflect the meaning that people five to a communication act. We can also look at attributions to see what a behavior means-what message value it has-for someone. Ex. The determination of whether or not a person is being deceptive in communicating is an attributional problem-and the conclusion that a lie is self-serving (He lied because he needed the money) as opposed to relationally motivated (He did not wasn't to hurt my feelings) can become the meaning attributed to the communication act itself.

Understand the five suppositions of communication privacy management theory (CPM) (lecture and Griffin p. 152-159)

1.Ownership and control of private information -People believe they own and have a right to control their private information. -Private information: the content of potential disclosures; information that can be owned 2.Rules for concealing and revealing -People control their private information through the use of personal privacy rules. -Privacy: the feeling that one has the right to own private information -Rule-based theory: A theory that assumes we can best understand people's freely chosen actions if we study the systems of rules they use to interpret and manage their lives -Culture: Cultures differ on the value of openness and disclosure. -Gender: Popular wisdom suggest that women disclosure more than men yet research on this mixed at best. -Motivation: Petronio emphasizes attraction and liking as interpersonal motives that can loosen privacy boundaries that could not otherwise be breached. -Context: Traumatic events can temporarily or permanently disrupt the influence of culture, gender, and motivation when people craft their rules for privacy. -Risk/benefit ratio: We add up the benefits and subtract the cost of each option in order to do what we think will have the best outcome.It does the math for revealing as well as concealing private information. 3.Disclosure creates a confidant and co-owner When others are told to discover a person's information, they become co-owners of that information -Collective privacy boundary: An intersection of personal privacy boundaries of co-owners of private information, all of whom are responsible for the information. 4.Coordinating mutual privacy boundaries Co-owners of private information need to negotiate mutually agreeable privacy rules about telling others -Mutual privacy boundary: A synchronized collective boundary that co-owners share because they have negotiated common privacy rules. 5.Boundary Turbulence-Relationships at Risks When co-owners of private information do not effectively negotiate and follow jointly held privacy rules, boundary turbulence is the likely result Boundary turbulence: Distribution of privacy management and relational trust that occurs when collective privacy boundaries are not synchronized. Confidentiality dilemma: The magic moral choice confidants face when they must breach collective privacy boundary in order to promote the original owner's welfare.

Understand the four insights from the transactional communication model

1.Sending and Receiving Are usually Simultaneous 2.Meanings Exist in and among People 3.Environment and Noise Affect Communication 4.Channels Make a Difference

What are the characteristics of competent communication?

A large repertoire of skills, adaptability, ability to perform skillfully, involvement, empathy/perspective taking, cognitive complexity, and self-monitoring.

Common Tendencies in Perception- We make snap judgments

Ancestors often made quick snap judgements about whether strangers were likely to be dangerous and there are still times when this ability can be a survival skill. Judging others without knowledge or information can get us into trouble. Ex. Innocent people are gunned down by shooters who make inaccurate snap judgements Employeers write off potential employees

Know the benefits and risks of self-disclosure (lecture, and Interplay, 92-96)

Benefits 1. Catharis-getting it off your chest 2. Self-Clarification-clarify your beliefs, thrust, opinions 3.Self-validation 4. Reciprocity-they will also disclose 5. Impression formation-we reveal personal information to make ourselves more attractive 6. Relationship maintenance and enhancement: we like people who disclose information to us 7. Moral obligation Risks 1. Rejection 2. Negative impression 3. Decrease in relational satisfaction 4. Loss of influence 5. Loss of control 6. Hurt the other person

Communication Principles-Communication is transactional

By transactional we mean that communication is a dynamic process that the participants create through their interaction with one another. Perhaps the most important consequence of communication's transactional nature is mutual influence that occurs when we interact. To put it simply, communications isn't something we do to others; rather, it is an activity we do with them. In this sense, communication is rather like dancing-at least the kind of dancing we do with partners. Like dancing, communication depends on the behavior of a partner. A great dancer who does not consider and adapt to the skill level of his or her partner can make both of them look bad. In communication and dancing, even two partners don't guarantee success. When two skilled dancers perform with coordinating their movements, the results feel bad to the dancers and look foolish to an audience. You can probably think of people with whom you have difficulty communicating , and your exchanges are filled with awkward stops and starts-and misunderstandings. Finally, relational communication like dancing-is a unique creation that arises out of arises out of the way in which the partners interact. The way you dance probably varies from one partner to another because of its cooperative, transactional nature. Likewise, the way you communicate almost certaintely varies with different partners. That's why competent communicators score high adaptability, as we discuss later in this chapter. Psychologist Kenneth Gergen captures the transactional nature of communication well when he points out how our success depends on interaction with others. As he says " one cannot be attractive. without others. As he says, one cannot be attractive without others who are attracted, a leader without others who are attracted, a leader without others willing to follow, or a loving person without others to affirm with appreciation.

Coordinated Management of Meaning

CMM Concepts Everyday talk creates reoccurring patterns of communication 1.Coordination (stories lived; actions) Set of practices (including speech) we enact to call social systems into being 2.Coherence (stories told; reflection; could include speech) How we make sense of the world Resources: anything we utilize to recreate social systems Stories, concepts, language, conversation Universe maintenance!!! Resources define what is expected, obligatory, prohibited (social norms) Logical Force: sense of "oughtness" Feeling impelled to interpret or respond to events in specific ways Speech acts:language that does something

Be able to define and recognize examples of co-cultures in the United States (lecture and Interplay, p. 38-40 and 49-55)

Co culture: describe the perception of membership in a group that is part of an encompassing culture Examples -age(teens, senior citizen) -race -sexual orientation -nationality(immigrants from a particular county, expatriates) -religion -physical disability -geographic region(southerners, northerners) -activity(biker, gamer)

Characteristics of competent communication- Cognitive Complexity(Key)

Cognitive complexity id the ability to construct a variety of different frameworks from viewing an issue. Imagine a longtime friend seems to be angry with you. One possible explanation is that something has happened in another part of your friend's life that is upsetting. Or perhaps nothing at all is wring, and you are just being overly sensitive. The more ways you have to understand others and interpret their behaviors, the greater is the likelihood that you can see and communicate about the world from their perspective.

Understand and recognize the five communication principles recognize the five communication principles

Communication is transactional, Communication be intentional or unintentional, communication is irreversible , communication is unrepetable

4.Channel Make a Difference-Insights from the transactional communication model

Communication scholars use the term channels the medium through which messages are exchanged. Along with face-to-face interaction, we have the option of using mediated channels such as phones, e-mail, and instant messages. The communication channel being used can affect the way a receiver responds to a message. Ex. a typewritten love letter probably will not have the sam effect as a handwritten expression of affection, and being fired from a job in person would likely feel different than getting bad news in an email. Most people intuitively recognize that the selection of a channel depends in part on the kind of messages they are sending. Ex. Patrick O'Sulivan asked students to identify which channel they would find best for delivering a variety of messages. Most respondents said they would have little trouble sending messages face to face but meditated channels had more appeal for sending negative messages.

Characteristics of Interpersonal Communication- Intrinsic rewards

Communicators in relationships characterized by impersonal exchanges seek extrinsic rewards, payoffs that have little to do with the people involved. You listen to professors in class or talk to potential buyers of your used car in order to reach goals that have little to do with developing personal relationships. By contrast, you spend time in highly interpersonal, such as relationships with friends and lovers, because of the intrinsic rewards that come from your communication: Just being with the other person is the reward. It does not matter who you talk about-developing the relationship is what is important.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Culture refers to the values, norms, and beliefs of a society. Our culture can be thought of as a lens through which we experience the world and develop shared meaning. It follows that the language that we use is created in response to cultural needs. In other words, there is an obvious relationship between the way in which we talk and how we perceive the world. One important question that many intellectuals have asked is how the language that our society uses influences its culture. Anthropologist and linguist Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Whorf were interested in answering this question. Together, they created the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which states that how we look at the world is largely determined by our thought processes, and our language limits our thought processes. It follows that our language shapes our reality. In other words, the language that we use shapes the way we think and how we see the world. Since the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis theorizes that our language use shapes our perspective of the world, it follows that people who speak different languages have different world views. Let's use the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis to look at a real-life example in the workforce. John and Mary are two best friends who work at the same hospital. Though John initially wanted to be a doctor, he later changed his mind and decided to be a nurse like Mary. John was often teased about his career choice. He was told that a man should be a doctor, not a nurse by several acquaintances. Though John's friends and relatives never teased him about his job, John noticed that whenever they explained his occupation to others, they referred to him as a 'male nurse.' However, whenever he heard others speak about Mary's occupation, they called her a 'nurse.' John wondered why he and Mary's positions were referred to by two different titles when they both performed the exact same job. He also wondered if the language that others were using to refer to his occupation was at all related to our culture's sexist view that men cannot be nurses. By referring to John as a 'male nurse' and his friend Mary as just a 'nurse,' their acquaintances were using language shaped by societal views that being a nurse is a woman's profession, and men should not be nurses.

Differentiate between cynical performances and sincere performances (lecture and Goffman, p. 16-22)

Cynical performances: performances we recognize as performances i.e. job interview Sincere performances: performances we believe ourselves i.e. gender

Characteristics of competent communication-A Large repertoire of skills

Don't use the same approach in every situation. Sometimes there is a time to speak up and a time to be quiet. The chances of reaching your personal and relational goals increase with the number of options you have to communicate. Ex. If you want to have a conversation with a stranger, all it might take to get the ball rolling is self is self introduction. "Hey I just moved here.... or I have never heard of this band. Do you know them"? People with disabilities often do this-"pretending not to hear an offer for help or declining help with a thanks"

Understand and recognize examples of Dramaturgy's key concepts, including: performance, front (including setting, appearance, manner), personal front, social front and sign equipment (Found in lecture notes and Goffman p. 22-30)

Dramaturgy: Erving Goffman Performance: "all the activity of an individual which occurs during a period marked by his continuous presence before a particular set of observers" (Goffman, 1959, p. 22). Front: expressive components of performance (think of these as the social roles we enact) Setting: scenery we create to surround us Appearance: personal items with which we decorate ourselves Manner: how we act and speak We expect consistency between these Personal Front: aspects of identity that follow the performer wherever she goes Sign equipment: the things that allow us to convincingly take on a front (race, age, gender, physical appearance) Social Front: social stereotypes from which we draw our personal fronts What are some "typical" types of students like? "Typical" types of college professors? Society preconfigures certain acceptable fronts -several archetypes from which to choose

Goals and features of attribution theory (Spitzberg, p. 38-41

Every comment a person makes and every action a person preforms can be subject to attributional analysis, by self and by others. The outcomes of this analysis has potentially significant implications for how people think about one another for the nature of how we respond to another actions. Whether it is an achievement failure, a stigmatizing conditions, a need for help, or an aggressive act, if these are attributed to controllable and intentional causes, for instances, responses of anger and reprimand or neglect are more likely, whereas uncontrollable and unintentional attributions are more likely to leas to sympathy and others of assistance. Attribution theory has generally been applied in two related but distinct ways: as event causation (she smiled at him because she thinks he is attractive)or as trait inference( she smiles a lot, she must be a friendly person). Four dimensions when making attributions 1. Locus-whether the cause is internal or external to the person 2. Stability: the extent to which the cause is temporary or enduring 3. Specificity: the degree to which a cause is unique to an individual or event versus a cause that is more universal or global 4. Responsibility: the extent to which a person can be held as responsible or blameworthy for an event Example of event causation approach to attribution : You get a bad grade on a paper, you have four possible sources to attribute this outcome: your ability(you are not smart enough), your effort(you did not study enough), task (the assignment was too hard), or bad luck (professor was not paying attention and entered the wrong grade) Example of trait interference approach: if your classmate receives a bad grade, you might conclude that it was due to the students lack of effort (she is lazy) or ability (He is not very bright). Four primary theoretical currents 1.A focus on correspondence: when attributions are informative of a person's nature or personality, they are considered correspondent; that is, we perceive that another's behavior corresponds to some underlying characteristic of who that person is. Ex. Relationally abusive or aggressive men tend to attribute their violence to things that were external to them, such as a wife's behavior or jealously. Most of these external factors are considered correspondent, because abusive men tend to attribute such causes to intentional and negative factors in their partners. Such attributions reflected the men's thinking, rather than what may actually have promoted the behavior . 2.A focus on covariation: events are attributed to causes with which they co-vary or co-occur. Causes are attributed to factors that are present when an event or effect is observed, and not present when the event or effect is absent. Ex. Relationship tend to get more complicated and are more likely to dissolve after one of you says "I love you", you might attribute the utterance or state of love as the cause of relationship problems. For you, these events co-vary 3.A focus on responsibility: When we are making sense of things, we often focus instead on who or what was responsible for that behavior or outcome. In general, the more we view someone's behavior as internal, intentional, and controllable, the more we hold that person responsible for those actions, and their consequences. Ex, according to Badahdah and Alkher, people are more likely to feel sympathetic for a person with aids if that person is viewed as not responsible for his or her own plight(aids was contracted through blood transfusion) as opposed to intentional risky conduct (unprotected sex). This example shows not only an example of a responsibility attribution, but also how profound those attributions may be for our judgements of others. 4.A focus on bias: Researchers have predicted systematic biases in how we make attributions Fundamental attribution bias: tendency to make more internal attributions and external attributions for other peoples behavior Self-serving bias: predicts that people generally make more internal, stable, and global attributions for positive events than for negative events and more external attributions for negative events than for positive events. Examples: students generally over-report their gap and consider themselves above average on a variety of positive characteristics. Likewise, employees think more highly of themselves than their bosses see those same employees. Canary and Spitzberg found that actors in conflicts tend to view their own behavior as significantly more appropriate than the behavior of their partners. We protect our self-image by a absorbing responsibilities for positive outcomes and externalizing negative outcomes to things other than ourselves.

The Nature of Language-Language is Subjective

Ex. You tease a friend in what you really were in basic agreement. You tease a friend in what you mean to be a playful manner, but he takes you seriously and is offended. These problems occur because people attach different meanings to the same message.

1. Sending and Receiving Are usually Simultaneous-Insights from the transactional communication model

Face -to- face interaction makes it hard to distinguish between the sender and receiver. Examples -A teacher explaining a difficult concept to a student after class -A parent lecturing a teenager about the family's curfew rules -A salesperson giving a customer information about a product Naturally we want to identify teacher, parent, and salesperson as senders and the student, teenager, and customers as recievers. But think about a confused look on a students face, a teenager interrupting, and a customer staring off into space. These verbal and nonverbal responses are being sent while the other person is taking. Impossible to distinguish sender with receiver. Communication model replaces roles with term communicator in order to reflect that , at least in face to face interactions, people are simultaneously senders and receivers who exchange multiple messages.

First-order reality and second order reality

First- Order realities are physically observable qualities of a thing or situation. For example, the fact that your grandmother wrapped you in a big hug would be obvious to any observer. Likewise, thee probably wouldn't be an argument about what word was uttered if a friend called you a bonehead. By contrast, second-order realities involve our attaching meaning to first-events, but rather in our attaching meaning to first-events, but rather in our minds. First-order reality: Your grandma gives you a hug. Shared second-order reality: It appropriate for grandparents to hug their grandchild. First-order reality: A job interviewer asks your day has been going. Shared second-order reality: This is a reasonable question for the question. -Communication becomes more problematic when we have different second-order realities. For example: First-order reality: Your friend calls you a "bonehead." Your second-order reality: " Your remark is being critical" Friend's second order reality: The remark was an affectionate joke. First-order reality: A job interviewer asks whether you are married. Your second-order reality: The question has nothing to do with the job and is inappropriate.

Understand, define, and recognize examples of generalized other (lecture and Griffin, p. 60-61)

Generalized other: the composite mental image a person has of his or herself based on societal expectations and responses. The generalized other gives children a sense of self and helps them view themselves in relation to the groups to which they belong. Through understanding the generalized other, they are able to predict the consequences of their behavior and how it will affect others. They also can anticipate the actions of others. The final stage in the childhood development process, in which children are able to not only take on the roles of others, but also take into account the attitude and perspectives of others in their social group. The emergence of the generalized other requires the presence of some time of organized community or social system, whether it be a baseball team or an organized family system.

The book covers high/low context, individualism/collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and achievement/nurturing

High context:relies heavily unsubtle, often nonverbal cues to maintain social harmony Ex. Middle East, Eastern Asia, Latin America Low context: uses language primarily to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas as directly as possible Ex. Germany, US, UK Individualistic culture: view their primary responsibility as helping themselves (UK, Canada, Uk) Collectivist cultures feel loyalties and obligations to an in-group: one's extended family, community, or even the organization one works for. (pakistan, indonesia, ecuador) Power Distance: to describe the degree to which members of a society accept an unequal distribution of power. Low power difference cultures support the notion that challenging authority is acceptable even desirable. Ex. US, Canada, Austria, Denmark, Israel High degree of power distance: Philipines, Mexico, Venezuela, India, Singapore Uncertainty avoidance: reflect the degree to which members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous situations and how much they try and avoid them. Us proved relatively unbothered by change whereas Japan found are or ambiguous situations discomforting. A cultures degree of uncertainty avoidance is reflected in the way its members communicate. Japan-high uncertainty avoidance USA-low uncertainty avoidance

Characteristics of Interpersonal Communication- Interdependence

High interpersonal communication exchanges reveal that the fate of the partners is connected. You might be able to brush off the anger, affection, excitement, or depression of someone with whom share an impersonal relationship (such as a restaurant server you don't know), but in an interpersonal relationship the other's life affects you (if the same server is a close friend, you may empathize with his emotion)

Environments

In communication, environment refers not only to the physical location but also to the personal experiences and cultural background that participants bring to a conversation.

Characteristics of Interpersonal Communication- Self-Disclosure

In impersonal exchanges, we reveal little about ourselves; but interpersonal exchanges often include sharing important thoughts and feelings, and they reflect the communicators' comfort with one another. This doesn't mean that all highly interpersonal relationship are warm and caring or that all self-disclosure is positive. It is possible to reveal negative personal information: "it is possible to reveal negative personal information: I really hate when you do that!" But note you would probably say that only to someone with whom you have an interpersonal relationship.

Linguistic relativism

Linguistic relativism is the idea that the language a person speaks has an influence on this person's cognition. Every language is unique. We cannot think without language. Language affects perception. Language affects patterns of thinking. Ex. One language cannot be translated to other languages. The punjabi word "joot". This word in its most literal translation to English means "unclean to not pure"(as in half eaten food). No matter how many definitions one tries to construct root cannot be translated in its full meaning. This brings to mind the notion that language is relative, this the same word can have different meanings for different people and these subjective meanings let rise varying cogniitionss.

2.Meanings Exist in and among People-Insights from the transactional communication model

Messages whether that are verbal or nonverbal do not have meanings in themselves. Instead, meanings reside in the people who express and interpret them. Example -A friend says "I'm sorry", after showing up several hours late to a fate. There are several possible "meanings" that this expressions might have: a genuine apology, an insecure statement designed to defuse your anger, or even a sarcastic jibe. It's easy to imagine that your friend might mean one thing and you might have a different interpretation of it. The possibility of multiple interpretations means that it is often necessary to negotiate a shared meaning in order to satisfy communication to occur.

Know the forms of totalizing communication from Wood

One form of totalizing... involves defining individuals by their membership in a specific group. When we mark an individual as an exception to his or her group, we unknowingly reveal our own sterotypes. In fact, we may reinforce them because marking an individual who does not conform to the sterotypes as unusual leaves our perceptions of the group unchanged.

Recognize the consequences that follow from the paradoxes of privilege (Johnson, p. 34-38)

One of the paradoxes of privilege is that although it is received by individuals, the granting of privilege has nothing to do with individuals are as people. Gays and Lesbians can have access to heterosexual privilege so long as they don't reveal their sexual orientation When it comes to privilege, then, it doesn't really matter who you are. What ,matters is who other people think we are, which is to say, the social categories they put us in. First privilege is rooted and groups as much as it is rooted in people's personalities and how they perceive and react to one another. This means that doing something about the problem of privilege takes more than changing individuals. There is no such thing as facing up one's privilege to be outside the system. One is always in the system. The only question is whether one is part of the system in a which challenges or strengthens the status quo. Privilege is not something I take and which therefore have the option of not taking. It is something that society gives me, they will continue to five it, and I will continue to have it, however noble and egalitarian my intention. We do not have to be special or even feel special to have access to privilege. The paradoxical experience of being privilege without feeling privilege is a second consequence of the fact that privilege is more about social categories than who people are . People will compare themselves with those who seem like them in key respects and see if they are doing better or worse than those people are. What this means, however, is that whites tend not to to feel privileged by their race when they compare themselves with there reference group, because their reference group is also white To protect themselves from feeling and being seen as on the bottom of the ladder, they may of out of their way to compare themselves to women or people of color by emphasizing their supposed gender or racial superiority. This can appear in exaggerated sense of masculinity. Ex. Overt attempts to put women and people of color "in their place" by harassment, violence, or behavior that is openly contemptous and demanding. A corollary to being privilege without knowing it is to be on the other side of privilege without necessary feeling that.

Understand the reasons we stereotype, according to Wood (p. 192-194)

One reason we use stereotypes is that they reduce our uncertainty by grouping people into broad classes that obscure individual characteristics. A Second reason we stereotype is that we rely on what psychologist call implicit personality theory. Most of us have certain unspoken and perhaps unrecognized and assumptions about qualities that go together in personalities.

Characteristics of competent communication-Empathy/Perspective Taking

People have the best chance of developing an effective message when they understand and empathize with the other person's point of view. Because there are not always good at expressing there thoughts and feelings clearly, the ability to imagine how an issue might look from another's perspective suggest why empathy is such an important communication skill. And of course, it's not enough to take another's perspective; it's vital to communicate that understanding through verbal and nonverbal responses.

Review Interplay's explanation of public and private selves (including the perceived self and presenting self), characteristics of impression management, face-to-face impression management, and impression management and honesty (Interplay, p. 80-87)

Perceived Self: The person you believe yourself to be in moments of honest self examination. Ex. It is private because you are unlikely to reveal all of it to another person. You might be reluctant to share feelings about you appearance (I think that I am rather unattractive) Presenting Self: the public image-the way we want to appear to others Characteristics of Impression Management 1.We strive to construct multiple indenties-jokester friend , respectful student , and kind neighbor. Think of student athleteles 2.Impression management is collaborative- teasing only works if the other person appreciates your humor and responsibilities well. 3. Impression management can be deliberate and unconcious -most job interviews and first dates are example of deliberate impression management.

Understand what is meant by "privilege" (lecture and Johnson, p. 21-22 -but also appears throughout Johnson reading)

Privilege has become one of those loaded words we need to reclaim so that we can use it to name and illuminate the truth. As Peggy McIntosh describes it, privilege exist when one group has something of value that is denied to others simply because of the groups they belong to, rather than because of anything they have done or failed to do. The existence of privilege means that someone is getting something that other people are denied. Access to privilege does not determine outcomes, but it is an asset that makes it more likely that whatever talent, ability, and aspiration one with privilege has will result in something good for them . The ease of not being aware of privilege is an aspect of privilege itself, is called "luxury of obliviousness". To be white in America means not having to think about it.

3.Environment and Noise Affect Communication-Insights from the transactional communication model

Problems often arise because communicators often occupy different environments(aka context: fields of experience that help them make sense of others behavior. Environment refers not only to a physical location but also to the personal experiences and cultural experiences and cultural background that participants bring to a conversation. You an appreciate the influence of environment by thinking about your beliefs about an important topic such as work, marriage, or governmental policies. Then imagine how your beliefs might be quite different if your personal history were differnt. Important Note: In communication model the environments of A and B overlap. The intersecting area represents the background that the communicators have in common. If, this overlap did not exist, communication would be difficult, if not impossible. Whereas similar environments often facilitate communication, different backgrounds can make effective communication more challenging. Examples of factors that might contribute to different environments and to challenges: -A might belong to one ethnic group and B may belong to another ethnic group - A might be rich and B might be poor -A might be rushed and B have nowhere to go -A might have lived a long, eventful life and B is young and inexperienced -A might be passionately concerned with the subject and B indifferent to it. Another factor that makes communication difficult is noise. Noise is anything that interferes with the transmission and reception of a message. Three Types of Noise -External Noise: factors outside the receiver that make it difficult to hear, as well as many other kinds of distractions. Ex. loud music in a bar or a jackhammer grinding in the street might make it hard for you to pay attention to another person -Physiological noise: involves biological factors in the receiver that interfere with the accurate reception Ex. hearing loss, illness, and so on -Psychological noise: refers to cognitive factors that make communication less effective. Ex. a woman who is called a "girl" may become so irritated that she has trouble listening objectively to the rest of the speaker's message.

Understand and recognize examples of the process of social construction discussed in lecture (habituation, routinization, etc.)

Process of social construction (According to Berger & Luckmann) 1.Habituation 2.Routinization (habits that persist) 3.Institutionalization (social control) 4.Objectivation (routines seem natural; people unquestioningly "buy into" system) Socialization (transmit to new generations) Universe Maintenance (conversation) Annihilate or assimilate competing realities

Be able to define and recognize examples of totalizing communication (Wood, p. 192-196)

Scholars use the term totalize to describe communication that emphasizes one aspect of a person above others, Less obvious but no less important is the impact of totalizing on people who age in it. Examples White manager to black manager: " You really are exceptional at your job." (Translation: Black women are not usually successful.) Male professional to female professional: " You do not think like a woman" (Translation: Most women do not think like professionals)

Characteristics of competent communication- Self Monitoring (Key)

Self monitoring is a term used to describe the process of paying close .attention to one's own behavior and using these observations to shape the way one behaves. Self-monitors are able to detach a part of their consciousness to observe their behavior from a detached viewpoint , making observations such as " I'm making a fool out of myself. I'd better speak up now. This approach is working well. I'll keep it up." The ability to ask yourself How am I doing ? and change behavior if the answer isn't positive is a tremendous asset for communicators. People with poor communication skills often blunder through life, sometimes succeeding and sometimes failing, without detachment to understand why. Interpersonal competence is not just always a matter of having the necessary skill and will. It can be hindered by communication apprehension: feelings of anxiety that arise in unfamiliar or difficult communication contexts.

Define and recognize examples of self-fulfilling prophesy (Interplay, p. 77-80 and Griffin, p. 62)

Self-fufilling prophesy: occurs when a person's expectations of an event and her or his subsequent behavior based on those expectations make the outcome more likely to occur than would otherwise been true. Four stages 1. Holding an expectation (for yourself or for others) 2. Behaving in accordance with that expectation 3. The expectation coming to pass 4. Reinforcing the original expectations Example: In other words, an expectation about a subject, such as a person or event, can affect our behavior towards that subject, which causes the expectation to be realized. For example, a high school volleyball coach expects freshmen to be less skilled, so she does not put them in to play very often. When she does put them in, they are rusty and don't do well, thereby fulfilling her expectations.

Social Identity Theory

Social Identity Theory (SIT)-Henri Tajfel & John Turner SIT Premises 1) Categorize ourselves and others based on cognitive schemas -Creating in-group and out-group members 2) Identify with our categorization and internalize our own social category -We strive to be prototypical group members Deviants: Non-prototypical members either become out-group or marginalized in-group members -Accept social identity categories as real and natural, not as constructed 3) Motivated to view our own groups positively bc we desire positive self-image Group becomes an extension of the self 4) Therefore, we compare social categories Exhibit in-group bias by valuing our categories above others In-group bias enhances self-esteem Leads to group competition (an attempt to control the social hierarchy) 5) Social hierarchies created through ranking social categories 6)We react to people's group rather than their individuality Called depersonalization Depersonalization makes it easy to stereotype and negatively judge others Ultimately, SIT is one explanation of how we use the brain's perception process to make sense of ourselves and others Allen says: It is natural to categorize; but, problems arise when people assign meanings to descriptors -move from using "categories not only to distinguish, but also to discriminate and dominate" p. 13

Know the basic definition of/idea behind social construction perspective

Social construction is a meto-theoretical perspective Griffin describes CMM, a theory under the umbrella of Social construction that explains the mechanics of Social construciton Social Construction Perspective About how we create social realities Negotiate what is "real" & important Our social systems impel us to make sense in particular ways Communication changes how we perceive objects and their range of meanings

Know the four tenets of CMM (Griffin, p. 72-75)

Social constructionists re language theorist who believe that persons-in-conversation co-construct their own realities and are simultaneously shaped by the worlds they create. The Four Tenets of CMM 1.The experience of persons-in conversation is the social process of human life 2. The way people communicate is often more important than the content of what they say 3. The actions of persons-in-conversation are reflexively reproduced as the interaction continues. 4. As social constructionist, CMM researches see themselves as curious participants in a pluralistic world.

Understand in-group versus out-group membership (lecture and Interplay)

Social scientist use the label in-groups to describe groups with which we identify and out-groups to describe those that we view as different .

Communication Principles-Communication be intentional or unintentional

Some communication is clearly deliberate. You probably plan your words carefully before asking the boss for a raise or offering constructive criticism. Some scholars argue that only intentional messages like these qualify as communication. However, others suggest that even unintentional behavior is communicative. Suppose, for instance, that a friend overhears you muttering complaints to yourself. Even though you did not intend for remarks, they certainly did carry a message. In addition to these slips of the tongue, we unintentionally send many nonverbal messages. You might not be aware of your sour expression, impatient shifting, or sigh of boredom, but others view them nonetheless. Even the seeming absence of behavior has communicative value. Recall the times when you sent an email or left a voice mail message and received no reply. You probably assigned some meaning to the nonresponse. Was the other person angry? Indifferent? Too busy to reply? Whether you hunch was correct, the point remains: All behavior has communicative value. "Nothing" never happens. In interplay we look at the communicative value of both intentional and unintentional behavior. This book takes the position of whatever you do-whether you speak or remain silent, confront or avoid, show emotion or keep a poker face-you provide information to others about your thoughts and feelings, we are like transmitters that can't be shut off.

The Nature of Language-Language is Ruled-Governed

The only reason symbol-laden languages work at all is that people agree on how to use them. The linguistic agreements that make communication possible can be codified in rules that continuously evolve. Phonological rules govern how sounds are combined to form words. For instance, the words champagne, double, and occasion have the same meaning in French and English, but are pronounced differently because the languages have different phonological rules. Whereas phonological rules determine how spoken language sounds, synaptic rules govern the way symbols can be arranged. For instance, the words champagne, double, and occasion have the same meaning in French and English, but are pronounced differently phonological rules. Semantic rules also govern use of language. Whereas syntax deals with structure, semantics governs the meaning of statements. Semantic rule are what makes it possible for us to agree that bikes are for riding. Pragmatic rules: We learn to distinguish the accurate meanings of such speech acts through pragmatic rules and tell us what uses and interpretations of a message are appropriate in a given context. Ex. one rule specifies that the relationship between communicators plays a large role in determining the relationship between communicators plays a large role in determine the meaning of a statement.

What is the difference between relational and content messages ?

The relational message refers to the relationship. between you and the person you are communicating. with and your feelings toward each other. Your relationship or feelings for a best friend. influence your behavior with that friend. Content messages are more obvious because. they are the spoken words. Definition of Relational Messages. The relational message refers to the relationship. between you and the person you are communicating.

Attribution theory

Theory Tenets and Concepts -We constantly try to explain our own and other's behavior 1.Internal Attributions: Locates causes of behaviors to internal attribute of actor Ex. The person is not smart enough for test , The person did not study enough for the test 2.External Attributions: Locates causes of behaviors to external attributes of scenario Ex. The library was too loud so she could not study, the exam questions are tricky, she overslept for her exam Attribution Biases 1.Fundamental Attribution Error: Overestimating internal attributions and underestimating external attributions when judging others -Tend to attribute negative outcomes to internal characteristics and positive outcomes to external situations -Internal attributions influenced by our stereotypes of their social identity Examples: You might, for example, explain your professor's harsh words about class performance as being the result of his angry personality type, or you might attribute it to his disappointment with the overall class performance. If you attribute his harsh words to the angry personality type, then you have made the fundamental attribution error. We might, for example, explain the fact that someone is unemployed based on his character, and blame him for his plight, when in fact he was recently laid off due to a sluggish economy. 2.FAE particularly evident when: - We don't know the other person -Other person seems very different from us -Other person's social identity is particularly obvious (depersonalization) 3.FAE is less evident when: -We like the other person -Are satisfied in our relationship with them -Or identify with them in some way 4. Overattribution: Singling out one or two characteristics and attributing everything a person does to those one or two things -We engage in fundamental attribution error and overattribution particularly with members of out-groups Examples: Media outlets put up pictures of black guys instgram pics with pants sagging and guns after a police shooting. 5.Self-serving bias: When judging ourselves, we tend to overestimate external attributions and underestimate internal attributions -i.e. we attribute positive outcomes to internal characteristics and negative outcomes to external situations -The exact opposite of FAE Examples: A star quarterback discusses the hard work and team-mindedness of his fellow players when asked to explain a big win. A few weeks later, after his team loses a game, the same quarterback explains that "it just wasn't our night".

Recognize the two types of privilege (unearned advantage and conferred dominance) (lecture and Jonson, p. 21-24)

Unearned Advantage: According to McIntosh privilege comes in two types. The first based on what she calls "unearned entitlement", which are things of value that all people should have, such as feeling safe in public spaces or working in a place where they feel they belong and are valued for what they can contribute When awn unearned entitlement is restricted to certain groups, however it a form of privilege she calls unearned advantage. Unearned advantage gives dominant groups a competitive edge they are reluctant to even acknowledge much less give up. Conferred dominance: goes a step further by giving one group power over another. The common pattern of men controlling conversations with women, for example is grounded in the cultural assumption that men are suppose to dominate women.

Common Tendencies in Perception- We are influenced by the obvious

We select stimuli from our environment that are noticeable -that is intense, repetitious, unusual, or otherwise attention grabbing. The problem is that the most obvious factor is not necessarily the only cause or the most significant one of the event. Ex. -When to children fight, it may be a mistake to blame the one who lashes out loudest. Perhaps the other one is equally responsible, teasing, or refusing to cooperate. -complaining about friend who's bad mouth gossiping or arguing has become a bother, forgetting that by putting up with that kind of behavior you have been at least partially responsible. -You might blame an unhappy work situation on the boss, overlooking other factors beyond her control, such as a change in the economy, the policy of higher management, or demands of customers or other workers. These examples show that it is important to take time to gather all the facts before arriving at a conclusion.

Communication Principles-Communication is Irreversible

We sometimes wish that we could back in time, erasing words or acts replacing them with better alternatives. Unfortunately, such reversal is impossible. Sometimes, further explanation can clear up

Common Tendencies in Perception- We are influenced by our expectations

When you are told in advance that a teacher is terrific, it affects the way you perceive the teacher. Students who read positive comments about teachers on rate my professor viewed their teacher as more credible and ataractic than students who were not exposed to the same comments. Expectations do not always lead to positive appraisals. Example the girl on Instagram does not look the same in real life and the guy no longer wants to date her.

Characteristics of Interpersonal Communication-Uniqueness

Whereas impersonal exchanges are ritualized and governed by social rules, interpersonal exchanges are shaped by the nature and history of a particular relationships. For examples, with one friend you might exchange good-natured insults, whereas with another you are careful never to offend. Consider how you communicate with those closest to and you'll recognize that recognize that each relationship that each relationship is defined is defined by its own specific language, customs, and patterns.

Common Tendencies in Perception- We judge ourselves more charitably than we do others

Whereas we may evaluate others critically, we tend to judge ourselves more generously . 1. Fundamental attribution error: the tendency to give more weight to personal qualifications than to the situation when making attributions Ex. if someone you know makes a hurtful comment, you are likely to chalk it up to flaws in her or his character(mean spirited) than to external factors(fatigue, peer pressure). We are more charitably earn judging ourselves. When they botch a job we think they were not listening well. When he makes an overly critical comment it is because he is insensitive. When she use profanity it is because of a flaw in her character. 2. Self-serving bias: means that when we perform poorly, we usually blame external forces-and we credit ourselves rather than the situation when we behave well. Self-serving bias is especially common in troubled relationships. Couples in conflict are more likely to blame their partner for the problem than to accept responsibility for their role in the problem. Ex. When we swear it is because the situation called for it. When we make an overly critical comment we think we are giving constructive critism . When we make a mistake we think the problem was unclear directions.

The Nature of Language-Language is Symbolic

Words are arbitrary symbols that have no meaning in themselves. For example, the word five is a kind of code that represents the number of fingers on your hand only because we agree that it does. Even sign language, as " spoken" by most deaf people, is symbolic in nature .

Characteristics of competent communication-Ability to perform skillfully

You have to be able to perform that behavior effectively. Practice is the key to skillful performance.

Characteristics of competent communication-Adaptability

Yuu have to be able to chose the right behavior for a particular situation. Ex. college students do not adapt messages when talking to college professors and create negative messages.

Noise

anything that interferes with the transmission and reception of a message.

Characteristics of competent communication-Involement

effective communication occurs when the people care about one another and the topic at hand. It has several dimensions. It includes commitment to the other person and the relationship, concern about the message being discussed, and a desire to make the relationship clearly useful.

Identify and define the elements of the communication model

environment, sender, receiver (communicators), noise, message, channel

The Nature of Language-Language and World Horscope

linguistic relativity: that a language both reflects and shapes the worldview of those who use it. Ex. bilingual sprekers seems to think differently when they change languages. Language shapes our cultural identity. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: found that language spoken by hopi native Americans represented a view of reality that is dramatically different from most lounges. Therefore, the people who speak it describe the entire world as being constantly in process. Whereas English speakers use nouns to characterize people or objects as being fixed or constant, the Hopi language represents them more as verbs,constantly changing. In this sense, Hopi reflects a worldview that is more like a motion picture.

Communicator

sends, receives, assigns meaning. It is a term that reflects the fact that people are simultaneously senders and receivers who exchange multiple messages.

Common Tendencies in Perception- We cling to first impressions

snap judgements are significant because our initial impressions of others carry more weight than the ones that follow. Primacy effect: tendency to pay more attention to, and to beer recall things that happen first in a sequence. You can probably recall first impressions you held of people who are now your close friends. It could be positive or negative but first impressions played a significant role in the actions that followed. Halo effect: describes tendency to form an overall positive impression of a person on the basis of one positive characteristic Positive first impressions are often based on physical attractiveness, which can lead people to attribute all sorts of other virtues to the good-looking person. Ex. employment interviewers rate mediocre but attractive job applicants higher than their less attractive candidates Horns effect: occurs when negative appraisal adversely influences the perceptions that follow. Ex. Consider the case of the average Republican, who is supposedly pro-tax cut. A few months ago, President Obama proposed a 50% payroll tax cut that would have been one of the greatest middle class tax cuts in the history of the United States. They opposed his jobs bill, which included the tax cut, in large part because it would have been a political "win" for him. In the far-right mind, the "horns" of Obama's personality overshadowed their own self-interest. Confirmation Bias: once we form a first impression-whether positive or negative- we tend to seek out and organize our impressions to support our opinion. Example: On job interviews, once a potential employer forms a pastiche impression, the tendency is to ask questions that confirm the employer's image of the applicant. The interviewer might ask leading questions aimed at supporting her positive views. Likewise, applicants who created negative first impressions are operating under a cloud that may be impossible to dispel.

Channel

the medium through which messages are exchanged. Along with face-to -face, we have the option of using mediated channels such as phones, e-mail, and instant messages.

What are the characteristics of interpersonal communication ?

uniqueness, interdependence, self-disclosure, intrinsic rewards

Common Tendencies in Perception- We assume others like us

we common imagine that others possess the same attitudes and motives we do. Ex. -You heard a slightly raunchy joke that you found funny and you assume it won't offend your friend but it does - You lost your temper with a friend a weak ago and said some things you regret. In fact, if someone said those things to you, you would consider the relationship finished. Imaging that your friend feels the same way, you avoid making eye contact. In fact, your friend feels that he was partially responsible and has avoided you because he thinks you are the one who wants to end things. So not assume your perceptions are accurate or unbiased.