COMM 203 Exam 3
What three (3) issues were part of the development plan of the first meeting of the Task Force (see p. 3-4)?
(1) research on advertising and children, with implications for psychologists and policymakers; (2) commercialism in schools; and (3) ethical issues for psychologists raised by advertising practices.
What were the positive effects (i.e., measurable outcomes) of the TIPS campaign (2011)?
1. Total call volume to the 1-800-QUIT-NOW 132% increase (range from 86% to 160%) Assessed website unique visitors-428% increase
What is the main premise of cognitive dissonance? Be able to describe and recognize in a scenario.
1. What actually causes a change in attitude? a. Cognitive: mental processes or thoughts b. Dissonance: something being inconsistent 2. Cognitive Dissonance occurs when attitude and action become inconsistent with one another a. Example: believe smoking is bad, but you are a smoker b. Causes anxiety=Must be resolved!
What is persuasion? Be able to define. Does persuasion have to include attitude change? Explain.
1. Messages that are designed to influence others by modifying their beliefs, values or attitudes- Simons (1976) 2. Process by which attitudes are changed or maintained a. Change- persuade you to go from coke to Pepsi b. Maintenance- coke has always been and will continue to be your drink of choice
What are the four (4) stages of media representation for minority groups? Be able to describe and apply. (Clark, 1969)
1. Non-recognition: groups not shown by mass media a. Ex: people with disabilities; 2011-2012 TV <1%; 12% of population 2. Ridicule: recognized, but subjects of ridicule 3. Regulation: limited, but socially acceptable roles (aiding dominant group) 4. Respect: Both positive and negative depictions, across al contexts
What is an attitude? Be able to define. What are the three components of an attitude?
1. positive or negative evaluation of "something" (person, place or thing) a. Components of an attitude: i. Cognitive: "What do I think about it?" ii. Affective: "How do I feel about it?" iii. Behavioral: "How do I behave toward it?" b. Attitude is a mediator between acquisition of persuasive information and behavior change
What did Jeffres (2000) find in terms of the relationship between ethnic media use and ethnic identification?
1. viewing and identification - Longitudinal study, 1976-1994 (every 4 years) o 13 different "white ethnic group" o Ethnic ID, Ethnic Behavior, Ethnic Media Use, Mainstream Media Use i. Ethnic media use associated with stronger ethnic identification across time
How did the TV show Felicity persuade people to adopt behavior that contributed to their overall health? What was the design of the study (e.g., sample size, research method) as well as the results?
100 called rape hotline after 2 part episode of felicity about date rape, phone number at end that would connect people to hotline
What were the findings of the meta-analysis (Snyder et al.) in terms of behavioral change? Specifically, behavioral change was seen in what percentage of people?
7-10%
What is the gender and racial/ethnic breakdown of the 19 LGB characters?
85% were white with 2 Asian characters and 1 black character · There were no transgendered characters found
Boomerang Effect
Boomerang effects occur when audiences have the opposite reaction of what persuasive health communication messages promote, similar to the concept of reactance. Exposure to messages that induce too much fear or threaten the freedom of the individual have been shown to increase the undesired behavior for health issues such as smoking, drinking, and unsafe sex.
System Activation Effect
Austin wk 14)Finally, system activation effects are the influence of sectors of society in addition to the intended audience. These sectors of society, such as policy makers, media, employers, and other organizations, may have a direct or indirect impact on the intended audience. System activation effects may serve to support the intended goals of the health communication or undermine them.
What were the findings of Ward's (2004) study in terms of how media representations affect perceptions of self (e.g., self-esteem)?
a. Purpose: Media Exposure and Self-Esteem for African American youth b. N=156 African American high school students i. 70% female; 14 to 18 years old c. Findings (associated with lower self-esteem): i. Media Genre: sports program, music videos ii. Identification with Characters: white iii. Viewer Characteristics: low religiosity
For females (top-grossing films of 2014), how do ethnic portrayals differ in terms of hyper-sexualization (i.e., % in sexy attire, w/exposed skin, and referenced attractive)? NOTE: Be able to indicate which ethnic group(s) was/were more hyper-sexualized. Also, consider these findings in relation to the media portrayal stereotypes for different ethnic groups (i.e., African Americans/Blacks, Asian Americans/Asians, and Latinos/Hispanics). (MDSC)
For white characters, 27.5% were shown in sexy attire, 26.3% were shown with exposed skin, and 14.8% were referenced as attractive. For Hispanic characters, 30.6% were shown in sexy attire, 27.4% were shown with exposed skin, and 9.7% were referenced as attractive. For black characters, 29% were shown in sexy attire, 27.7% were shown with exposed skin, and 11.6% were referenced as attractive. For Asian characters, 25.7% were shown in sexy attire, 20% were shown with exposed skin, and 4.3% were referenced as attractive. Hispanic characters were the most hypersexualized, followed closely by black characters, then white characters, and the least hypersexualized characters were Asian characters. White characters, though, were the most likely to be referenced as attractive, even though they weren't as hypersexualized as Hispanic and Black characters.
What were the general arguments of Gerbner et al. (2002) from a cultivation hypothesis/theory perspective?
Gerbner et al. (2002) argued that television continuously feeds "mainstream" views over a period of time. Proposing a cultivation hypoth esis, Gerbner et al. (1994) posited that television images inform public opin ions about the social world (see too Gerbner & Gross, 1976). Specifically, cultivation theory proposed that heavy exposure to media, television in par ticular, shaped how viewers saw the real world. What such viewers deem as appropriate role portrayals, values and ideologies are, over time, increas ingly in line with those delivered on screen (Gerbner et al. 2007).
What stereotypes about homosexuality are perpetuated in media representations (based on previous research cited)?
If represented at all, gays and lesbians tend to be promiscuous, infected with HIV, or have unsatisfying sexual and romantic relationships
What known gender differences exist in reception of messages about homosexuality?
In terms of gender, past studies suggest that young men, on average, tend to receive messages about homosexuality that are more negative in tone than the messages that young women receive
Who is most affected by agenda setting? Be able to explain how: (a) relevance of information, and (b) uncertainty concerning the subject relate to a need for orientation thus making someone more or less susceptible to agenda setting effect.
a. Relevance of Information + Uncertainty concerning subject b. Need for orientation c. Susceptibility to agenda setting effects
What is media priming? How does it help explain perceptions of ethnic/racial groups?
a. Response to a stimulus predicted to have an effect on some subsequent set of responses (attitudes/behaviors)
What are the assumptions of spiral of silence?
a. Society threatens deviant individuals with isolation b. Fear of Isolation causes individuals to try to assess the climate of opinion at all times Public behavior is affected by public opinion assessment
What did the following studies find in terms of the effects media representations have on individual's perceptions of the content and the members of that group? Mastro & Tukachinsky (2011)
a. Study 1: i. N=121 (53% female); White ii. Experiment o Exemplar condition (Latino or White) o Control condition (no exemplar) o Jimmy Smits and George Clooney (positive Latino and White representations) iii. Findings: o Exposure to positive Latino media models produce favorable evaluations o Work Ethic, Intelligence, Criminality o Higher for those with preexisting positive racial attitudes
What is the purpose/premise of the Social Identity Theory?
Pressures to evaluate one's own group positively through in-group/out-group comparisons lead social groups to attempt to differentiate themselves from each other
How do the authors explain why significant differences remain in the depiction of prime time characters by race (see p. 110)? (Monk-Turner)
We argue that the depiction of minority characters on prime time has changed little over recent time. Counter stereotypical images have faded for Latinos and mixed media messages exist for African American characters. Given that media images are viewed not only by a national but by a growing international audience, we argue that the media must wrestle with these constructed images.
What were the findings of the MDSC Initiative report regarding the prevalence of ethnic/racial minorities on-screen?
There is very little change in terms of representation over the years
What are the two crucial questions surrounding new technology that researchers need to continue to study in future years?
What is the impact of the connectedness that the newer media promote, i.e., the almost constant technological links that youth have with eachother, using their cell phones, beepers, email and other devices soon to be developed? What about the relationships young people have with others they have met only via technological links? Do youth, for example, have strnonger social ties to their peers becauset hey are in virtual contact so much more of the time? Or are they more alienated because this technological contact comes at the expense of potentially richer face-to-face interaction?
What is the classic S-shared adoption curve? Specifically, what happens over time in terms of the number of adopters of an innovation?
laggards adopt it almost everyone else already has. Over time a piece of technology increases market penetration to the point that it is 100%
What did the following studies find in terms of the effects media representations have on individual's perceptions of the content and the members of that group? Punyanunit-Carter (2008)
a. Survey over 400 primarily non-African American college students: b. Findings: i. Realism associated with portrayals of black characters' personalities ii. Negative characteristics were perceived to be more realistic whereas positive characteristics were less realistic
What theoretical framework is used to explain the impact media has on attitudes on homosexuality?
cultivation theory
Epidemic of Apprehension Effect
epidemic of apprehension effects occur when continued exposure to risk messages creates an inflated concern about health risks. This over-concern about minimal health risks [p. 573 ↓ ] may prevent audiences from performing other beneficial health actions.
What is entertainment-education?
example- felicity; educating viewers on a topic through entertainment/media
How was the movie The Day After Tomorrow persuasive even though that was NOT its intention?
film about climate change; those questioned after after seeing the film were willing to give 50% more towards efforts to mitigate changes in climate than those questioned after; was intended to entertain
Does the spiral of silence apply to everyone? What type of person is less likely to be influenced (and be silent)?
for people who are highly certain about their views on an issue, perceptions of the majority opinion dont matter in terms of their willingness to express their views; people who are less certain about their views may be those most likely to fall silent when their views are out of step with the majority
What are stereotypes? Be able to define.
generalizations, or assumptions, that people make about the characteristics of all members of a group; "Pictures in our heads" of individuals
What were the findings of William Eveland, Douglas McLeod, and Nancy Signorielli's study examining attitudes toward the Gulf War in 1991?
in contrast to the strong consensus in favor of the war that the news media reported, the survey revealed that very few people actually expressed strong support in their answers to the questions; people who tended to express the strongest support for the war were those who thought the public opinion was running in that direction
What were the negative (alarming) findings of the Carnegie Mellon Study in regard to the level of communication/interaction people have with others?
use of the internet was associated with a general decline in communication with family members who lived in the household; those who used the internet more frequently tended to report that the number of people in their social circle declined over the years of the study; internet users tended to report greater levels of depression and feelings of loneliness than they did before the study began
What percentage of the U.S. population use the Internet regularly?
nearly 87%
How does selective exposure influence your recall of a news story?
people come to any communication message with their own attitudes, beliefs, and values that help to guide their attention to particular messages. many news stories are not attended to very well because people see them as irrelevant
What is the activity displacement effect? Be able to describe and recognize in a scenario.
people have a limited amount of time during any day to engage in various actiities; once family members are hooked up to the internet, perhaps they tend to spend more time in isolation from others, using the internet for private entertainmentn or web surfing
What known ethnic differences exist in reception of messages about homosexuality?
research has found that Asian, Latino, and Black participants tend to harbor more negative attitudes towards homosexuality than White participants
Be able to discuss the key principles of media persuasion as well as why each principle is important. Specifically, what is known about: o Message Features: Simplicity and Repetition How does repetition and simplicity influence persuasiveness?
simple and to the point message=more persuasive; repeated message=more persuasive, but not if exposed too many times (after about 3 exposures, people become bored)
What does the need for cognition concept suggest in terms of people thinking about news reports?
some people may be more likely to think about a news report and ruminate on it after exposure
How does intention (i.e., deliberate attempt) fit into the definition of persuasion?
some scholars would argue that true persuasion doesnt occur unless someone has a made a deliberate attempt to change attitudes or behavior. according to this view, persuasion really involves a transaction between a source and a receiver
What is the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)? Be able to describe the main premise
there are two main routes to persuasion (central and peripheral route)
What is the one (1) fundamental concern regarding advertising and its influence on children's attitudes?
that advertising targeting children below the ages of 7-8 years is inherently unfair because it capitalizes on younger children's inability to attribute persuasive intent to advertising. As a result of this limitation, children below this age comprehend the information contained in television commercials uncritically, accepting most advertising claims and appeals as truthful, accurate, and unbiased.
What types of social comparisons do we make? How does each affect our self-esteem?
- Upward Social Comparison- comparison to those who are better on a certain dimension ♣ Lower self-esteem (Major et al., 1993) - Downward Social Comparison- comparison to those who perform worse on certain dimensions ♣ Higher self-esteem; self-protecting mechanism (Crocker, 1993)
Generally, how has media content (e.g., TV dramas, crime-dramas, and The Daily Show) influenced political attitudes? NOTE: No need for specifics but what are the consistent findings.
1. According to Nielson, only about 10% primetime TV viewership is news 2. News is the lowest category out of drama (41%), sports (22%), reality TV (16%), and sitcoms (11%) 3. The average amount of time viewing news is only 12 minutes a day for local and network news viewers and 25 minutes a day for cable TV news viewers 4. Even only looking at heavy news viewers only, the average amount of time is 20-30 minutes for local or network news and 72 minutes for cable TV news 5. The average adult TV viewer watched 5 hours of TV per day 6. Shows that are about "entertainment" rather than the news (information) can also influence perceptions of politics: a. Political Dramas: (House of Cards, Scandal, etc.) b. Political Comedy: (Parks and Recreation, VEEP, Drunk History, etc.) c. Political Satire: (The Daily Show, The Colbert Report, SNL Weekend Update, etc.) d. Viewers consume more dramas, comedies, and satire than news, making concepts more accessible in memory 7. Holbert, Shah & Kwak (2004) found that frequent watching of crime drama resulted in increased support for death penalty 8. Holbert et al. (2003) found that watching an episode of The West Wing increased support for presidents regardless of political party Pew Research surveys found viewers of The Daily Show were more informed than viewers of Fox/MSNBC news
What did Abrams (2005, 2007, 2009) find in terms of African Americans' and Hispanic Americans' selection and avoidance of TV? Why do they do this (for what purpose)?
1. African Americans' and Hispanics Americans' strength of ethnic ID related to selection and avoidance of TV
What did Harwood (1999) find in terms of age group identification and age identity gratifications and their relationship to television viewing?
1. Age Groups - Age identification and age identity gratifications (AIG) predict television viewing o Cast of Similar Age o Themes Close to Own Experience
What is the third person effect? Be able to describe and recognize in a scenario
1. Based on perceptions that others will be more affected by negative media content than will oneself
What are the eleven (11) types of unintended effects of health communication? Be able to list and describe each
1. Boomerang 2. Culpability 3. Desensitization 4. Dissonance 5. Enabling 6. Epidemic of Apprehension 7. Obfuscation 8. Opportunity Cost 9. Social Norming 10. Social Reproduction 11. System Activation
Which specific alcohol company's ad was the most recognized by children (in a national study)? What specifically about the ad made it recognizable to children?
1. Budweiser Frog Ads most recognized by children because the frogs are appealing to children
Overall, what are the results of health communication campaigns world-wide? Specifically in terms of: o Effect sizes (small, medium, or large) Short-term vs. long-term effects
1. Campaigns world-wide have mixed results a. Health campaigns can have small-to-moderate effects 2. Some health campaigns produce long-term behavior change, some do not Fear appeals can increase anxiety
What is the TIPS Campaign? Specifically, what was the purpose and design?
1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) launched the first-ever paid national tobacco education campaign - Tips from Former Smokers (Tips) in March 2012 2. The Tips Campaign, profiles real people-not actors-who are living with serious long-term health effects from smoking and secondhand smoke exposure
How does the media rely on advertising to generate revenue? Explain.
1. Media rely on advertising to generate revenue 2. Advertising: Paid, one-way communication 3. The larger the media audience, the more money media can charge advertisers 4. Advertiser who must be happy, not the audience
According to the study by the Pew Research Center, how do liberals and conservatives differ in their primary news sources? How is this related to selective exposure?
1. Consistent liberals more likely to trust than distrust 28 of 36 news sources, name an array of main news sources, are more likely to defriend someone on social media because of politics 2. Consistent conservatives distrusted 24 of 36 news sources and are lightly clustered around one main news source (Fox), more likely to ear political opinions similar to their own on social media
What were the findings of the Monk-Turner et al. (2010) replication study regarding racial minorities on prime time television? How are the findings similar and different from those of Mastro and Greenberg?
1. Content Analysis of 2007 TV season a. Prime-time TV; composite week; broadcast networks 2. Racial Breakdown a. 74% Caucasian characters (down from 80%) b. 16% African American characters (overrepresentation) c. 5% Latino characters (up from 3%) d. <2% Asian characters (1% previously)
What were the findings of Mastro and Greenberg regarding the prevalence and portrayal of racial minorities in prime time television?
1. Content analysis of 1996-1997 TV season a. Prime-time TV; composite week; broadcast networks 2. Racial Breakdown a. 80% Caucasian characters (52% in main roles) b. 16% African American characters (56% in main roles) (overrepresentation) c. 3% Latino characters (44% in main roles) d. 1% Asian characters e. No Native Americans
What were the findings of the Williams et al. (2009) study regarding the prevalence of racial/ethnic groups in video games?
1. Content analysis of most popular video games a. March 2005 to February 2006, 9 major game systems b. 150 top games; 133 (non-repeat games) c. 30 minutes; default setting; random character play 2. Racial/Ethnic findings a. Majority of characters are white (80%) b. Minority characters 'under-represented'
What does ELM explain in terms of the process of persuasion?
1. Explains persuasion by identifying the likelihood of a person to elaborate cognitively or think very carefully about a persuasive message
What is the main premise of framing theory? Be able to describe and recognize in a scenario.
1. Framing is part of Agenda Setting 2. Framing Theory asserts that media focuses attention on certain events and then places them within a field of meaning 3. Attempts to understand audience interpretations of news information (Tewksbury et al., 2000)
What is Social Identity Gratifications (SIG) Theory? What two (2) reasons does it provide for why people seek out media?
1. Group membership motivator when "engaging with media" -Stronger when we identify with group -Select ContentPositive Social Identity -Avoid ContentNegative Social Identity 2. Explain broad "group-based" patterns of viewing (Harwood, 1997)
What were the findings of Hall, Jaimeson & Waldman (2004) study on framing? Specifically, what did they find in terms of the frame of Gore and Bush in the 2000 presidential campaign?
1. Hall, Jaimeson, and Waldman (2004) a. Found that news media often adopt their "frames" given to them by political campaigns (candidates and parties) of the opponents in their coverage i. In the 2000 presidential campaign, the frames were Gore as a liar and Bush as stupid b. Often news media frame political campaigns as a "horse race" and discuss campaign strategy-who is winning in the polls, who said what to whom-instead of actual ideas and policies i. Many voters have trouble identifying differences in ideas & policies of candidates as a result, particularly at the primary level
According to the 'Social Media and the Spiral of Silence' study discussed in class, if the topic of the government surveillance programs came up in different settings, how willing were people to join in the conversation? Specifically, were people more or less willing to discuss in a setting with family, friends, or via the Internet (Facebook or Twitter)?
1. If you think someone will agree with your opinions, it about doubles the likelihood that you will discuss your opinion with others
What are the different types of adopters? Be able to describe each.
1. Innovators: open to new things-2.5% 2. Early Adopters: tend to be opinion leaders-13.5% 3. Early Majority: "legitimization" of the innovation-34% 4. Late Majority: skeptical-34% 5. Laggards: put trust in the status quo-16%
What was the research design (e.g., sample size, how data obtained) of the Dixon and Williams (2015) study?
1. Past research, news programs over-represent African Americans as criminals and whites as victims and officers (Dixon & Linz, 200ab) 2. Dixon & Williams content analyzed network and cable programming from 2008-2014 to examine race and crime-related issues 3. Findings: a. Comparable for whites as perpetrators b. Arrest rates were much higher than TV perpetration presentation for African Americans c. Under-reporting African Americans as criminals on TV because of media not wanting to stereotype d. African Americans under-represented as victims on TV e. Over-representation of Latino immigrants as suspects on TV f. Over-representation of undocumented Latino immigrants as far as perpetration on TV, other undocumented immigrants under-represented g. Over-representation of Muslim terror suspects as perpetrators on TV
What are two (2) ways you can reduce dissonance?
1. Reducing dissonance (after) a. Shift attitude/belief b. Shift behavior 2. Shift beforehand: Try to prevent it a. Selective exposure/attention
What is the psychological process of social identity theory? Be able to indicate each component and the process order.
1. Social Categorizations: are cognitive tools that segment, classify, and order the social environment 2. Social Identification: - Social identity involves: - "individual's self-concept...derived from knowledge of membership in a social group." - "with value and emotional significance attached to membership" (Tajfel, 1978, p.63) 3. Social Comparisons: Make estimates of our own achievements in light o our counterparts 4. Positive Distinctiveness: 3 self-enhancement strategies (Social Mobility, Social Creativity, Social Change/Competition
According to Social Learning/Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura), what are the factors that influence the effect of portrayals of ethnic/racial minorities?
1. Social Learning/Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura) a. Frequency of TV exposure i. Nielson (2011) US TV Trends by Race/Ethnicity (on blackboard) o African Americans tend to consume more TV than other ethnicities; Hispanics also watch a lot of TV ii. MPAA (2014) Frequent Movie-Goers by Ethnicity (on blackboard) o Collectively, minority characters are underrepresented in films, although they do purchase a lot of movie tickets b. Characteristics of the content/message c. Realism of portrayal d. Similarity (how similar you are to characters being depicted) e. Identification (how much you identify with a particular character Cognitive ability (mental processes-Are you able to take in what's being said/how something's being said about a particular group
What is the focus of the Diffusion of Innovations Theory? Be able to describe.
1. The Innovation a. Relative Advantage i. Degree that innovation is perceived to be superior to current practice b. Compatibility i. Degree that innovation is perceived to be consistent in values, previous ideas, and/or needs c. Observability i. Degree that the results of an innovation are visible to potential adopters • Ex: before and after weight watchers d. Trialability i. Degree that innovation can be experienced on a limited basis • Ex: trial period for a product e. Complexity i. Degree that innovation is difficult to use or understand 2. Communication Channels a. Means by which messages get exchanged b. Mass media channels more effective 3. Time a. Types of Adopters & Rate of Adoption 4. Social System (Context) a. Innovations are adopted within a social system b. Social systems are governed by norms and influenced by opinion leadership, change agents, and the consequences of adoption
What is involved in persuasive intent (Roberts, 1982)? Be able to describe each aspect.
1. The source of the message has other interests than the receiver; 2. The source intends to persuade; 3. Persuasive messages are biased; and 4. Biased messages demand different interpretive strategies than do unbiased messages.
Who is most prone to the "Third Person Effect?" Specifically, what individual attributes are associated with people thinking that they are NOT influenced but others are?
1. Those with high involvement with a topic 2. When there is greater social distance between the person and the other potential targets of impacts 3. Little evidence that individual difference in; a. Demographics b. Political identification, or Interpersonal and mass communicative habits are related to Third Person Effects (Jeffres et al., 2008
Across the top-grossing films for 2014, what percentages of speaking characters are: (a) White, (b) Hispanic, (c) Black, (d) Asian? NOTE: These percentages represent no statistical change over time so an approximate percentage (within the lower and upper boundaries) is appropriate. (MDSC)
A total of 4,024 characters could be evaluated for apparent race/ethnicity across the 100 top films of 2014. Of these, 73.1% were White, 4.9% were Hispanic/Latino, 12.5% were Black, 5.3% were Asian
Across the 100 top-grossing films of 2014, what percentage of speaking or named characters on screen were coded as LGB (Lesbian, Gay, or Bisexual)?
Across the 4,610 speaking or named characters on screen, only 19 were coded as LGB across the 100 Top films of 2014. This is less than half of 1% of all portrayals (.4%).
What type of association/correlation (small, moderate, large) was found for the relationship between media exposure and attitudes toward homosexuality)?
Although the correlations found in this exploratory study were statistically significant, the associations were modest and require replication. These effect sizes, however, are comparable to other well-cited associations between media use and viewers' belief systems. As with these findings, the study does not seek to argue that the media are the sole source of peoples' beliefs, but that the media, in conjunction with other sources, are a contributing factor.
How is Sesame Street an example of an undesirable, unanticipated consequence of an innovation?
Before Sesame Street, children of low and high socioeconomic status had less of a learning gap, but after Sesame Street, there was a greater learning gap because children of a high socioeconomic status had the means to watch Sesame Street, whereas children of a low socioeconomic status didn't have as much access to TV 1. Goal of Sesame Street a. "to promote the intellectual and cultural growth of preschoolers, particularly disadvantaged preschoolers" (John Cooney, President of CTW) a. Sesame Street evaluated by Educational Testing Services (ETS) i. Boston, Durham, Phoenix, and California areas ii. ETS measure of symbolic representation and cognitive processes (intellectual growth) b. Secondary Analysis of ETS data i. Children from advantaged homes outscore children from disadvantaged homes ii. Sesame Street watched more in advantaged homes
What is the minimal group paradigm? Explain the main premise.
Belonging to a group is enough to affect an individual's behavior
What gender differences were found in acceptance toward homosexuality? (see pg. 295) IMPORTANT: Consider how consistent the findings are with previous research presented.
Black participants were least accepting. White women who watched more prime time programming in the past were likely to report more accepting attitudes towards homosexuality, but those who read more teen magazines reported less acceptance. In addition, Black women who watched more sitcoms reported less accepting attitudes Initial analyses of gender and ethnic group differences in students' attitudes were largely consistent with previous research
What were the coded variables for this study? Specifically, what were the specific variables focused on the character (e.g., race, age, physical characteristics, behavioral characteristics, etc.)? (Monk-Turner)
Coded variables included: race, age, network, income level, gender, and role prominence. Five physical characteristics are content analyzed: weight (thin-obese), height (short-tall), hair color (blonde-black), skin color (fair-dark skin), and accent (no accent-heavy accent). A second set of six variables content analyzed behavioral characteristics·, articulate-inarticu late, quiet-loud, passive-aggressive, lazy-motivated, ridiculed-respected and dumb-smart. Next, we coded a set of six variables to capture appearance differences: excessive makeup-no makeup, excessive accessories-no ac cessories, provocative attire-conservative attire, casual attire-professional attire, disheveled-well-groomed, and dirty-clean. Finally, we note attributes that pick up conversational character istics, whether the conversation was tense-relaxed and/or premeditated spontaneous. To ensure reliability in coding, two coders content analyzed each television program. Intercoder reliability was high (89% agreement across all categories).
Culpability Effect
Culpability effects place blame for public health problems on individuals rather than the social environment, which may result in shame for circumstances that are beyond individuals' control.
Desensitization Effect
Desensitization effects occur as, over time, continued exposure to messages about health topics that are emotionally draining may leave audiences feeling indifferent or complacent. Desensitization has been found to be more prevalent with issues such as violence and abuse.
Dissonance Effect
Dissonance effects, drawing from scholarship in psychology, are psychological stresses audiences experience when recommended health actions do not align with the actual health actions of audiences. Individuals who are constrained by their social conditions may have stronger distress, as they may wish to perform health actions, but be unable to do so.
Enabling Effect
Enabling effects occur when health communication efforts improve the power of industries or institutions, which may subsequently have an effect on health issues. For example, scholars William DeJong and Lawrence Wallack found that an unintended effect of the designated driver campaign was to enable the alcohol industry by encouraging nondrivers to drink and obscuring other health issues related to drinking.
Why did the Task Force give special consideration to commercialism in the schools (i.e., what are the two reasons)?
First, children spend a considerable amount of their childhood in school settings, and because school attendance is compulsory, children have little freedom to avoid any commercial content they are exposed to in schools. Second, it is conceivable that commercial content delivered in schools may be assumed to have the tacit endorsement of respected teachers and school officials, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of the advertising.
What are the two (2) important types of questions addressed regarding the effects of advertising on children? Also, what did the Task Force conclude about these two issues?
First, does advertising affect children's commercial recall and product preferences? If not, the $12 billion spent annually by advertisers in commercial appeals to children would represent a surprisingly poor investment. Second, does exposure to advertising result in consumption of products that are inimical to the health and well-being of children? For example, does advertising play a role in the overconsumption of candy and sugared cereals or in underage drinking of alcoholic beverages?
What are the two (2) primary reasons why exploration of racial minority portrayals on television is valuable?
First, it is socially important to document how minorities are depicted on television as well as how such portrayals have changed over time. Second, as a cultural artifact, television reaches a wide audience. Many maintain that the way racial minorities are represented contributes to stereotypical images, whether positive or negative, that viewers develop. television has become the "nation's primary story-teller" (36).
What did Vrij et al. (1996) argue regarding television images changing prejudicial racial attitudes? Specifically, what three (3) characteristics are critical for such change to occur?
First, television images needed to stress similarities between majority and minority group members. Further, these images needed to include multiple minority group members, not merely a token minority group member. Finally, the anti-discrimination message should be clear in the images shown (see Vrij et al., 1996). If minority characters were presented in a positive way, according to the five point Likert scale used in our content analysis, we examined the explicit ness of such positive characterizations. A
What type of product placement is considered the most effective?
Integrated placements are the most effective
How does the prevalence of LGB characters differ from what is reported in estimates of the LGB population (e.g., are they over-represented, under-represented, or about the same)?
Lower. The national percentage is 3.5%
What were the findings regarding appearance, conversational style and personal attributes among racial groups? (Monk-Turner)
Mastro & Greenberg (2000) found significant differences by race in four of their six appearance charac teristics. They found that Latinos wore more accessories and jewelry than whites and that they were the best groomed. Alternatively, African Ameri cans were least well groomed and were more provocative in dress than white characters. A decade later, we found no significant differences by race on any of these six measures. Likewise, Mastro & Greenberg (2000) found significant conversational differences by race. They found that Latinos were most tense and least spontaneous especially compared to blacks. As was true for appearance characteristics, a decade later we found no signifi cant differences by race with regard to these two conversational charac teristics (tension and premeditation). Mastro & Greenberg (2000) found significant differences by race for eight of these measures while we found significant differences for six personal charac teristics. Mastro & Greenberg (2000) found significant race differences for height, hair, skin color, accent, articulation, respect, aggression, and lazi ness. We found significant differences for all of these variables save height, aggression, and laziness; however, unlike Mastro & Greenberg (2000), we found significant race differences by intelligence. Mastro & Greenberg (2000) argued that significant race differences by these per
What were the general findings of the Mastro and Greenberg study in terms of percentage of television characters and portrayals (negative or positive stereotypes)?
Mastro & Greenberg (2000) found that, compared to Caucasians and African Americans, Latinos were under-represented on primetime television, where they comprised only 3% of television characters. The Mastro & Greenberg (2000) study is important because they reported that Latino television characters were not as negatively stereotyped as African American television characters. While they found more African American representation on television, the roles and behaviors portrayed were negative characterizations. Specifically, Latino characters were generally respected and the least lazy of any group, while African Americans were the laziest, least respected, and dressed most provocatively. The conversations of African American characters fared better in that they were most relaxed and most spontaneous, while the conversations of Latinos were least articulate, most accented, and least spontaneous.
What was the overall racial breakdown (%) for individual characters? How are these findings similar or different to Mastro and Greenberg's findings from a decade earlier? (Monk-Turner)
Most (74%) of our sample was comprised of Caucasian televi sion actors, 16% of prime-time actors were African American, 5% were Latino, <2% were Asian Americans and <3% were of another racial cat egory. In their work, Mastro & Greenberg (2000) also found that 16% of prime-time television actors were African American; however, in their work only 3% of such actors were Latino. Over a period of ten years, the racial representation of television actors has not changed significantly. White actors continue to be in a distinct majority position, African American representation is in line with their percent of the U.S. population and the repre sentation of Latinos continues to be in a distinct minority. Like Mastro & Greenberg (2000), we did not find a significant difference by race, gender, or income. Mastro & Greenberg (2000) found that female characters, regardless of race, were in a minority position (around 37%) among prime time television actors. Our results show that female actors were better represented in prime time—especially among African American actors. Three fourths of African American actors on prime time, a decade later, were female, while 64% of Latino characters and 56% of white characters were female (see Table 1). The vast majority (74% and 73% respectively) of white and Latino characters fell in the middle income category; however, only 67% of African American characters were lo cated here. In their work, Mastro & Greenberg (2000) found Latinos were significantly younger than other characters. We did not observe significant age differences by race. In our sample, approximately a third of all charac ters were in their 30s. On the other hand, Mastro & Greenberg (2000) did not observe a significant difference by race and whether the television char acter was in a major or minor role. Our results show that the vast majority (91%) of Latino characters were portrayed in major television roles, along with 77% of white characters; however, only 61% of African American characters were observed in this role.
What are the effects of advertising on children?
Nonetheless, a key conclusion of the task force, which is supported by a strong base of empirical evidence, is that young children below 7-8 years of age clearly lack an understanding of the persuasive intent of television advertising
Obfuscation Effect
Obfuscation, one of the most common unintended effects, refers to outcomes of misinformation and confusion about health risks. When audiences misunderstand health information, they may use this information as a way to justify unhealthy behaviors or interpret their health risks as lower than they actually are.
Opportunity Cost Effect
Opportunity cost effects occur when advocates have limited funding and resources with which to promote health issues. In addition, varying health issues compete with one another for limited communication resources and coverage. Because of this competition, some health issues are given fewer resources and receive less public attention.
What effects have LGBT portrayals had on out-group members (e.g., perceptions others have of LGBT individuals)?
People who don't identify as LGBT- effect their perception of in-group members
What effects have LGBT portrayals had on in-group members (e.g., perceptions individuals have of their own group)?
People who identify as LGBT- negative portrayals effects their self-esteem negatively
How do those high in political sophistication differ from others in level of engagement/use of news stories?
People with higher levels of political sophistication seem to "get" more out of news stories-they learn more and have higher quality arguments about the issues when explaining their own views afterward
Identify the sample for this study. Specifically, is this a representative sample? What types of programs were selected (and excluded)? What type(s) of networks were selected (e.g., broadcast)? (Monk-Turner)
Prime time television shows (8-10 p.m. EST) were content ana lyzed during a two-week period beginning in early March 2007. During this period, a one-week sample of all shows and characters shown on ABC, NBC, CBS and FOX was recorded and content analyzed (sports and news programs were excluded from the analysis). Thus, one complete prime time week (Monday to Friday) for each of the four networks was content analyzed. Our unit of analysis was the television character that appeared on these prime time shows, and both major and minor characters were included.
What is priming? Be able to describe.
Priming: Affects what you'll have "at the top of your head" (what concepts are most accessible) when you make a judgment...impacts criteria
How did genre type influence attitudes toward sexuality? Specifically, what type of attitudes (positive/negative) were associated with: music videos and soap operas? (see pg. 290).
Results displayed in Table 2 reveal that past music video and prime-time television viewing, and current reading of popular culture magazines were each associated with greater AATH. Current teen magazine reading, however, was associated with less acceptance of homosexuality. It seems that only certain genres of media are associated with attitudes of acceptance in both positive and negative ways. Surprisingly, music videos—typically viewed as a source of sexual stereotypes—were associated with more positive attitudes, and soap operas did not appear to have any significant association with attitudes.
Social Norming Effect
Social norming effects can also leave audience members feeling shame and stigma if they are not part of what is considered to be the social norm. Individuals who fall outside of the social norms are often marginalized, creating a further divide for minority groups who already traditionally fall outside of social norms.
Social Reproduction Effect
Social reproduction effects occur when health communication reinforces, rather than reforms, social knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors. For example, campaigns designed to debunk racial stereotypes may instead serve to reinforce them [p. 574 ↓ ] through highlighting and drawing attention to these stereotypes.
What do we know about cognitive development, children, and advertising?
Studies of children indicate that those below the ages of 4-5 years do not consistently distinguish program from commercial content, even when program/commercial separation devices ("GoBots will be back after these messages") are used. As children reach the age of 4-5 years, they typically perceive a categorical distinction between commercials and programming, but primarily on the basis of affective ("commercials are funnier") or perceptual ("commercials are shorter") cues only. most children younger than 7-8 years of age do not recognize the persuasive intent of commercial appeals
How do the ethnic/racial percentages differ in terms of on-screen prevalence and US Census Bureau figures (e.g., are they over-represented, under-represented, or about the same)? (MDSC)
Table 10 statistics can be examined against U.S. Census Bureau figures. In terms of U.S. population estimates for 2013, Hispanics comprised 17.1% of the population, Blacks 13.2%, and Asians 5.3%.21 In light of these real world percentages, Hispanic/Latino characters on screen in film continue to be the most underrepresented ethnic group. Hispanic/Latino Characters are underrepresented, Asian characters are slightly overrepresented, Black characters are slightly underrepresented, and white characters are overrepresented.
What is the focus of this study? (Monk-Turner)
This study replicates earlier work by Mastro & Greenberg (2000) who explored the representation and depiction of Caucasian, African Ameri can/black and Latino characters on prime time television. The work of this article replicates the earlier study by Mastro & Greenberg (2000) by exploring the representa tion, appearance, conversational characteristics and personal characteris tics among Caucasian, Latino and African American characters on prime time television a decade later.
Are individuals (18-29 years old) more or less likely than older groups to following national government and politics stories?
Young people are less likely to follow national government and politics stories, but still more than half of individuals 18-29 do follow national government and politics stories
What is the third person effect? Be able to define and recognize in a scenario
\tendency to think that media influence is stronger for other people than for oneself
What is the need for cognition? Be able to describe.
a need to structure relevant situations in meaningful, integrated ways...a need to understand and make reasonable the experimental work
How often do people report watching, reading, or hearing the news? NOTE: Focus on the DAILY percentage.
a. 76% daily b. 14% several times per week c. 10% weekly or less
What is agenda setting? Be able to describe
a. Agenda setting: The lead story/prominence of a story leads audience to pay more attention and often assess that issue as more important than others...impacts priority
What percentage of total revenue do campaign ads make up for broadcasters (according to the Television Bureau of Advertising)?
a. Campaign ads are about 10% of total revenue
What did the following studies find in terms of the effects media representations have on individual's perceptions of the content and the members of that group? Fujioka (1999)
a. Compared Japanese international students and White students' stereotypes of African Americans (survey) i. N=166 White students (44.6% male) ii. N=83 Japanese international students (43.4% male) iii. Results: o For Japanese, the greater the number of positive television portrayals perceived, the more positive the stereotype of AA o Lack of contact (limited info.), effects more significant
What are the five (5) Asian stereotypes in American cinema (Mok, 1998)? Be able to list, describe, recognize in a scenario, and provide an example.
a. Dragon Lady: attractive, domineering, cunning b. Karate Experts: strong, martial arts c. Geeks: intelligent, tech whiz d. Foreigner: comical and colorfully erotic (Long Duk Dong in 16 Candles) e. Geishas: submissive, obedient, sexualized f. (Prostitutes): sex workers (often categorized with Geishas)
How does cognitive dissonance influence persuasion?
a. Provide way to reduce it b. Example: Peta Ad (Pamela Anderson)- dissonance=we all have the same parts; so would you eat a human? Alleviate dissonance by changing behavior-going vegetarian or changing attitude-believe it's wrong to eat meat
What are the six (6) Latino stereotypes in American films (Ramirez-Berg, 2002)? Be able to list, describe, recognize in a scenario, and provide an example.
a. El Bandido: vicious, cruel, dirty "greaser" (male) b. The Harlot: lusty, hot-tempered, sex maniac (female) (ex: Gloria in Modern Family) c. Male Buffoon: simple-mind; no standard English d. The Female Clown: comical and colorfully erotic e. The Latin Lover: erotic, violent and dangerous (male) f. The Dark Lady: sensual but daring; sinful (ex: Antonio Banderas in Spy Kids)
What are the six (6) Latino stereotypes? NOTE: Be able to list and describe the characteristics of each of the six (6) Latino character types. What are the specific attributes/features of each?
a. El Bandido: vicious, cruel, dirty "greaser" (male) b. The Harlot: lusty, hot-tempered, sex maniac (female) (ex: Gloria in Modern Family) c. Male Buffoon: simple-mind; no standard English d. The Female Clown: comical and colorfully erotic e. The Latin Lover: erotic, violent and dangerous (male) f. The Dark Lady: sensual but daring; sinful (ex: Antonio Banderas in Spy Kids)
What are the two (2) types of framing research studies? What is the difference between studies that focus on frame building vs. frame-setting?
a. Frame Building: frames put together by news professionals b. Frame Setting: effects on audiences from news frames
What is framing? Be able to describe
a. Framing: Changes the "frame" or emphasis of a story...both what is highlighted, what is left out, like the "frame" of a photo (like Instagram) ...impacts interpretation
What did the Center for Alcohol Marketing & Youth (CAMY) find in terms of the increase in ads involving alcohol seen by youth?
a. From 2001-2004, number of TV alcohol ads seen by youth increased 32%-209-276 (CAMY, 2006) The top 15 TV shows with the largest youth (12-17) audience had alcohol ads (CAMY, 2005)
What are the two (2) levels of agenda setting? Be able to describe each.
a. Gatekeeping: i. Control over the flow of news information by media professionals • Only certain amount of info released to public b. Attribute Agenda Setting: i. Attributes of different elements related to media stories • Issue Coverage • Attributes of Candidates or Images ii. Similar to "framing"
What four (4) things does a campaign intend to do (according to Rogers & Storey, 1987)?
a. Generate specific outcomes or effects, i. Inform, persuade, motivate behavior change b. In a relatively large number of individuals, c. Usually within a specified period of time, and d. Through an organized set of communication activities
What is a major criticism of most agenda-setting research?
a. Issues of Causality i. Media set agenda or public set agenda?
What were the findings of Iyengar (2015) study on priming? Specifically, what did Iyengar (2015) find in terms of President George W. Bush's approval ratings before and after the 9/11 attacks?
a. Iyengar (2015): findings about 9/11 terror attacks: i. Prior to attacks, President G.W. Bush's popularity tied to perceptions of his performance on the economy ii. Following attacks, frequency of terrorism coverage on the news predicted his public approval
What type of message processing route is associated with short-term persuasion and long-term persuasion?
a. Long-term: central processing b. Short-term: peripheral processing
How do the levels (low, moderate, high) differ in terms of: (a) the two elements of political sophistication?
a. Low (knowledge, doesn't understand/unclear ideology) b. Moderate (some basic knowledge, vague ideology) c. High (high knowledge, clear ideology) d. People with higher levels of political sophistication seem to "get" more out of news stories-they learn more and have higher quality arguments about the issues when explaining their own views afterward e. There are people with all level of political sophistication in all parties
What is the main premise of agenda-setting? Be able to describe and recognize in a scenario.
a. Media tells us not necessarily what to think, but what to think about b. Explains correlation between rate of media coverage and extent to which people think story is important
What is the relationship between ad exposure and alcohol consumption (among youth 15-26) according to Snyder et al. (2006)?
a. More alcohol ads (TV, radio, magazines, billboards) = more drinking b. Each ad seen increased number of drinks consumed in past month by 1%
What influences the amount of elaboration? How is the amount of elaboration related to specific cues (i.e., peripheral vs. central)?
a. Motivation to process messages i. Personal relevance ii. Need for cognition b. Ability to process messages i. Distraction ii. Prior knowledge 2. So: a. Low motivation/ability=low cognitive elaboration=peripheral cues more important b. High motivation/ability=high cognitive elaboration=central cues more important c. A good ad will present information for central and peripheral processing d. Sustaining change or maintenance in attitudes or beliefs is important (long-term effect)
What is the main idea of spiral of silence? Be able to describe and recognize in a scenario.
a. People do not voice their opinions when they think their views are in the minority a. Media (along with interpersonal contacts) tell us what opinions are popular b. Those in minority stay silent c. Seems like majority is bigger than it is d. Makes even more stay silent...and so on e. Exception: the "hard core"
What are the two (2) elements of political sophistication? Be able to describe each.
a. Political Knowledge: i. Knowledge of broad system ii. Knowledge of specific current events and problems b. Clearly defined ideology
In what types of research studies has the third-person effect been utilized? NOTE: No need to know the specifics of the study but under which contexts (e.g., pornography, etc.).
a. Pornography (Gunther, 1995) b. Political ads (Rucinski & Salmon, 1990) c. Violent and sexist rap music (McLeod et al., 1997) d. Holocaust denial advertisements (Price et al., 1998) e. Media images of slimness (David & Johnson, 1998)
Be able to explain the related concepts of: powerful media and personal immunity.
a. Powerful Media: People tend to believe that media are persuasive and effects are common b. Personal Immunity: People also tend to feel immune to these effects
What is the Drench Hypothesis (Greenberg, 1988)? Be able to explain.
a. Proposes "critical portrayals" have a greater effect than total number of portrayals b. Effects may be more than a "drip-drip-drip" effect
What are the black character types that emerged from American movies? NOTE: Be able to list and describe the characteristics of each of the five (5) black character types. What are the specific attributes/features of each?
a. The Tom: "Good Negro" submissive, loyal b. The Coon: Buffoon; pickaninny and Uncle Remus (slower, always smiling/happy) c. The Tragic Mulatto: female, mixed-blood, passing d. The Mammy: independent, fat, brash, knows place (female) e. The Brutal Black Buck: savage and oversexed
What are the five (5) Black stereotypes in media (Bogle, 1973)? Be able to list, describe, recognize in a scenario, and provide an example.
a. The Tom: "Good Negro" submissive, loyal b. The Coon: Buffoon; pickaninny and Uncle Remus (slower, always smiling/happy) c. The Tragic Mulatto: female, mixed-blood, passing d. The Mammy: independent, fat, brash, knows place (female) e. The Brutal Black Buck: savage and oversexed
What are the different types of product placement? Be able to describe and recognize each in a scenario
a. Visual: in the scenery or background b. Audible: refers to a brand by name c. Use: a character uses a product d. Integrated: brand integrated into the story (Carrie Bradshaw's specific type of shoe that she loved) i. Integrated placements are the most effective e. Virtual Placements: digitally added after
If an issue is important for a person, are they more or less like to be persuaded via the peripheral route vs. the central route?
central
Which route is more likely to be used if the message is counter-attitudinal?
central
What are the two (2) routes by which people might be persuaded (and process information)? Be able to describe each and recognize in a scenario
central route- highly rational/cognitive route to persuasion; people scrutinize the message and tend to think up many counter-arguments that the persuader must defeat to be successful (when a salesperson calls on the phone) peripheral route- certain cues in the message lead people to accept the persuasive proposition with little cognitive thought or scrutiny (persuaded through things designed to entertain b/c people dont recognize them trying to influence/persuade them)
How is the concept "need for cognition" helpful in the study of media effects? Explain.
certain people have a higher need for cognition (motivated to think a lot/enjoy thinking) if there is an opportunity ti think about a topic, people with high need for cognition will take it
What are the three (3) dimensions of persuasion? Be able to define and recognize in a scenario.
change in attitude, change in behavior, persistent change
Overall, did the meta-analysis find that it is easier to get people to adopt a new behavior (e.g., exercise or dental practices) or get them to stop an unhealthy practice (e.g., smoking or engaging in risky sex)?
easier to persuade to adopt new behavior
-Be able to discuss the key principles of media persuasion as well as why each principle is important. Specifically, what is known about: o The Power of the Source: ♣ What makes a source more or less credible? ♣ What are the chief components of credibility? Be able to describe.
expertise and trustworthiness; expertise- the extent to which people perceive that the source of the message is an expert on the topic that he or she is speaking on; trustworthiness-the extent to which people find the source of the message to be reliable or truthful
How much do advertisers spend to influence the spending habits of those children?
i. $15 billion in 2004
How much do children (4-12) in the US spend of their own money in purchases?
i. $30 billion in 2002 among 4-12 year olds ii. Average allowance of children in US: $65 per month iii. #1 thing children spend allowance on is toys
How has the money earned by broadcasters from political ads CHANGED from 1996 to 2008?
i. 1996-$400 million ii. 2000-$665 million iii. 2004-$1.6 billion 2008-$2.5 billion
Be familiar with the main findings of the following reports: Where We Are On TV Report
i. 881 Regular Series Characters ii. 35 characters identifies as Lesbian, Gay or Bisexual (no transgender) iii. For Cable Networks: 84 Regular series LGBT characters; 58 recurring characters iv. For Streaming Content: 43 Regular Series LGBT characters; 16 recurring characters
What are the two (2) routes to persuasion? Be able to discuss each.
i. Central Route: Persuasion results from elaboration; thoughtful consideration of argument • Focus on the message ii. Peripheral Route: Persuasion is the result of attention to superficial cues in the context; heuristics (practical) • Message source (expert, likeable, etc.) • Bandwagon effect Message Length
What were the important points derived from the APA Task Force regarding children, specially in terms of the psychological issues associated with children's advertisement? Be able to explain each.
i. Children are a vulnerable audience, subject to exploitation ii. Children, especially the younger ones, might be easily deceived by sophisticated TV ad techniques • Children under the age of 4 or 5 have a hard time distinguishing between the television program and the ad • Children under age 7 or 8 are not aware of the persuasive intent of the ad iii. Long-term effects of exposure to TV ads could negatively affect a a child • Socialization as a future consumer Attitudes toward products
According to the Kunkel et al. (2015) study examining food ads in children's TV programs, what were the findings regarding the percentage of ads that promote "unhealthy" foods?
i. Food ads in Children's TV programs • 2007 (n=625) • 2013 (n=354) ii. Findings: • 80.5% of food ads are 'unhealthy' (2013)
Be familiar with the main findings of the following reports: GLAAD Network Responsibility Index
i. Fox featured highest percentage of LGBT-inclusive original programming hours ii. Excellent: ABC Family, Fox iii. Good: ABC, CW, FX, HBO, MTV, Showtime iv. Adequate: CBS, NBC, TLC, TNT, USA Failing: A&E, History
Be familiar with the main findings of the MDSC Initiative Report in terms of prevalence and portrayal of LGBT characters in the 100 top-grossing films of 2014.
i. Of 4610 Speaking Characters: 19 LGB o 10 gay, 4 lesbian, 5 bisexual, 0 transgender o Majority white o 2 characters in public, long-term relationship o 2 dating relationships (female couples) o no gay/bisexual males shown in committed relationships o 0 LGB characters shown raising children together Concealment of LGB identity
What is product placement? Be able to define and recognize in a scenario.
mercedes benz in jurassic world
Does exposure to homosexual characters shape viewers' attitudes toward homosexuality? NOTE: No need to identify each previous study individually but overall what have the studies found in terms of: reducing prejudice and positive/acceptance attitudes?
minimal studies, but generally reduces prejudice and increases more positive, accepting attitudes towards homosexuals
What types of effects have been found for health campaigns based on the meta-analysis of over 50 different campaigns? (see p. 213).
modest effects; compaed to the control conditions where people didnt receive the health messages, the people inconditions that received the health messages resulted in behavior changes in only about 7-10% more people
How do emotions influence our recall (memory) of messages? Specifically, is there more or less recall for media images that invoke anger and disgust?
more recall for media images that invoke anger and disgust if it bleeds, it leads
What is the spiral of silence theory? Be able to describe and recognize in a scenario.
most of us dont feel comfortable speaking out about our views if we perceive that we are in the minority; if we think that our view really is the minority view, we would rather keep quiet than risk being isolated or rejected by those to whom we wish to feel attached
What percentage of Americans use Twitter (according to the Pew Research Internet and American Life Project)?
only about 14%
What happens when a product or brand is a major part of the plot vs. incidental in the background of the scene? Which is more likely to be explicitly recalled?
part of major plot=more likely to recall them when asked, no central role=less likely to recal brand (explicit memory), but some recognition stored in implicit memory
Be able to discuss the key principles of media persuasion as well as why each principle is important. Specifically, what is known about o More Message Features: Fear, Guilt, and Humor ♣ How do fear appeals increase persuasion? ♣ Does guilt lead to compliance with the persuasive intent? ♣ Why is humor consistently used with advertisers?
protection motivation theory- to the extent that fear appeals convince an audience of the severity of a threat, their vulnerability to a threat, and their ability to responf effectively to a threat, they will be persuades; to the xtent that the audience perceives that yielding to the persuasive message will be costly in some way, even high-fear appelas might not be effective; guilt may cause people to comply less, respond with ngere, guilt is overused; advertisers think humor attracts viewers to the message
What is the core notion of agenda setting theory regarding public opinion?
public opinion about what should be an important concern is heavily influenced by the topics and issues that appear in the news
What were the findings of McCombs and Shaw's study testing the theory (1968 presidential campaign)?
the 5 issues given the most prominent coverage by the press were foreign policy, law and order, fiscal policy, public welfare and civil rights; when mccombs and shaw asked voters to identify the key issue of the campaign, quite apart from what their perceptions of what the candidates had been saying, there was a remarkable convergence with the issues that emerged from the media analysis=the media agenda and the public agenda tend to correspong
What is framing? Be able to define and recognize in a scenario.
the central organizing idea for news content that supplies a context and suggests what the issue is through the use of selection, emphasis, exclusion, and elaboration
What is a key component in a person's decision to stay silent?
the fear of isolation
What is agenda setting? Be able to define and recognize in a scenario.
the media tell people what to think about, but not what to think; the news media set the public agenda-their coverage of issues helps to define for the public what they should be thinking about on a given day
How does the nature of the newscast and how many times you hear a story influence how much you remember of a news story?
the more you hear it, the more you remember;
What is the concept of perpetual linkage? Be able to explain.
the new tendency for youth to be constantly connected with eachother through some type of technology
What ethnic differences were found in acceptance toward homosexuality? What group was most supportive and which group was least supportive? (see pg. 295)
women were more accepting of homosexuality than men; although women, in general, reported greater levels of acceptance, several of the significant associations between different forms of media use (e.g., teen magazines) and their attitudes towards homosexuality were surprisingly negative Initial analyses of gender and ethnic group differences in students' attitudes were largely consistent with previous research
Be able to describe the main premise, provide illustrative examples, and recognize in a scenario the following theories: o Theory of Planned Behavior
• Examines underlying factors that predict behavior • Assumes that behavioral intention is the most important determinant of behavior • Behavioral intention is influenced by: o Attitude toward performing a behavior o Whether individuals who are important to the person approve or disapprove of the behavior (subjective norms; social pressure) Ease or difficulty of engaging in behavior (perceived behavioral control)
Be able to describe the main premise, provide illustrative examples, and recognize in a scenario the following theories: o Health Belief Model
• Feel susceptible to a condition and the severity is high (personal threat), and • Feel recommended action is effective May encourage behavior change
Be able to describe the main premise, provide illustrative examples, and recognize in a scenario the following theories: o Social Norms Theory
• Interventions designed to correct misperceptions of norms by revealing the actual healthier norm (of behaviors) will have a beneficial effect on most individuals
What are the three strategies of self-enhancement? Be able to describe each and apply to a scenario.
♣ Social Mobility: degree to which an individual's social status can change • The American Dream • Cultural Assimilation ♣ Social Creativity: when you rate the distinguishing dimension as less undesirable. • Change who you compare yourself to -Annapolis • Change values ♣ Social Change/Competition: reverse your position in society. • Revolution